RESPIRATION

Gono Bishwabidyalay (Pharmacy department)

1. Define respiration. What is the function of the respiratory system?
Respiration:
Respiration is the physiological process by which gaseous exchange occurs between lung and
atmosphere.
The gaseous exchange means exchange of oxygen and carbon-dioxide between body and air.
Normal respiratory rate in adults is 12-18 breaths/min. About 500 ml of air is taken or given out
in each breath.
Types:
i. External Respiration: Exchange of oxygen and carbon-dioxide between lung and blood.
ii. Internal Respiration: Utilization of oxygen by the cell to produce energy.
Phases Of Respiration:
Inspiration: By these process air entries into lungs.
Expiration: By this process air moves out the lungs.
The respiratory tract includes an upper respiratory tract, a lower respiratory tract and lung.
The upper respiratory tract includes the nose, and the pharynx, larynx.

The lower respiratory tract includes the larynx, trachea, bronchi and bronchioles.

Function

1.
2.

Exchange of gases (oxygen & Carbon-dioxide) between air & blood.

The capillary bed act as a filter preventing small clots, air bubbles reaching the systemic
circulation.

3.
4.
5.

The airways remove the particles by phagocytosis or by coughing.

The larynx is used for speech.
Alveolar ventilation contributes to heat loss and heart gain.

2. What is the process of respiration? Describe the mechanism of respiration.

Mechanism of Respiration:
The process of respiration consists of two phases.
i. Inspiration: It is an active process.
ii. Expiration. It is a passive process.

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RESPIRATION
Gono Bishwabidyalay (Pharmacy department)
Inspiration:
During inspiration air from outside enters into lungs. This is brought by increasing the volume of
the thoracic cavity. Volume of the thoracic cavity is increased by pulling the diaphragm down,
and pushing the ribs forwards.
At the onset of inspiration the chest cavity is increased in a vertical direction by contraction of
the diaphragm. Contraction causes the diaphragms domed shape to flatten out. So, it
descends and increases the vertical diameter of the chest cavity.
The anteroposterior diameter of chest cavity is increased by elevation of ribs due to
contraction of intercostal muscles.
As a result the chest cavity enlarges.
The air pressure in the lungs is reduced and will be less than the pressure of outside air. So air
from outside rushes into the lungs and entre into alveoli.
Expiration:
Expiration involves relaxation of the diaphragm and intercostal muscles, reducing the volume of
the chest cavity and this combined with the lungs natural elasticity or compliance, serves to
increase the pressure inside the lungs and move air out.

3. What is pulmonary ventilation? Describe the volume with diagram.

Pulmonary Ventilation:
Pulmonary ventilation is the process by which equal amount of fresh air enters into lungs and
leaves the lung. It is the volume of air moving in and out of lungs per minute in quiet breathing.
Normal value: 6000 ml/min
Pulmonary ventilation is the tidal volume multiplied by respiratory rate.
Pulmonary ventilation = Tidal volume Respiratory rat
= 500 12 = 6000 ml/min
Lung Volume:
Lung volumes are the volume of air associated with different phases of the respiratory cycle. Lung
volumes are directly measured.
The average total lung capacity of an adult human male is about 6 liters of air.
Tidal breathing is normal, resting breathing.

An advance human breathes some 12-20 times per minute.

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RESPIRATION
Gono Bishwabidyalay (Pharmacy department)

Lung Volumes:
Tidal Volume: It is the normal volume of air inspired or expired in each breath.
Normal value: Its normal value is 500 ml
Inspiratory reserve Volume: It is the v0lume of air that can be inspired after a maximal
inspiratory effort in excess of tidal volume.
Normal value: Its normal value is 3000 ml
Expiratory reserve volume: The volume of air expelled by an expiratory effort after passive
expiration.
Normal value: Its normal value is 1100 ml
Residual Volume: The volume of air that remains in the lung after a maximal expiratory
effort.
Normal value: Its normal value is 1200 ml
Total Lung volume = TV + IRV + ERV + RV
= 500 + 3000 + 1100 + 1200
= 5800 ml

4. How O2 is transported by blood? How O2 exchange occurs?

Transport of Oxygen: Oxygen is transported in blood from lung alveoli to tissue. In these alveoli
the oxygen concentration is high. Oxygen differs into the blood and then transported to different
tissues of the body. Once oxygen reaches the tissue, it diffuses out from blood and enters the cell.

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Pharmacy 24 Batch

RESPIRATION
Gono Bishwabidyalay (Pharmacy department)
Oxygen is transported into the blood in two forms:a. In dissolved state - 3%
b. In combination with hemoglobin 97%
a. Dissolved State: Oxygen dissolves in water of plasma and transported in this form.
About 0.3 ml/100 ml of plasma is carried in dissolved state. In this form the oxygen can easily
diffuse from blood to tissue space.
b. Combination with hemoglobin: About 97% of oxygen is transported in combination with
hemoglobin. Oxygen combines with hemoglobin and form oxyhaemoglobin. The
combination is lose and reversible. Oxygen combines with iron of haemoglobin.
1 gm. of haemoglobin can combine with 1.34 ml of oxygen. 100 ml of plasma will combine
with 15 1. 34 ml = 20 ml of oxygen.

5. How CO2 is transported by blood?

Transport of Carbon-dioxide: Carbon-dioxide is transported in blood in three form.

a.
b.
c.

In dissolved state - 7%
As bi-carbonate 70%
As carbaamino compound 23%

There are 3 ways in which CO2 is transported in the blood.

1. Dissolved CO2:
CO2 is much more soluble in blood than O2.
About 7% of CO2 is transported unchanged, simply dissolved in the plasma.

2. Bound to haemoglobin and plasma proteins:

CO2 combines reversibly with haemoglobin to form carbamino haemoglobin. CO 2 does not
bind to iron, as oxygen does, but to amino groups on the polypeptide chains of
haemoglobin.
CO2 also binds to amino groups on the polypeptide chains of plasma proteins.
About 23% of CO2 is transported bound to haemoglobin and plasma proteins.

3. Bicarbonate ions (HCO3-):

The majority of CO2 is transported in this way. CO2 enters red blood cells in the tissue
capillaries where it combines with water to form H 2CO3. This reaction is catalyzed by the
enzyme carbonic anhydrates to form bicarbonate ions (HCO3-) and hydrogen ions (H+).

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RESPIRATION
Gono Bishwabidyalay (Pharmacy department)
6. What are the factors that influence the gases diffusion in the lungs?
Four factors influence diffusion in the lungs:

1. Surface Area: The rate of diffusion is directly proportional to the available surface area.
2. Concentration Gradient: The rate of diffusion is directly proportional to the concentration
gradient of the diffusing gases.

3. Membrane

thickness: The rate of diffusion is inversely proportional to the thickness of

membrane.

4. Diffusion distance: Diffusion is most rapid over short distance.

7. Describe the chemical regulation of respiration.
Chemical Regulation: Chemical regulation of breathing is part of the involuntary control of
breathing. This mechanism is part of the bodies homostasis to maintain an appropriate balance
and concentration of CO2, O2, HCO3- and pH.
There are two types chemoreceptors; that react strongly to a change in the blood gases; central
& peripheral chemoreceptors.
Central Receptors:
Central receptors are located on the ventrolateral surface of the medulla oblongata. They
respond indirectly to blood pCO2 but not to pO2. CO2 diffuse across the blood-brain barrier
from blood to cerebral spinal fluid while H+ and HCO3- are unable to.
As the blood CO2 readily passes the blood brain barrier into the CSF it will react with H 2O to
make H2CO3, That will split into HCO3- and H+
CO2 + H2O HCO3- + H+
An increase in H+ concentration will directly stimulate the chemoreceptor neutrons in the
medulla oblongata. They will relay this information and cause an increase in ventilation which
will lead to a decrease in CO2
The central chemoreceptors are responsible for ~80% of the response to Co2 concentration.
Peripheral Receptors:
Peripheral receptors are located in carotid and aortic bodies that have neuroepithelial cues that
contact with sensory nerve terminals. They response to changes in pO 2, pCO2, and pH. They send
impulses to respiratory center via the glossopharyngeal nerves and an increase in ventilation.
The peripheral chemoreceptors are responsible for ~20% of the response to an increase in pCO 2.

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Pharmacy 24 Batch

RESPIRATION
Gono Bishwabidyalay (Pharmacy department)
8. What is hypoxia? Describe different type of hypoxia.
Hypoxia:
Hypoxia defined as an inadequate oxygen supply to the body tissues.
Normal values pO2 is 85 to 100mm Hg.
Moderated hypoxia pO2 is <60mm Hg.
Serious hypoxia pO2 is <40mm Hg
Types of Hypoxia
There are 4 different types of hypoxia.
I. HYPOXIC HYPOXIA:
In which the partial pressure of oxygen in arterial blood is reduced. Its causes can be decrease of
atmospheric O2 at high altitudes, but also some pathophysiological mechanisms as for example:
Hypoventilation, Diffusion, Limitation, Physiological shunts, Anatomical Shunts.
In hypoxic hypoxia there is a reduced amount of O 2 in the inspired air, so there will be a reduced
pO2 in blood.
II. ANEMIC HYPOXIA:
In which the partial pressure of oxygen in blood is normal, but there is an insufficient or non
functional amount of hemoglobin. Therefore there is a reduced amount of haemoglobin
available to carry O2 can be caused by a deficiency of essential nutrients (iron, B12 vitamin),
blood loss, hemolytic anemia.
lV.STAGNANT (Ischemic) HYPOXIA:
In stagnant hypoxia there is a normal pO2 and heamogobin concentration but blood flow to the
tissue is so low that adequate O2 is not delivered in this type of hypoxia the artenal pO2 is
normal but venous pO2 is decreased. It causes can be systemic (entire body) heat failure, local
area obstructed artery (arteriosclerosis).
V.HISTOTOXIC HYPOXIA:
Is known by the disability of the cell to use O 2 in histotoxic hypoxia there is an adequate delivery
of O2 to the tissues but due to the action of a toxic agent, cells cannot make use of O 2. Its causes
are inactivation of certain metabolic enzymes, chemical poisons like alcohol and cyanide poising
by inhibition of oxidative enzymes.

MD. ASIF HASAN NILOY

www.pharmgb.org

Pharmacy 24 Batch

RESPIRATION
Gono Bishwabidyalay (Pharmacy department)

MD. ASIF HASAN NILOY

www.pharmgb.org

Pharmacy 24 Batch