Documenti di Didattica
Documenti di Professioni
Documenti di Cultura
A PROJECT REPORT
By
M.V.Vamsi
(09241A0353)
S.Bhargav
(09241A0308)
A.Sriram
(09241A0344)
II
By
M.V.Vamsi
(09241A0353)
S.Bhargav
(09241A0308)
A.Sriram
(09241A0344)
Guide
Co-Guide
II
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
III
ABSTRACT
Gears are commonly used for transmitting power. They develop high stress
concentration at the root and the point of contact. The repeated stressing on the fillets
causes the fatigue failure of gear tooth. The main objective of this study is to add
different shaped holes to reduce stress concentration. A finite element model of Spur
gear with a segment of three teeth is considered for analysis and stress concentration
reducing holes of various sizes are introduced on gear teeth at various locations.
Analysis revealed that aero-fin shaped hole introduced along the stress flow direction
yielded better results.
IV
List of figures
10
11
13
19
20
26
26
27
29
29
33
Graphs
41
Contents
Chapter-1
Introduction
1.1 Purpose
Chapter-2
Gears
10
10
12
2.4.1 Cycloidal
12
2.4.2 Involute
12
14
Chapter-3
16
3.1 FEM
16
3.2 Calculix
17
18
18
18
21
28
Chapter-4
30
30
30
31
32
32
VI
Conclusion
43
43
References
44
VII
Chapter-1
Introduction
Gears are used for a wide range of industrial applications. They have varied application
starting from textile looms to aviation industries. They are the most common means of
transmitting power. They change the rate of rotation of machinery shaft and also the axis of
rotation. For high speed machinery, such as an automobile transmission, they are the optimal
medium for low energy loss and high accuracy. Their function is to convert input provided by
prime mover into an output with lower speed and corresponding higher torque. Toothed gears are
used to transmit the power with high velocity ratio. During this phase, they encounter high stress
at the point of contact.
A pair of teeth in action is generally subjected to two types of cyclic stresses:
i) Bending stresses inducing bending fatigue
ii) Contact stress causing contact fatigue.
Both these types of stresses may not attain their maximum values at the same point of contact.
However, combined action of both of them is the reason of failure of gear tooth leading to
fracture at the root of a tooth under bending fatigue and surface failure, due to contact fatigue.
When loads are applied to the bodies, their surfaces deform elastically near the point of
contact. Stresses developed by Normal force in a photo-elastic model of gear tooth are shown in
the Fig.1.1. The highest stresses exist at regions where the lines are bunched closest together.
The highest stress occurs at two locations:
A. At contact point where the force F acts
B. At the fillet region near the base of the tooth.
1
The surface failures occurring mainly due to contact fatigue are pitting and scoring. It is a
phenomenon in which small particles are removed from the surface of the tooth due to the high
contact stresses that are present between mating teeth. Pitting is actually the fatigue failure of the
tooth surface. Hardness is the primary property of the gear tooth that provides resistance to
pitting. In other words, pitting is a surface fatigue failure due to many repetitions of high contact
stress, which occurs on gear tooth surfaces when a pair of teeth is transmitting power. Gear teeth
failure due to contact fatigue is a common phenomenon observed. Even a slight reduction in the
stress at root results in great increase in the fatigue life of a gear.
For many years, gear design has been improved by using improved material, hardening
surfaces with heat treatment and carburization, and shot peening to improve surface finish etc.
Few more efforts have been made to improve the durability and strength by altering the pressure
angle, using the asymmetric teeth, altering the geometry of root fillet curve and so on. Some
research work is also done using the stress redistribution techniques by introducing the stress
relieving features in the stressed zone to the advantage of reduction of root fillet stress in spur
2
gear. This also ensures interchangeability of existing gear systems. The studies in which
combination of circular and elliptical stress relieving features are used obtained better results
than using circular stress relieving features alone which are used by earlier researchers. In this
research work, an aero-fin shaped stress relieving feature is tried. A finite element model with a
segment of three teeth is considered for analysis and a stress relieving feature of various sizes are
introduced on gear teeth at various locations.
1.1
Purpose:
Gearing is one of the most critical components in mechanical power transmission
systems. The transfer of power between gears takes place at the contact between the mating
teeth. During operation, meshed gears teeth flanks are submitted to high contact pressures and
due to the repeated stresses, damage on the teeth flanks, in addition to tooth breakage at the root
of the tooth is one of the most frequent causes of gear failure. This fatigue failure of the tooth
decides the reliability of the gear. However, by introducing stress relieving features to the gear,
the points of stress concentration can be decreased which enhances life of gear. A study is done
on spur gear with involute profile by adding stress relieving features of different shapes and best
among them is proposed.
Software used:
All the modelling is done in AutoCAD 2010, Mesh generation is done in Gmsh 2.7,
solving and post-processing are done in Calculix(cgx_2.5).
3
Ashwini Joshi, Vijay Kumar Karma [4] did a work which deals with the effect on gear
strength with variation of root fillet design using FEA. Circular root fillet design is considered
for analysis. The loading is done at the highest point of single tooth contact (HPSTC).
4
Fredette and Brown [5] used holes drilled across the entire tooth as a function of size and
location. The ultimate objective of this work was to find the overall effect of hole size and
location on the critical stresses in the gear.
Sorin Cnnu-Based [6] on an exact geometry design of the involute gear tooth, a set of
profile gears is obtained in order to calculate the 2D contact. A stress analysis was performed for
CAD profiles results using the finite element procedure. The paper investigates the 2D analysis
versus 3D analysis for stress in the root region of teeth. By this approach, is also investigated the
influence of non-uniform load along contact line to the fillet stress.
Ali Raad Hassan [7] did a research study in which Contact stress analysis between two
spur gear teeth was considered in different contact positions, representing a pair of mating gears
during rotation. A programme has been developed to plot a pair of teeth in contact. Each case
was represented a sequence position of contact between these two teeth. The programme gives
graphic results for the profiles of these teeth in each position and location of contact during
rotation. Finite element models were made for these cases and stress analysis was done. The
results were presented and finite element analysis results were compared with theoretical
calculations, wherever available.
The idea of using holes to reduce stresses is not a new one. In 1990, Dippery [7]
experimented with the use of supplementary holes in a structure as a method of reducing the
stress concentration that was already present. His result showed that stress concentration
reductions are possible in a generic shape using holes as stress relief.
The researchers till now used circular and elliptical holes as stress relieving features with
different sizes and at various positions which showed evidence that stress can be reduced
interrupting the stress flow path from contact point to fillet.
This project is an extension of work done by A.Manoj Hariharan. He has taken a weak
profile gear from his studies and conducted stress analysis on it by inserting circular holes as
stress relieving features at different locations. The gear with all its dimensions is replicated and
the highest point of contact is calculated in the similar way in the contemporary project. In this
project, an aerodynamic fin shaped hole is used as a stress relieving feature which differs from
circular holes used in the former one. It yielded better results comparatively but this aerodynamic
shaped hole is limited to uni-directional gears only.
Chapter-2
Gears
2.1 Gear Nomenclature:
Clearance: The difference between the Dedendum of one gear and the Addendum of the mating
gear.
Face of a tooth: That part of the tooth surface lying outside the pitch surface.
Flank of a tooth: The part of the tooth surface lying inside the pitch surface.
Top land: The top surface of a gear tooth.
Bottom land: The bottom surface of the tooth space.
Circular thickness (tooth thickness): The thickness of the tooth measured on the pitch circle. It is
the length of an arc and not the length of a straight line.
Tooth space: The space between successive teeth.
Width of space: The distance between adjacent teeth measured on the pitch circle.
Backlash: The difference between the tooth thickness of one gear and the tooth space of the
mating gear.
Circular pitch p: The width of a tooth and a space, measured on the pitch circle. It is equal to the
pitch circumference divided by the number of teeth.
Diametrical pitch P: The number of teeth of a gear per unit pitch diameter. The diametric pitch is
hence the number of teeth divided by the pitch diameter.
Module m: Pitch diameter divided by number of teeth. The pitch diameter is usually specified in
millimeters.
Fillet Radius: The small radius that connects the profile of a tooth to the root circle.
Base circle: An imaginary circle used in involute gearing to generate the involutes that form the
tooth profiles.
Contact Ratio: The average number of gear tooth pairs in contact on a pair of meshing gears.
Pitch point: The point of tangency of the pitch circles of a pair of mating gears.
Common tangent: The line tangent to the pitch circle at the pitch point.
Line of action: A line normal to a pair of mating tooth profiles at their point of contact.
Path of contact: The path traced by the contact point of a pair of tooth profiles.
Pressure angle : The angle between the common normal at the point of tooth contact and the
common tangent to the pitch circles. Pressure angle is also the angle between the line of action
and the common tangent.
Crowning: Grinding of tooth edges to prevent edge loading is known as crowning.
Any two curves or profiles engaging each other and satisfying the law of gearing are
conjugate curves.
When one curved surface pushes against another, the point of contact occurs where the two
surfaces are tangent to each other (point c), and the forces at any instant are directed along the
common normal ab to the two curves. The line ab, representing the direction of action of the
forces, is called the line of action. The line of action will intersect the line of centres O-O at
some point P. The angular-velocity ratio between the two arms is inversely proportional to their
radii to the point P. Circles drawn through point P from each centre are called pitch circles, and
the radius of each circle is called the pitch radius. Point P is called the pitch point.
11
2.4.2 Involute:
The involute gear profile is the most normally used system for gearing. In an involute
gear, the profiles of the teeth are involutes of a circle. The involute of a circle is the spiraling
curve traced by the end of an imaginary taut string unwinding itself from that stationary circle
called the base circle. In involute gear design, contact between a pair of teeth occurs at a single
instantaneous point. Rotation of the gears causes the location of this contact point to move across
the respective tooth surfaces.
12
13
easy to manufacture than cycloidal teeth. The only disadvantage of involute teeth is that the
interference occurs with pinions having smaller number of teeth.
=2
= 25
= 0.628mm
= 0.3
15
Chapter-3
3.1 FEM: Finite Element Method (FEM) is a numerical technique for finding approximate
solutions to boundary value problems. A boundary value problem is a differential equation
together with a set of additional restraints, called boundary conditions. FEM uses various
methods to minimize an error function and produce a stable solution. Analogous to the idea that
connecting many tiny straight lines can approximate a larger circle, FEM encompasses all the
methods for connecting many simple element equations over many small sub domains, named
finite elements, to approximate a more complex equation over a larger domain.
The subdivision of a whole domain into simpler parts has several advantages:
A typical work out of the method involves dividing the domain of the problem into a
collection of sub-domains, with each sub-domain represented by a set of element equations to the
original problem, followed by systematically recombining all sets of element equations into a
global system of equations for the final calculation. The global system of equations has known
solution techniques, and can be calculated from initial values of the original problem to obtain a
numerical answer.
16
A feature of FEM is that it is been proven to be numerically stable for linear static
analysis, meaning that errors in the input and intermediate calculations do not accumulate and
cause the resulting output to be meaningless. Moreover, it can be easily applied on complex
geometries. The element equations are simple equations that locally approximate the original
complex equations to be studied, where the original equations are partial differential equations
(PDE). To explain the approximation in this process, FEM is commonly introduced as a special
case of Galerkin method. In simple terms, it is a procedure that minimizes the error of
approximation by fitting trial functions into the PDE.
3.2 Calculix:
Calculix[16] is an open source finite element analysis application with an explicit and
implicit solver and a pre/post processor. It is a package designed to solve field problems. The
method used is the finite element method. With CalculiX Finite Element Models can be build,
calculated and post-processed. The pre- and post-processor is an interactive 3D-tool. The solver
is able to do linear and non-linear calculations. Static, dynamic and thermal solutions are
available. Both programs can be used independently. Because the solver makes use of the
ABAQUS input format it is possible to use commercial pre-processors as well. In turn the preprocessor is able to write mesh related data. Calculix is a very powerful tool of analysis, highly
configurable allowing the user to have complete control over the analysis, with more than 18
types of analysis covering most fields of study finite element. Calculix's user can modify any
variable on the analysis at discretion, the huge amount of information and documentation on the
web make CalculiX a great alternative for the development of research projects.
17
18
numbered according to Figure 3.2. This latter information is important since element variables
printed with the * keyword are given in the integration points.
19
Fig 3.2 2x2x2 integration point scheme in hexahedral elements (courtesy: mit.edu[9])
Although the structure of the element is straightforward, it should not be used in the
following situations:
due to the full integration, the element will behave badly for isochoric material behavior,
i.e. for high values of Poisson's coefficient or plastic behavior.
the element tends to be too stiff in bending, e.g. for slender beams or thin plates under
bending.
20
AutoCAD is a software application for computer-aided design (CAD) and drafting. The
software supports both 2D and 3D formats. The software is developed and sold by Autodesk,
Inc. It had become the most ubiquitous design program in the world, utilizing functions such
as polylines and curve fitting. The AutoCAD software is now used in a range of industries,
employed by architects, project managers and engineers. AutoCAD was initially derived from
a program called Interact, which was written in a proprietary language. The first release of the
software used only primitive entities such as polygons, circles, lines, arcs and text to construct
complex objects. Later, it came to support custom objects through a C++ application
programming interface. The modern version of the software includes a full set of tools for
solid modeling and 3-D. AutoCAD also support numerous application program interfaces for
automation and customization.
DWG (drawing) is the native file format for AutoCAD and a basic standard for CAD data
interoperability. The software has also provided support for design Web format (DWF), a
format developed by Autodesk for publishing CAD data.
21
23
24
the involute.
25
GMSH:
Gmsh [17] is a three-dimensional finite element mesh generator with a build-in CAD
engine and post-processor. Its design goal is to provide a fast, light and user-friendly meshing
tool with parametric input and advanced visualization capabilities.
Gmsh is built around four modules: geometry, mesh, solver and post-processing.
Geometry module is used to define geometrical objects such as points, lines, surfaces and
volumes while mesh module is used to create mesh (nodes and element topology). All
instructions of the modules are prescribed either interactively using the graphical user interface
(GUI) or in text files using Gmsh's own scripting language.
27
Generating 1D, 2D and 3D simplicial finite element meshes for CAD models in their
native format
Specifying target element sizes accurately. It provides several mechanisms to control the
size of elements in the final mesh: through interpolation from sizes specified at geometry
points and using flexible mesh size fields.
Creating simple extruded geometries and meshes with the help of respective commands.
28
29
Chapter4
Results & Discussions
4.1 Problem definition:
A gear having specifications of Module (M)=2, No. of teeth(N)=25 to study and
experiment is chosen from our reference thesis [1]. A load of 89MPa as given in thesis is applied
at the highest point of contact of gear teeth. The stress at root fillet region is of the value 168Mpa
which is much higher than the actual applied load. Then the stress relieving features are
introduced, which are the circular holes of different dimensions which decreased the stress at the
fillet to 124MPa. The stress relieving features used in the gear till date are circular holes or the
combination of circular and elliptical holes. Here we have tried an aerodynamic structured hole
in the path of stress flow analogy and the results are analysed. A segment of three teeth is
considered for analysis and stress relieving features of various sizes are introduced on gear teeth
at various locations.
30
The flow analogy is used to visualize the stress concentration. It gives us a physical
picture of why and where stress concentration exists and it can be used as a tool to decrease
stress concentration. The path of flow analogy in gear starts from highest point of application of
load and ends at the root fillet of the tooth. This indicates that lines of force travel from contact
31
point to root fillet, with gradual decrease in width of the flow pattern. So, the stress concentration
is more at the fillet region which causes breakage of the tooth. The problem of stress
concentration is solved by removing material in the path of stress flow analogy. When the
material is removed in the path of flow analogy, the lines of force will travel uniformly. In our
experiment, the material is removed in the shape of an aerodynamic fin which decreased the
maximum principal stress at the fillet.
32
The Fig 4.1 illustrates the co-ordinates of a focus point. It is considered as the centre of
aero-fin hole which is used for transformation of entire hole.
33
The maximum stress at the fillet is 168Mpa which much higher compared to the applied
load on the gear.
34
Gear
No.
1
%
Displacement
%
Scaling
Stress
Stress
(mm)
Displacement
Of
(N/mm2)
Reduction
Reduction
Hole
38.7653, 0.75
98.3
41.48
0.00235
40.8
65.4081,
25.4
38.7663, 0.75
93.7
44.22
0.00235
40.8
65.4061,
25.4
38.7663, 0.70
89.3
46.84
0.00229
42.31
65.3061,
25.4
38.7663, 0.60
85.8
48.92
0.00224
43.57
65.5561,
25.4
38.7653, 0.60
83.6
50.23
0.00217
45.34
65.4081,
25.4
Center
of Hole
Table 4.1
According to the results tabulated above, the decrease in stress is 50.23%, whereas in the
reference thesis[1] stress is reduced by 24.07%. From this it can be inferred that aero-fin hole
serves better as a stress relieving feature compared to circular hole.
35
36
39
GRAPHS:
From the above graph it can be concluded that as the size of hole decreased, stress induced in the
gear decreased significantly due to the modulation of hole in the stress flow direction.
41
From this graph, as the scaling decreased, the displacement also decreased. This is because as the
hole size is less, material will be more due to which gear will be stiffer and finally displacement
will be lower.
42
Conclusion
The main aim of the above study is to relieve stress from the maximum value to as
minimum as possible. So the highest point of contact of teeth is selected as pressure application
point which causes highest stress.
Stress relieving feature having a shape of aero-fin is used in the path of stress flow which
helped to regulate stress flow by redistributing the lines of force. This also yielded better results
when compared to elliptical and circular holes.
In this study, the best result is obtained by introducing aero-fin hole at
(38.7653, 65.4083, 0) and having scaling factor of 0.6. The result displayed a stress reduction by
50.23% and displacement reduction by 45.34%.
43
References
[1]
[2]
Stress in Spur Gear Using Internal Stress Relieving Feature of Different Shapes, International
Journal of Recent Trends in Engineering, Vol. 1, No. 5, May 2009.
http://www.academia.edu/200020/A_Study_on_Reducing_the_Root_Fillet_Stress_in_Spur_Gear_Usi
ng_Internal_Stress_Relieving_Feature_of_Different_Shapes
[3]
Modification for Increasing the Tooth Strength in Spur Gear Using CAD, Scientific research,
September 2010.
http://www.scirp.org/journal/PaperInformation.aspx?paperID=2800
[4]
Ashwini Joshi, Vijay Kumar Karma, Effect on Strength of Involute Spur Gear by
Changing the Fillet Radius Using FEA, International Journal Of Scientific & Engineering
Research, Volume 2, Issue 9, September 2010.
http://www.ijser.org/researchpaper%5CEffect-on-Strength-of-Involute-Spur-Gear-by-Changing-theFillet-Radius-Using-FEA.pdf
44
[5]
Fredette.L and Brown.M., Gear Stress Reduction Using Internal Stress Relief Features,
[6]
[7]
Ali Raad Hassan, Contact Stress Analysis of Spur Gear Teeth Pair, World Academy of
Books:
[8] Joseph Edward Shigley, Mechanical Engineering Design, McGraw Hill, 1986.
file:///E:/Shigley%27s%20Mechanical%20Engineering%20Design%209th%20Edition.pdf
Websites:
[9]
http://www.cartertools.com/involute.html
[10]
WWW.mit.edu
[11] www.wikipedia.org
[12] http://www.roymech.co.uk/Useful_Tables/Drive/Gears.html
[13] http://www.gearsandstuff.com/gear_
[14] http://nptel.iitm.ac.in/courses/IIT-MADRAS/Machine_Design_II/pdf/2_3.pdf
[15]
http://www.tribology-nikas.pwp.blueyonder.co.uk/gear2.gif
45
[16]
www.bconverged.com
[17]
www.gmsh.org
46
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