Documenti di Didattica
Documenti di Professioni
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INTEGRAL CALCULUS
SEVER ANGEL POPESCU
To my family.
.............................................
.............................................
Contents
Preface
1
1
10
21
27
47
49
49
52
59
63
68
75
85
87
90
101
105
105
112
122
135
137
137
147
167
179
181
181
194
CONTENTS
3.
4.
5.
6.
201
211
216
221
225
225
233
244
251
263
265
265
271
278
286
303
339
339
348
349
357
359
359
377
385
387
387
387
387
388
388
388
389
CONTENTS
Appendix. Index
391
Appendix. Bibliography
397
Preface
Here is the second volume "Mathematical Analysis II. Integral Calculus" of my course of Advanced Calculus for Engineers and beginning
Mathematicians. The first volume "Mathematical Analysis I. Differential Calculus" appeared in 2009 (see [Po]). I invite the reader to
carefully meditate on the main ideas I discussed in the Preface of this
first volume. The matter is about the way I think Mathematical Analysis (or Advanced Calculus) have to be taught to an engineering student.
First of all I insist on a strong and correct intuitive basis of any mathematical notion and statement. Then I proceed step by step to a rigorously mathematical model of this notion or statement. My aim in
this course (primarily intended for engineering students) is to create an
intuitive thinking to the reader who must feel the simplicity and the
naturalness of the introduced notion or concept. Abstract Mathematics need not destroy the intuition of the future engineer. Mathematical
courses must make this intuition stronger, more mature and very solid.
This is why this course appeared to be "a spoken course". I wanted it
to be so! In general, I like a lot "live" Mathematics. A "dead" abstract
notion, without at least one small motivation, generally will remain
dead and nonuseful for an engineering student.
I also blame the opposite side, that mathematical teaching which
consists only on a sequence of examples, motivations, etc., without a
general definition, without a mathematical correct reasoning, based on
"stories", etc. A creative middle way teaching is to be preferred. All of
these belong to something which is beyond Mathematics itself, namely
to the "Art of Teaching".
For instance, many times in this volume, the idea of the convergence
of a system A of numbers to a number I, was substituted with the idea
of a "well approximation" of I with numbers of A. Surely, I could use
from the very beginning the definition "with and everything could
appeared formally rigorous for an "extremist" mathematician, but this
course is not intended for such a people! If I had done so, I would
have killed the intuitive power of the idea of approximation, extremely
useful for a future engineer and not only for him!
7
PREFACE
PREFACE
is why the reader must be grateful to her for the easy (but not short)
way I succeeded to present the improper integrals with parameters.
Finally, I mention the special help that trees and birds of my close
park gave me during my silent walk around the lake in those hot
evenings of August 2010. All of these are of a great importance when
one is thinking of mathematical affairs.
Prof. Dr. Sever Angel Popescu
Technical University of Civil Engineering Bucharest
Department of Mathematics and Computer Science
B=dul Lacul Tei 124, Sector 2, Bucharest, ROMANIA
angel.popescu@gmail.com
February, 2011
CHAPTER 1
F 1.
Such a figure is usually called a curvilinear trapezoid. The great
English scientist Sir Isaac Newton (1642-1727) discovered the mathematical relation between the function y = f (x) and this area.
T
1. (I. Newton) Let f : [a, b] R+ be a continuous
function defined on a real closed interval [a, b] with nonnegative real
values. Let x be a number in (a, b] and let F (x) be the area of the
curvilinear trapezoid [AxM D] (the area under the graphic of f "up to
the point x" (see Fig.2). Then this area function is differentiable and
its derivative F (x) at the point x is exactly f (x), the value of the initial
function f at the same point x.
1
F 2.
P. (intuitively proof; you will see later a mathematically rigorous proof) Let us fix a point x0 in (a, b]. We are going to prove that
the derivative F (x0 ) exists and it is equal to f (x0 ). By definition
F (x) F (x0 )
,
xx0
x x0
if this limit exists. Let us take for instance x (a, b], x > x0 (if
x0 = b, then take x < x0 and do a completely similar reasoning!). But
F (x) F (x0 ) is exactly the area of the curvilinear trapezoid [M0 x0 xM]
(see also Fig.2). Since f is continuous, this area can be well approximated by the area of the rectangle [M0 x0 xM ]. Indeed, in the case of
our figure (Fig.2), the least value of f on the interval [x0 , x] is realized at the point x0 and the greatest is realized at the point x (use
the boundedness Weierstrass theorem ([Po], Theorem 32), for a more
general situation). So, the area of the curvilinear trapezoid [M0 x0 xM]
is a number between the area of the rectangle [M0 x0 xM ] and the area
of the rectangle [M0 x0 xM ]. When M becomes closer and closer to M0 ,
these last two areas tends to give the same number, so the area of the
curvilinear trapezoid can be well approximated by the area of the rectangle [M0 x0 xM ]. Thus, using now the corresponding mathematical
expressions, we get:
(1.1)
F (x0 ) = lim
or
(1.2)
f (x0 )
F (x) F (x0 )
f(x).
(x x0 )
for a point c in (a, b). Since H (x) = 0 for any x of I, one gets that
H(b) = H(a). Let us denote by C this common value of H(x). Hence,
G F = C, or G = F + C. This means that for this fixed number C,
we have that G(x) = F (x) + C for any x I.
x, if x [1, 1]
x3 , if x (1, 2) ,
f(x) =
x2 + 4, if x [2, 3)
2
4
3
f : [1, 3) R. Since x2 = x, x4 = x3 and x3 + 4x = x2 +4,
any primitive of f is of the following form:
x2
2 + C1 , if x [1, 1]
x4
F (x) =
,
+ C2 , if x (1, 2)
x3 4
+ 4x + C3 , if x [2, 3)
3
24 1
23
+ + C1 =
+ 8 + C3 ,
4
4
3
thus C3 = 77
+ C1 . Hence, all the primitives of f are:
12
x2
, if x [1, 1]
2
x4
F (x) =
+ C1 ,
+ 14 , if x (1, 2)
x3 4
77
+ 4x 12 , if x [2, 3)
3
f : [0, 1] R. Since lim 2x sin x1 = 0 (prove it!) and since lim cos x1
x0
x0
1
2
does not exist (xn = 2n
and xn = (4n+1)
are convergent to 0, but
1
1
cos xn = 1 1 and cos x = 0 0), we see that function f has no
n
limit at x = 0. In particular, it is not continuous at x = 0. At the same
time, it is easy to prove that the function
2
x sin x1 , for x (0, 1]
F (x) =
0, for x = 0
In general, to decide if a given noncontinuous function has a primitive or not is a difficult task.
The main problem which is to be considered in the following is
the one of the effective construction of primitives for some classes of
continuous functions.
Here is a table with the primitives of the basic elementary functions,
mostly used in Mathematics and in its applications. We write down
only one primitive (the immediate one, obtained by a direct process of
x+1
, if = 1, (x > 0, if is not an integer)
+1
x dx =
1
dx = ln x, if x I,
x
where I is any interval contained in (0, ).
1
dx = ln(x), if x J,
(1.5)
x
where J is any interval contained in (, 0).
(1.6)
ex dx = ex
(1.4)
(1.7)
ax dx =
(1.8a)
(1.9)
(1.10)
(1.11)
(1.12)
x2
ax
, if a > 0 and a = 1.
ln a
x2
1
dx = arctan x
+1
1
x
1
dx = arctan , if a = 0.
2
+a
a
a
sin xdx = cos x
1
x
(1.14)
dx
=
ln(x
+
x2 + ),
2
x +
2
if = 0, x + > 0 and x + x2 + > 0.
1
(1.15)
dx = tan x,
cos2 x
(1.13)
if x belongs to any interval which does not contain any number of the
form n + 2 , n Z.
1
(1.16)
dx = cot x,
sin2 x
if x belongs to any interval which does not contain any number of the
form n, n Z.
(1.17)
sinh xdx = cosh x,
cosh xdx = sinh x,
x
where sinh x = e e
and cosh x = e +e
.
2
2
All of the above formulas can be directly verified by differentiating the function from the right side of each equality. Lets verify for
instance formula (1.14):
1
2x
1
2
1
+
=
.
ln(x + x + ) =
x + x2 + )
2 x2 +
x2 +
T
4. (linearity) Let f, g : I R be two functions defined
on the
same interval I and let , be two real numbers. Let f (x)dx
and
g(x)dx be two primitives of f and g respectively (on I). Then
f (x)dx + g(x)dx is a primitive of f + g on I.
P. Since
f (x)dx = f and
g(x)dx = g (use only the
definition!), we get that
f(x)dx + g(x)dx =
=
f (x)dx
g(x)dx
= f + g
and the proof is complete (why?). Here we used the linearity of the
differential operator h h .
This last result says that the "mapping" f f (x)dx is linear.
Here is a concrete example of the way we can work with this last
property and with the above basic formulas.
5
7
E 4. Let us compute
x 3x + 2 3 x
dx. The
5 3
x
linearity of the integral operator (see theorem 4) and formula (1.3)
imply that
7
5
5
3
x 3x + 2 x
dx = x dx 3 xdx+
5
x3
+2
1
3
x dx 7
=
35
x6
x2
x3
x5
dx =
3 +2 4 7 2 =
6
2
3
5
x6 3 2 3 4 35 2
x + x3 x5.
6
2
2
2
(1.18)
f(u(t))d(u(t)) =
f (x)dx (u(t)).
Indeed,
[F (u(t))] = F (u(t))u (t) = f(u(t))u (t).
Formula (1.18) is called the change of variable formula
for integral
computation. This formula says that if in an integral h(x)dx one can
put in evidence an expression
u = u(x) such that h(x)dx = f(u(x))du
and if one can compute f(u)du then, put
instead of u, u(x) in this
last primitive and we obtain a primitive h(x)dx for the differential
form hdx.
1
E 5. Let us compute 3x+2
dx, where 3x + 2 < 0. If we
denote
u
=
3x
+
2
then,
du
=
3dx
(why?).
Thus, our integral
becomes
1
1
1
d(3x+2). Since u = 3x+2 < 0, a primitive for u du is ln(u)
3
3x+2
1
(see formula (1.5)). So, a primitive of 3x+2
dx is 13 ln(3x 2).
Sometimes it is easier to directly
compute dx as a function of t and
dt. For instance, let us compute tan3 xdx. Let us change the variable:
t = tan x, x ( 2 , 2 ) (why this restriction?). Since
dt =
1
2
dx
=
1
+
tan
x
dx = (1 + t2 )dx,
cos2 x
we get that
3
tan xdx =
3
t3
t +tt
tdt
dt =
dt = tdt
=
2
2
2
1+t
t +1
t +1
t2 1
d(t2 + 1)
t2 1
=
=
ln(t2 + 1) =
2
2
t2 + 1
2
2
1
2
=
tan x ln(tan2 x + 1) .
2
10
(1.19)
f (x)g (x)dx = fg f (x)g(x)dx.
f dg = f g
gdf
These last two formulas are called the integral by parts formulas.
When do we use them? If one has to compute the integral
h(x)dx
and if we can write h(x) = f(x)g (x) and if the integral f (x)g(x)dx
can be easier computed, then formula (1.19) works. For instance, if we
differentiate the function f (x) = ln x, we get x1 which is an "easier"
function from the point of view of integral calculus.
let us
Practically,
n
use this philosophy to compute the integral: In = x ln xdx, where n
is a natural number. For n = 0 we get
I0 = ln xdx = (ln x)(x) dx.
x
xn+1
1 xn+1
n
In = x ln xdx = (ln x)
dx =
ln x
dx =
n+1
n+1
xn+1
xn+1
1
xn+1
xn+1
=
ln x
xn dx =
ln x
.
n+1
n+1
n+1
(n + 1)2
2. Some results on polynomials
We begin with some facts on polynomial functions.
A polynomial function ( or simply a polynomial) is a function P of
one variable x, defined on R by the following formula
P (x) = a0 + a1 x + a2 x2 + ... + an xn , x R,
where a0 , ..., an are fixed real numbers. These numbers are said to be
the coefficients of P. We shortly write that P (x), or P R[x], where
R[x] is the set (a ring!) of all polynomials with real coefficients. For
11
k
h + 0,
h
an bm1
an b0
n1
P1 (x) = an1
x
+ ... + anm
xnm +
bm
bm
12
an nm
P (x) =
x
+ C1 Q + R.
bm
If we put now C = bamn xnm + C1 , we just obtained the statement of the
theorem for n. Hence the proof of the theorem is complete.
The uniqueness can be derived as follows. Let P = DQ + S, where
deg S < deg Q. Then, RS = (D C)Q. If R = S, then the inequality,
deg(RS) = deg(DC)Q deg Q, give rise to a contradiction (why?).
Thus, R = S and so (D C)Q = 0 implies D = C (Q = 0).
Q = A0 + A1 P + ... + An P n ,
Q = CP + A0 ,
where deg A0 < deg P. Since deg C is less than deg Q (deg P > 0),
using the induction hypothesis, we get C = A1 + A2 P + ... + An P n1 ,
where deg Aj < deg P, j = 1, 2, ..., n. Coming back to formula (2.5)
with this expression of C, we obtain exactly formula (2.2).
13
x3 1 = C(x)(x 1).
x2 + x + 1 = C1 (x)(x 1) + R1 .
x2 + x + 1 3 = x2 + x 2 = C1 (x)(x 1).
C1 (x) = x + 2 = 1 (x 1) + 3.
Coming back, step by step, we obtain
x3 + 2 = 3 + (x 1)[{3 + 1 (x 1)}(x 1) + 3] =
Let C = {a + bi : a, b R}, i = 1, be the field of complex numbers. A fundamental result in Algebra (C. F. Gauss) [La1] says that
the roots of any polynomial P R[x] are complex numbers, namely
elements of the form a + bi, with a, b real numbers (see also theorem
100 in this book).
T
6. (Bezouts theorem) Let P = P (x) be a nonconstant
polynomial and let C be a root of P (P () = 0). Then P (x) =
A(x )Q(x), where A is a constant number and Q(x) is a monic
polynomial. Moreover, if 1 , ..., s are all the distinct roots of P, then
(2.6)
P (x) = AT (x)
(2.8)
T (x) = (x )Q(x) + R,
14
Now we apply the same procedure to the monic polynomial Q(x) and
another root of it:
P (x) = A(x )(x )Q1 (x),
where , , ..., are all the n roots of P. Let us put together the equal
roots and so we get the required expression (2.6).
A bijection : C C which is a field morphism, i.e.
(2.9)
15
16
D = P1
min(n2 ,m2 )
P2
...Prmin(nr ,mr ) .
D = P U0 + QV0
17
and D is monic with the least degree such that D can be written as
in (2.11). In particular, if P and Q are coprime, then there are two
polynomials U0 and V0 such that
(2.12)
1 = P U0 + QV0
18
P (U0 U0 ) = Q(V0 V0 )
19
(2.16)
(i)
(2.18)
(i)
(i)
Ani 1
Qi
A0
A1
=
+
+ Si ,
ni
ni
ni 1 + ... +
Pi
Pi
Pi
Pi
20
for k. Since P1n1 , P2n2 , ... , Pknk are monic irreducible and distinct one to
each other, P1n1 and L have no common roots. Indeed, if is a root of
P1n1 and of L, then there is a j = 1 such that is a root of P1 and of Pj ;
if is real, P1 and Pj are both equal to x , a contradiction! (why?).
If is not real, let be the conjugate of . Then P1 and Pj are both
equal to (x )(x ), again a contradiction! (why?). Thus P1n1 and
L are coprime and we can apply theorem 9, formula (2.12). So there
are two uniquely defined polynomials V and U with deg V < deg L and
deg U < deg P1n1 such that
P1n1 V + LU = 1
(see theorem 10). Let us multiply both sides by Q
= APQn1 L . We get:
P
1
Q
1 QV
QU
(2.19)
=
+ n1 .
P
A L
P1
Let us put Q1 instead of QU and let us see that the number of irreducible factors of L is k 1. Applying the induction hypothesis we
obtain the representation (L is monic, so A = 1 in this case!):
QV
Q2
Qk
(2.20)
= n2 + ... + nk ,
L
P2
Pk
where Q2 , Q3 , ..., Qk are uniquely defined polynomials. If we come back
, we get exactly formula
to formula (2.19) with this expression of QV
L
(2.17). The other statement is a direct computational consequence of
this last formula.
E 6. Let us find the decomposition into simple fractions
2 2
of the rational function Q(x)
= xx+1
4 +x2 . Since P (x) = x (x + 1), we
P (x)
have two blocks of simple fractions, one corresponding to the irreducible
polynomial P1 (x) = x and the other corresponding to the irreducible
polynomial P2 (x) = x2 + 1. Hence,
x+1
A
B Cx + D
(2.21)
= 2+ + 2
.
4
2
x +x
x
x
x +1
Thus,
x+1
A(x2 + 1) + Bx(x2 + 1) + (Cx + D)x2
=
,
x4 + x2
x4 + x2
or
x + 1 = (B + C)x3 + (A + D)x2 + Bx + A.
We identify the coefficients of both sides and obtain:
1 = A,
1 = B,
21
0 = A + D,
0 = B + C,
so A = 1, B = 1, C = 1 and D = 1. Therefore our decomposition
is
x+1
1
1 x 1
(2.22)
= 2+ + 2
.
4
2
x +x
x
x
x +1
3. Primitives of rational functions
We shall use now the basic properties of the integrals (primitives)
and the above sketchy theory of rational functions in order to compute
their primitives.
Let us compute for instance a primitive
x+1 for the rational function
which
appeared in example 6, namely x4 +x2 dx. We use the linearity
of in formula (2.22):
x+1
1
1
x 1
dx
=
dx
+
dx
+
dx =
x4 + x2
x2
x
x2 + 1
1
2x
1
2
1
dx
dx =
= x dx + x dx
2
2
2
x +1
x +1
x3
1
=
+ ln |x| ln(x2 + 1) arctan x,
3
2
because
2x
d(x2 + 1)
du
dx =
=
= ln |u| = ln(x2 + 1).
2
2
x +1
x +1
u
Since any simple fraction has one of the following forms:
A
(3.1)
, where A, R,
x
A
, where A, R, n N , n 2,
(x )n
(3.2)
(3.3)
Ax + B
, where A, b, c R, = b2 4c < 0,
+ bx + c
x2
Ax + B
2
n , where A, b, c R, = b 4c < 0, n 2,
+ bx + c)
we must show how to find a primitive for each of these cases.
Case 1
A
1
(3.5)
dx = A
dx = A ln |x | .
x
x
(3.4)
(x2
22
Case 2
1
dx =
(x )n
(x )n+1
A (x )n dx = A
, if n 2.
n + 1
Case 3 Since
Ax + B
A
2x + b
dx =
dx+
2
2
x + bx + c
2
x + bx + c
Ab
1
+
+B
dx
2
2
x + bx + c
and since
2x + b
dx = ln(x2 + bx + c),
2
x + bx + c
one can reduce everything to the computation of a primitive of the
following type:
A
1
dx,
dx = A
b
2
x + bx + c
(x + 2 )2 + a2
2
where a = c b4 . Thus,
d(x + 2b )
A
dx
=
A
(3.7)
=
x2 + bx + c
(x + 2b )2 + a2
(3.6)
A
dx = A
(x )n
x + 2b
1
.
= A arctan
a
a
1
1
x
Here we use the basic formula x2 +a
2 dx = a arctan a (see formula
(1.9)).
Case 4 Using a similar reasoning as in Case 3 one can reduce the
computation of the primitive of the simple fraction of formula (3.4) to
the following primitive:
d(x + 2b )
1
n .
dx
=
(x2 + bx + c)n
(x + 2b )2 + a2
23
d(x2 + a2 ) =
2
n1
n
a
(x2 + a2 )
a2
2a2
(x2 + a2 )n
2
1
(x + a2 )n+1
1
= 2 In1 2
xd
.
a
2a
n + 1
Let us use now the formula of integrating by parts (see (1.20)) and
compute
2
(x + a2 )n+1
(x2 + a2 )n+1
1
1
xd
=x
dx,
2
n + 1
n + 1
n + 1
(x + a2 )n1
Thus,
or
1
1
(x2 + a2 )n+1
1
In = 2 In1 2 x
In1 ,
a
2a
n + 1
n + 1
1
1
x
In1 + 2
.
(3.8)
In = 2 2
a
2a (n 1)
2a (n 1)(x2 + a2 )n1
dx
For instance, let us compute I2 = (x2 +a
2 )2 .
(3.9)
I2 =
1
x
x
.
tan1 + 2 2
3
2a
a 2a (x + a2 )
Here tan1 x is another notation for arctan x. Formula (3.8) can be used
to compute In "from up to down", i.e. the computation of In reduces
to the computation of In1 . The computation of In1 reduces to the
computation of In2 , etc., up to the computation of I1 = a1 arctan xa .
In the following examples we use the ideas and experience just exposed in the above four cases.
3
E 7. What is a primitive of 4x+5
, where x runs over an
5
interval I which does not contain x = 4 .
3
3
d(4x + 5)
3
du
3
3
dx =
=
= ln |u| = ln |4x + 5| .
4x + 5
4
4x + 5
4
u
4
4
1
E 8. Let us compute a primitive of f (x) = (2x+5)
5 , where
5
x belongs to an interval I which does not contain x = 2 .
1
1
1
5
dx =
(2x + 5) d(2x + 5) =
u5 du =
(2x + 5)5
2
2
24
(2x + 5)4
1 u5+1
=
.
2 5 + 1
8
E 9. What is the set of all primitives of the function f (x) =
x R?
x + 23
2x + 43
3x + 2
3
dx
=
3
dx
=
dx =
x2 + x + 1
x2 + x + 1
2
x2 + x + 1
2x + 1 + 13
3
(x2 + x + 1)
1
1
3
dx =
dx +
dx =
=
2
2
2
2
x +x+1
2
x +x+1
2
x +x+1
3
d (x2 + x + 1) 1
1
1
=
+
=
d x+
2
2
x2 + x + 1
2
2
x + 12 + 34
3
1
3
1
2
2
= ln(x + x + 1) +
2 du = ln(x + x + 1)+
2
2
2
u2 + 23
2 x + 12
u
3
1
1 1
2
3x+2
,
x2 +x+1
3
1
2x + 1
ln(x2 + x + 1) + arctan .
2
3
3
3x+2
So the set of all primitives of f (x) = x2 +x+1 is
3
1
2x + 1
2
ln(x + x + 1) + arctan
+C ,
2
3
3
where C is an arbitrary constant.
x+3
E 10. Let us find a primitive for f (x) = (x2 +4x+6)
3 , x R.
x+3
1
2x + 4
I=
dx+
3 dx =
2
2
2
(x + 4x + 6)
(x + 4x + 6)3
1
1
(x2 + 4x + 6)
(3.10)
+
dx
=
dx+
2
(x2 + 4x + 6)3
(x2 + 4x + 6)3
1
1
dv
3
+
d(x + 2) =
u du +
3 ,
3
2
[(x + 2)2 + 2]
v2 + ( 2)2
where u = x2 + 4x + 6 and v = x + 2. Let
dv
I3 =
3
v2 + ( 2)2
25
I2 +
2
2
2
2 4(3 1)
4(3 1)(v + 2)
8
8(v + 2)2
But, from formula (3.9) we get
1
v
v
I2 = arctan +
,
2
4 2
2 4(v + 2)
thus
3
v
3v
v
arctan +
.
+
2
2
32 2
2 32(v + 2) 8(v + 2)2
Let us come back with this value of I3 in (3.10) and find:
dv
1
3
I =
u du +
3 =
2
v 2 + ( 2)2
I3 =
1 u2
3
v
3v
v
+ arctan +
+
.
2
2
2 2
32 2
2 32(v + 2) 8(v + 2)2
3(x + 2)
x+2
+
.
32 [(x + 2)2 + 2] 8 [(x + 2)2 + 2]2
E 11. Compute I = (x2 +a2dx
for all values of a and
)(x2 +b2 )
+
b.
Case 1. a = 0 = b. Then
x3
.
I = x4 dx =
3
Case 2. a = 0, b = 0. Then we must decompose into simple fractions the integrand function: x2 (x21+b2 ) . Let us denote x2 by u :
1
A
B
= +
,
2
u(u + b )
u u + b2
or
So A = b2
.
x2 (x2 + b2 )
x2
x2 + b2
26
Thus,
(3.11)
1
dx = b2
2
2
x (x + b2 )
x dx b
x2
1
dx =
+ b2
x1
1
x
b2 arctan .
1
b
b
Case 3. a = 0, b = 0. Then I = x2 (x21+a2 ) dx. Use now formula
(3.11) with a instead of b and find
1
1
x
2 x
2 1
dx
=
a
a
arctan
.
x2 (x2 + a2 )
1
a
a
= b2
1
Case 4. a = 0, b = 0, a = b. Let us take the fraction (x2 +a2 )(x
2 +b2 ) and
decompose it into simple fractions. Since this last expression is in fact
a rational function of x2 , let us put u = x2 (it it easier to work with
factors of degree one at denominator-why?). So
1
(x2
a2 )(x2
b2 )
B
A
+
.
2
u+a
u + b2
Thus,
1 = A(u + b2 ) + B(u + a2 ) = (A + B)u + Ab2 + Ba2 .
1
1
Hence, A + B = 0 and Ab2 + Ba2 = 1, or A = b2 a
2 and B = b2 a2 .
Finally,
1
dx =
2
2
(x + a )(x2 + b2 )
1
= 2
b a2
1
dx
2
x + a2
1
dx =
x2 + b2
1
1
x 1
x
= 2
arctan arctan .
b a2 a
a b
b
1
Case 5. a = b = 0. Then I = (x2 +a
2 )2 = I2 , with the notation of
formula (3.9). We use this last formula and find
I=
1
x
x
arctan + 2 2
.
3
2a
a 2a (x + a2 )
27
n
m
i=0 j=0
where aij R, is called a polynomial of two variables. A rational function of two variables R(x, y) is a quotient of two polynomi(x,y)
als P (x, y), Q(x, y) of two variables: R(x, y) = PQ(x,y)
. An algebraic
function of one variable is a root y = f (x) of a nonzero polynomial
P (x, y) = a0 (x) + a1 (x)y + ... + am (x)y m , where ai (x) are polynomials
of one variable with coefficients in R, i.e. P (x, f(x)) = 0 for
any real
number x in the definition domain of f. For instance, y = x2 + 1
2
2
is algebraic because it
is a root of the equation 1 + x y = 0. An
integral of the form R(x, y)dx, where R(x, y) is a rational function
and y is an algebraic function is called an abelian integral ("abelian"
comes from the name of the great mathematician Niels Abel who systematically studied such integrals). If the algebraic function y = f (x)
can be expressed by radicals we say that
R(x, y) is an irrational func
x+ x2 +1
2
tion. For instance, R(x, x + 1) = 1+3 x2 +1 is an irrational function.
Since primitives of some classes of irrational functions appears in many
applications, we present here some modalities
to compute them.
u2 b
2u
,u
du.
a
a
28
E 12. Compute I = 1+12x+3 dx. Write u2 = 2x + 3,
2udu = 2dx = dx = udu, so
u
u+11
1
I=
du =
du = 1du
du =
1+u
u+1
1+u
2x + 3 + 1 .
= u ln |u + 1| = 2x + 3 ln
B. Primitives of the form R(x, ax2 + bx + c)dx, a = 0,where
ax2 + bx + c is not a perfect square
Assume that a > 0. Then
b
b2
2
ax + bx + c =
ax +
+c .
2 a
4a
2
b
Let us make the following convention: if c 4a
> 0, we denote it by 2
b2
(any positive real number is a square!!); if c 4a
< 0, we denote it by
2
b2
2
. Since ax + bx + c is not a perfect square, c 4a
cannot be zero.
b
Thus, if we denote ax + 2a = u, then du = adx and our integral
becomes
u 2b a
1
, u2 2 du.
(4.1)
R
a
a
b
b2
2
ax + bx + c =
ax
+c .
4a
2 a
2
b
Now, always c 4a
is positive because ax2 + bx + c 0 (otherwise we
b2
cannot define the square root of it!). So this time we put c 4a
= 2.
R
, u2 du.
a
a
Hence, we have
to study the following three types of such integrals:
B1 : R(x, x2 + 2 )dx
B2 : R(x, x2 2 )dx and
B3 : R(x, 2 x2 )dx.
In order to eliminate the radical in B1 and in B2 one can use the
(Euler) substitution
(4.2)
x2 2 = x + t,
29
t2 2 + t2 2 t2
R
dt
,
2t
2t
2t2
which is a primitive of a rational function in the new variable t. Compute it by
the methods described in the previous section and finally
put t = x2 2 x (see formula (4.2)).
E 13. Let us compute I =
3x2 4x + 1dx. First of all
we must reduce the computation of I to one of the form B1 or B2 . Since
2
1
2
3x 4x + 1 =
3x
.
3
3
u2 du.
3
3
Let us make now an Euler substitution
1
+ t2
t2 13
1
u2 = u + t, u = 3
, du =
dt,
(4.3)
3
2t
2t2
so
4 2 2 1
t 3t + 9
1
1
1
2
u du =
dt =
3
t3
3
4 3
2
1
t
2
t2
=
ln |t|
.
3
18
4 3 2
Coming back to the initial variable x we get (t = u2 13 u, see
formula (4.3)):
2
1
2
u
u
3
1
2
1
2
I = [
ln u u
2
3
3
4 3
2
u2 13 u
].
18
To find the expression
of the primitive I in x we must put in this last
30
x = xt2 + 2t = x =
(4.5)
(4.6)
So
(4.7)
2 x2 =
R(x,
2t2 2
2t
,
dx
=
dt,
t2 + 1
(t2 + 1)2
t2 +
.
t2 + 1
x2 )dx
2t t2 + 2t2 2
,
R 2
dt,
t + 1 t2 + 1
(t2 + 1)2
2 x2
.
x
E
14. Let us use formula (4.7) to find the primitive of
I = x+14x2 dx.
For this we change the variable x with a new one t (like in (4.4)):
(4.8)
22 x2 = xt + 2.
dx
=
dt =
2 +2
2 + 1)2
(t
x + 4 x2
t24t+1 + 2t
2
t +1
2
t 1
dt.
2
2
(t + 2t 1)(t2 + 1)
A
B
Ct + D
t2 1
+
+ 2
=
.
2
2
(t + 2t 1)(t + 1)
t +1
t+1+ 2 t+1 2
An ugly computation leads to
1
1
1+ 2
,B =
,C = D = .
(4.9)
A=
2
4+2 2
4+2 2
Thus
t2 1
1
dt
dt = 2A
I = 2
2
2
(t + 2t 1)(t + 1)
t+1+ 2
1
d(t2 + 1)
1
dt C
2B
2D
dt =
2
2
t +1
t +1
t+1 2
31
(4.10)
= 2A ln t + 1 + 2 2B ln t + 1 2 C ln(t2 + 1) 2D arctan t,
4 x2 2
t=
.
x
With this last value of t we come in (4.10) and obtain
4 x2 2
I = 2A ln
+ 1 + 2
x
4 x2 2
2B ln
+ 1 2
x
2
2
4x 2
4 x2 2
C ln
.
+ 1 2D arctan
x
x
R 2. To compute the primitive B1 we also
can use trigono
metric substitutions. For instance, if in I = R(x, x2 + 2 )dx we
put x = tan t, we get
1
dx =
dt, I = R( tan t,
) 2 dt.
2
cos t
|cos t| cos t
This last primitive is a rational function of sin x and cos x. We shell
see later how to integrate a rational function of sin x and cos x.
E 15. Let us make x = a tan t (a > 0) and compute
1
d(sin t)
du
2
2
2
2
2
dt = a
=a
I=
x + a dx = a
,
3
4
cos t
cos t
(1 u2 )2
we find A = B = C = D = 14 . So
a2
du
du
du
du
+
+
I=
+
=
4
1u
1+u
(1 u)2
(1 + u)2
a2
1
1
a2
2u
1+u
ln(1 u)
+ ln(1 + u) =
+ ln
.
4 1u
1+u
4 1 u2
1u
Coming back to t we obtain
a2 2 sin t
1 + sin t
I=
+ ln
.
4 cos2 t
1 sin t
32
2 sin arctan xa
1 + sin arctan xa
+ ln
.
cos2 arctan xa
1 sin arctan xa
R 3. To compute R(x, x2 2 )dx we can use sinh x and
and cosh x = exp x+exp(x)
. It is
cosh x. Recall that sinh x = exp xexp(x)
2
2
easy to see that
(4.11)
cosh2 x sinh2 x = 1.
Hence, if we put x = cosh t we get dx = sinh tdt and x2 2 =
|sinh t| . Thus our integral becomes a rational integral in sinh x and
cosh x.
To compute R(x, 2 x2 )dx we can use
the trigonometric substitution x = sin t. Thus dx = cos tdt and 2 x2 = |sin t| . So
our integral reduces to an integral of a rational function in sin x and
cos x.
C. Primitives of the form xm (axn + b)p dx, where m, n, p are
nonzero rational numbers and a, b = 0
1
Let m = m
, n = nn12 and p = pp12 be three nonzero rational numbers
m2
(fractions are simplified) with m1 , n1 , p1 , m2 , n2 , p2 natural numbers and
m2 , n2 , p2 > 0. The expression xm (axn + b)p dx is called a binomial
differential form. If there is a differential function F (x) such that
dF (x) = xm (axn + b)p dx we say that the binomial differential is exact
and the function F (x) is a primitive of it. A substitution or a change of
the variable x with a new variable t is an equation of the type g(x) = t,
where g is a diffeomorphism on a fixed interval J (g is of class C 1 and
has an inverse x = g 1 (t) also of class C 1 ). A substitution can be
interpreted as a plane curve h(x, t) = g(x) t = 0. The substitution
is called "rational" if one can find a rational parameterization of the
curve h(x, t) = 0, i.e. if one can find two rational functions R1 (u),
R2 (u), where u L, a real interval, such that h(R1 (u), R2 (u)) = 0
5
for any u L. For instance, (3x + 5) 3 = t is a rational substitution
3
because for x = R1 (u) = u 35 , and t = R2 (u) = u5 , rational functions
5
of u, one has: (3R1 (u) + 5) 3 = R2 (u). At the end of 19-th century, the
great Russian mathematician P. L. Cebyshev proved a basic results on
such binomial differential forms (on the existence of their primitives).
33
T
12. (Cebyshev)
One can find an integral of a rational
function starting from xm (axn + b)p dx, by making "rational" substitutions, if and only if m, n and p are in one of the following three
situations:
Case 1. p is an integer (p2 = 1).
Case 2. p is not an integer but m+1
is an integer.
n
m+1
Case 3. p is not an integer, n is not an integer, but m+1
+ p is
n
an integer.
P. We prove only the fact that if we are in one of the three
cases above, then the integral can be "rationalized", i.e. there is a
sequence of "rational substitutions" of variables such that our binomial
differential form xm (axn +b)p dx becomes a rational differential form, i.e.
a differential form of the type Q(u)du, where Q is a rational function in
a new variable u. The reverse part of the theorem cannot be proved by
elementary tools. It involves deep knowledge of Algebraic Geometry.
First of all let us make the natural substitution: xn = t (if n = 1; if
n = 1 we pass directly to the second step of the following reasoning).
1
1
Thus x = t n and dx = n1 t n 1 dt. Hence, our binomial integral becomes
1
(4.12)
tq (at + b)p dt,
n
the canonical form of the binomial integral. Here we denoted m+1
1
n
m+1
by q. In general, since q = n 1 and p are rational numbers we
m+1
have in the expression t n 1 (at + b)p two radicals. If we had only
one radical, it could be easy to change the variable t with another one
u such
differential form becomes rational. For instance,
4that the new
1
3
in t (3t + 4) dt we have only one radical, so we "kill" it by the
3
obvious substitution 3t + 4 = u3 , or t = u 34 and dt = u2 du. Thus our
last integral becomes
3
4 1 2
u
4
3
u 4
u u du = 81
du,
3
(u 4)4
u
which is a primitive of a rational function. We decompose (u3 4)
4 into
simple fractions, etc.
Let us come back to our general case of the primitive (from formula
(4.12)).
Case 1. p is an integer.
If q is also an integer, we have nothing to do, the integrand tq (at+b)p
being rational.
34
If q = m+1
1 is not an integer, i.e. if m+1
is not an integer, q =
n
n
q1
, simplified and q1 , q2 integers with q2 = 1, then the obvious substituq2
tion t = uq2 makes the binomial differential form tq (at + b)p dt rational.
Indeed,
tq (at + b)p dt = uq1 (auq2 + b)p q2 uq2 1 du
is rational because q1 , q2 and p are integers.
Case 2. p is not an integer, but m+1
is an integer. Let p = pp12 ,
n
simplified and p1 , p2 integers, with p2 = 1. Then the substitution
at + b = up2 give rise to a rational differential form. Indeed, this time
p
p
p
q = m+1
1 is an integer, t = u 2ab and dt = a2 u 2 1 du, so
n
p2
q
p2
u b
p
q
p
t (at + b) dt =
up1 u 2 1 du
a
a
is rational because p1 , p2 and q are integers.
Case 3. p = pp12 is not an integer and m+1
is not an integer too.
n
In this case we make the following "trick" in the canonical differential form:
p
at + b
q
p
q+p
(4.13)
t (at + b) dt = t
dt.
t
We apply now the same idea like above.
If q + p = m+1
1 + p is an integer, i.e. if m+1
+ p is an integer,
n
n
at+b
p2
then the obvious substitution t = u , where p2 is the denominator
of p, leads to a rational differential form. Indeed, this time
b
= b (up2 a)1 ,
t = p2
u a
so
p
at + b
t
dt = bq+p (up2 a)(q+p) up1 (bp2 ) up2 1 (up2 a)2 du.
t
Since q + p, p1 and p2 are integers, then this last differential form
is rational and the implication "=" of the theorem is completely
proved.
q+p
q
t
q
p
(4.14)
t (at + b) dt =
(at + b)p+q dt.
at + b
35
q
2
t
(at+b)p+q dt = uq1 (1 auq2 )(q+p) bq2 uq2 1 uq2 a
du,
at + b
which is a rational differential form because q+p, q1 and q2 are integers.
2
3
compute the following integral:
x (2 + 3 x) dx. Here m = 13 , n =
1
and p = 2. Thus we are in Case 1 of the Cebyshev theorem. Let us
2
make the canonical substitution
1
t = x 2 or x = t2 , dx = 2tdt.
So
2
3
x 2+3 x
dx = 2
5
t 3 (2 + 3t)2 dt.
u5 (2 + 3u3 )2 du =
1
5
3 2
4
3 2
u (2 + 3u ) 5 u (2 + 3u ) du =
3
1
5
by parts
5
3 2
2
3 1
u (2 + 3u ) +
u (2 + 3u )
du
=
3
9
1
5 2
u
5
3 2
3 1
(4.15)
u (2 + 3u ) +
u (2 + 3u ) 2
du .
3
9
2 + 3u3
This last integral
u
1
du =
2 + 3u3
3
2
3
u
1
du =
3
3
+u
a3
u
du,
+ u3
36
where a = 3 23 , is an integral of a rational function. We can integrate it
u
by the usual methods of decomposing of the integrand a3 +u
3 into simple
fractions:
u
1 1
1
u+a
=
.
+
3
3
2
a +u
3a u + a 3a u ua + a2
Hence,
1
u
1
1
1
2u a + 3a
du =
du =
du +
3
3
3
a +u
9a
u+a
18a
u2 ua + a2
2
1
1
1
1
2
(4.16) ln |u + a| +
du.
ln u ua + a +
2
9a
18a
6
u ua + a2
Let us evaluate this last integral:
(4.17)
d(u a2 )
1
2
2u a
.
du
=
=
arctan
2
u2 ua + a2
a
3
a
3
a 3
a 2
u
+
2
ln
|u
+
a|
+
ln
3
a3 + u3
9a
18a
1
2u a
arctan .
3a 3
a 3
Now we go back to formula (4.15) and find:
5
1
2 t 3 (2 + 3t)2 dt = {u5 (2 + 3u3 )2 +
3
5
2
1
1
+ [u2 (2 + 3u3 )1
ln |u + a| +
ln u2 ua + a2 +
9
3 9a
18a
1
2u
a
+ tan1 ]}.
3a 3
a 3
1
Now, instead of u let us put t 3 and obtain:
5
1 5
5 2
2 t 3 (2 + 3t)2 dt = {t 3 (2 + 3t)2 + [t 3 (2 + 3t)1
3
9
1
1
2
1
2
1
1
1
2t 3 a
3
3
2
1
]}.
ln t + a +
ln t t 3 a + a + tan
3 9a
18a
3a 3
a 3
1
But t = x 2 , so our initial integral is:
2
1
1
1 5
5 1
3
x 2+3 x
dx = {x 6 (2 + 3x 2 )2 + [x 3 (2 + 3x 2 )1
3
9
+
37
1
1
1
1
2
1
1
1
2x 6 a
6
3
2
1
]}.
ln x + a +
ln x x 6 a + a + tan
3 9a
18a
3a 3
a 3
where a = 3 23 .
where ak1 ,k2 ,...,kn is a real number and k1 , k2 , ..., kn are nonnegative integers (they may be also zero). A finite sum of such expressions is called
a polynomial P = P (x1 , x2 , ..., xn ) in the n variables x1 , x2 , ..., xn . A
rational function
R = R(x1 , x2 , ..., xn )
in n variables is a quotient R = PQ of two polynomials in n variables.
A rational expression of simple radicals is obtained from a rational
function
R(x1 , x2 , ..., xn ) in n variables by substituting the variable xi with a
pqi
i , where x is our "old variable
radical expression of the form ax+b
cx+d
a b
of integration", a, b, c, d are real numbers with det
= 0 and
c d
pi , qi are nonzero natural numbers. Here i goes from 1 up to n. Such a
rational expression of simple radicals usually appears like:
p1
p2
pn
ax + b q1
ax + b q2
ax + b qn
(4.18)
R
,
, ...,
.
cx + d
cx + d
cx + d
To integrate such a function of x we make the natural substitution
ax + b
= tq ,
cx + d
where q is the least common multiple (lcm) of all the denominators
q1 , q2 , ..., qn of the powers of ax+b
. It is clear that the new obtained
cx+d
differential form in t is a rational one. Indeed, starting from
p1
p2
pn
ax + b q1
ax + b q2
ax + b qn
R
,
, ...,
dx,
cx + d
cx + d
cx + d
(4.19)
tq1
dt,
(ctq1 a)2
38
q1
db
t
because, from (4.19) x = tat
dt. Here
q c and dx = q (ad bc)
(ctq1 a)2
pi
si = qi q are natural numbers (why?). Thus, the obtained integral is an
integral of a rational function in the variable t.
For instance, in our example 16 the common expression ax+b
uncx+d
der radicals is simply x. Now, the rational function is R(x1 , x2 ) =
x1 (2 + 3x2 )2 , pq11 = 13 , pq22 = 12 and q = lcm(3, 2) = 6. So the natural substitution is x = t6 and we get:
2 5
2
3
x 2+3 x
dx = 6 t2 2 + 3t3
t dt,
etc.
E 17. Let us compute the integral I = x3 3 1 + x2 dx.
Since m = 3, n = 2 and p = 13 , p is not an integer and m+1
= 2
n
is an integer, we are in Case 2. We can see that it is possible to put
directly
3
(4.20)
1 + x2 = u3 , u = 1 + x2
(without making first of all x2 = t, why?). Thus,
3u2
du.
2x
3u2
3
3
3
x3 1 + x2 dx = x3 u
du = x2 u3 du = (u3 1)u3 du.
2x
2
2
So
7 3
4
3 3
3 u7 u4
3
3
(u 1)u du =
=
1 + x2 3
1 + x2 3 .
2
2 7
4
14
8
1+x2
E 18. Let us compute now I =
dx. This is a binox4
1
mial integral with m = 4, n = 2 and p = 2 . Since p is not an integer,
m+1
= 32 is also not an integer, but m+1
+ p = 1 is an integer (Case
n
n
2
3), we can directly make the substitution 1+x
= u2 (because t = x2 in
x2
formula (4.13)). So
2xdx = 3u2 du = dx =
1 + x2 = u2 x2 , x2 =
dx =
u2
1
, 2xdx = 2x2 udu + 2u2 xdx,
1
x2 u
xu
du =
du.
2
xu x
1 u2
39
Thus, our differential form becomes (we consider only the case x > 0
and u (1, )):
ux xu
u2
1 + x2
dx
=
du
=
du =
x4
x4 1 u2
x2 (1 u2 )
u2
= 1
du = u2 du.
2)
(1
u
u2 1
Finally we get:
3
3
2 2
1
1
+
x
1 + x2
u
dx = u2 du = =
.
x4
3
3
x2
3
1 + x2
1 1 + x2 2
=
, x = 0.
3
x2
x4
where an = 0 and n > 2 is not an elementary function. By an elementary function we understand a function which is a composition of
rational functions, trigonometric functions, exponential functions and
logarithm functions. If n = 3 our primitive is called an elliptic integral. In general, if the integrand function is a rational expression which
contains radicals of polynomials, then it is called an abelian integral (in
memory of the great Norway mathematician, Niels Abel). For instance,
3
3
1
2
3 5
x 2 + 5x
dx =
2 + 5x3 5 d(2 + 5x3 ) =
15
3
8
3
1
1 u 5 +1
1
3 5
5
=
u du =
=
2
+
5x
,
15
15 35 + 1
24
is an elementary function. But,
1 + x4 dx is not an elementary
1
3
function. Indeed, let us make x4 = t. So, x = t 4 , dx = 14 t 4 dt and the
40
integral becomes:
1
3
1
t 4 (1 + t) 2 dt.
4
The last integral is a binomial integral with m = 34 , n = 1 and p = 12 .
Since p is not an integer, m+1
= 14 is also not an integer and m+1
+p
n
n
= 34 is not an integer, we are in no one of the three cases of the Cebysev
theorem. So we cannot reduce this primitive to a rational primitive by
rational substitutions. O. K., but the question is still alive!Is there
an elementary differentiable function F (x) such that F (x) = 1 + x4 ?
The answer is no, but we need a lot of higher Mathematics to prove it!
D. Primitives of the form R(cos x, sin x)dx, where R(x1 , x2 )
is a rational function
The general method consists in the following change of variable.
Assume that x belongs to an interval J on which the function x tan x2
is invertible and its inverse is of class C 1 . Since
1 tan2 x2
2 tan x2
cos x =
, sin x =
,
1 + tan2 x2
1 + tan2 x2
2
it is naturally to put t = tan x2 , x = 2 arctan t, dx = 1+t
2 dt, so
1 t2 2t
2
R(cos x, sin x)dx = R
,
dt,
2
2
1 + t 1 + t 1 + t2
which is an integral of a rational function, etc.
41
where u = cos x, or
(4.22)
R(cos x, sin x)dx = T (sin x) cos xdx =
=
where v = sin x.
T (sin x)d(sin x) =
T (v)dv,
E 20. If we want to compute I = sin4 x cos3 xdx by the
general substitution t = tan x2 , we get a very complicated integral of a
rational function in t (why is it so complicated?)
3
2t
1 t2
2
dt.
I=
2
2
1+t
1+t
1 + t2
But, if we use the substitution described in (4.22), we get:
4
2
I = sin x cos x cos xdx = sin4 x(1 sin2 x)d(sin x) =
=
v 4 (1 v2 )dv =
v5 v7
sin5 x sin7 x
.
5
7
5
7
R 8. Suppose now that cos x and sin x appear to even powers
in
R(cos x, sin x). Then always one can write R(cos x, sin x)dx as
1
dx = S(tan x)d(tan x) = S(u)du,
cos2 x
where u = tan x and S is a rational function of u (why all of these?).
The substitution
u = tan x can also be done even in other cases. For
xdx
instance, sin3sin
dx can be "rationalized" by puting tan x = u.
x+cos3 x
cos2 x
E 21. Let us compute I = 1+sin
2 x dx by this last method
x
(the general substitution t = tan 2 is not good at all!-why?). Since
1 + tan2 x = cos12 x , and since u = tan x implies that x = tan1 u and
1
dx = 1+u
2 du, we get
cos2 x
1
1
dx =
du.
2 dx =
1
2
2
(1 + 2u ) (1 + u2 )
+ tan x
1 + sin x
cos2 x
S(tan x)
2u2 ) (1
+ u2 )
42
= 2 arctan
2u arctan u = 2 arctan
2 tan x x.
1
1
(cos x + i sin x) = exp(ix).
i
i
We see from here that the usual rules for computing primitives of the
real valued functions extends naturally to complex valued functions of
real variables. This is true because such extension works in the case of
the differential calculus (see Analysis I, [Po]). So we can directly write
1
1
1
exp(ix)dx =
exp(ix)d(ix) =
exp udu = exp u =
i
i
i
1
= exp(ix) = i exp(ix).
i
=
43
2 I(a, b).
b
b
a
b
So
a
a2
sin(bx) cos(bx)
1 + 2 I(a, b) = exp(ax)
,
b
b
b
a
or
ab
sin(bx) cos(bx)
=
I(a, b) = 2
exp(ax)
a + b2
b
a
1
= 2
exp(ax) [a sin(bx) b cos(bx)] .
a + b2
Another smarter way
to compute this integral is based on the above
ideas. Let J(a, b) = exp(ax) cos(bx)dx and let the complex number
J(a, b) + iI(a, b) = exp(ax) exp(ibx)dx =
1
exp [(a + bi)x] =
a + bi
a bi
exp(ax)
exp(ax) exp(ibx) = 2
(a ib) [cos(bx) + i sin(bx)] =
2
2
a +b
a + b2
exp(ax)
exp(ax)
[a cos(bx) + b sin(bx)] + i 2
[a sin(bx) b cos(bx)] .
2
2
a +b
a + b2
Thus
exp(ax)
J(a, b) = 2
[a cos(bx) + b sin(bx)]
a + b2
exp [(a + bi)x] dx =
44
and
I(a, b) =
exp(ax)
[a sin(bx) b cos(bx)] .
a2 + b2
cos mx =
exp(imx) + exp(imx)
,
2
exp(inx) exp(inx)
2i
and to reduce the computation to a primitive of a complex valued function (of a real variable).
(4.24)
sin nx =
1 + cos 2x
1 exp(2ix) + exp(2ix)
= +
=
2
2
4
=
cos4 x =
one has
1
[2 + exp(2ix) + exp(2ix)] ,
4
1
[6 + exp(4ix) + exp(4ix) + 4 exp(2ix) + 4 exp(2ix)] ,
16
1
sin 3x cos xdx =
32i
4
[exp(3ix) exp(3ix)]
45
E 2. Let In = sinn xdx, where n > 2, and n = 2k is even
(k > 1). If n is odd it is easier to write
sinn xdx = sinn1 x d(cos x) = (1 u2 )
n1
2
du,
by parts
sin x (2k 2) sin2k3 x cos2 x sin2k1 x dx] =
2k1
I2k2 sin
x cos x + (2k 2) sin2k2 x(1 sin2 x)dx I2k =
or
2k 1
1
I2k2
sin2k1 x cos x, k 1,
2k
2k
because it is easy to see that this last formula works even for k = 1.
(4.25)
I2k =
1
sin 2x
1
x
= (x sin x cos x) ,
2
2
2
one has from (4.25) that
3 1
1
4
(4.26)
sin xdx =
(x sin x cos x) sin3 x cos x.
4 2
4
1
n
= n n [exp(inx)
exp i(n 2)x+
2 i
1
n
+
exp i(n 4)x ...].
2
46
So
sinn xdx =
1
n
= n n [ exp(inx)dx
exp i(n 2)xdx+
2 i
1
n
+
exp i(n 4)xdx ...].
2
For instance,
1
exp(4ix)dx 4 exp(2ix)dx +
sin xdx =
16
6
+
dx 4 exp(2ix)dx + exp(4ix)dx =
16
1 exp(4ix)
exp(2ix)
exp(2ix) exp(4ix)
=
4i
4
+6x 4
+ 4i
16
2i
2i !
!
1 1
sin 4x 4 sin 2x + 6x .
16 2
An elementary trigonometric computation tells us that this expression
is exactly that one from (4.26). Moreover, it is more beautiful, because
it has no powers of trigonometric functions! These last ones are "not
desirable" during the integration computation.
1 k sin d;
, where k, h (1, 1) \
2
2
2
(1+h sin )
1k sin
{0} (elliptic integrals). Proofs for such statements belong to very high
Mathematics. It implies deep knowledge of Algebraic Geometry and Algebraic Functions Theory. We note that not all the above
statements
are "independent" one to eachother". For instance, if expx x dx is not
1
an elementary function, then
1 ln x dx is also not an elementary function. Indeed, let F (x) = ln x dx, a primitive of the differential form
1
dx. Let us make the substitution x = exp(t) in this last differential
ln x
form:
1
exp t
dx =
dt.
ln x
t
So a primitive of expt t dt is F (exp(t)) on any interval I which does
not contain 0 (prove it!). But, if F were elementary, then F (exp(t)
47
To compute the length of an arc of this ellipse, one reaches the following
primitive (see Chapter 2, Section 8):
2
a2 sin t + b2 cos2 tdt =
a2 sin2 t + b2 (1 sin2 t)dt =
2
2
2
2
=
b (b a ) sin tdt = b
1 k 2 sin2 tdt,
1 2
c) x2 +a dx = ln(x + x2 + a), a = 0.
d) a21x2 dx = arcsin xa , a = 0.
2
e)
a2 x2 dx = x2 a2 x2 + a2 arcsin xa , a = 0.
2
f) x2 a2 dx = x2 x2 a2 a2 ln x + x2 a2 , a = 0.
g) sin12 x dx = cot x; cos12 x dx = tan x.
48
h) tan xdx = ln |cos x| .
i) cot xdx = ln |sin x| .
j) sin1 x dx = ln tan x2 .
k) cos1 x dx = ln tan 4 x2
sinh x
l) cosh1 2 x dx = cosh
(= tanh x).
x
1
cosh x
m) sinh2 x dx = sinh x (= coth x).
1, if x > 0
2
0, if x = 0 .
n) |x| dx = sign(x) x2 , where sign(x) =
1, if x < 0
2. Use basic formulas, basic properties and basic methods to compute (where your result works on?):
3 2 +2x+1
4 3 x+3x2 1
a) x +
dx; b) x +xx1
dx; c) n 3 2xdx, n = 2, 3, ...;
x
32x 1
x
1
d) x+1
dx;
e)
dx;
f)
dx;
g)
dx;
x
2
2
3
cos2 (5x)
x
+1
75x
exp(2x)
53x
1
1
h) 43x2 dx; i) x 4ln2 x dx; j) 1+cos2 x dx; k) exp(4x)+5 dx;
(
)
1
1
l) x 1+
dx;
m)
dx, where AB = 0;
3x
A2 sin2 x+B 2 cos2 x
(
)
1
1
1
CHAPTER 2
Definite integrals
1. The mass of a linear bar
By a linear bar we mean a closed interval [a, b] and a nonnegative
continuous function f : [a, b] R+ . We call this last function f the
density function of the bar. Let us divide the interval [a, b] into n subintervals [xi1 , xi ], where a = x0 < x1 < x2 < ... < xn = b, i = 1, 2, ..., n.
This last sequence {xi }i of real numbers is called a division of the
interval [a, b]. The greatest length of all of the segments {[xi1 , xi ]},
i = 1, 2, ..., n is said to be the norm of the division . Let us
denote by
(1.1)
f [xi1 , xi ] =
sup
x ,x [x
i1 ,xi ]
{|f (x ) f (x )|} ,
the variation of f over the interval [xi1 , xi ], i.e. the length of the interval f ([xi1 , xi ]) if f is continuous. Recall that a function f : [a, b] R
is uniformly continuous if for any small real number > 0 there is a real
number > 0 such that whenever x , x are in [a, b] and |x x | < ,
one has that |f (x ) f (x )| < . It is clear enough that a uniformly
continuous function is also a continuous one (why?). Since our continuous function f is also uniformly continuous on [a, b] (see [Po], Th.
59), for any small number > 0, one can find a > 0, such that for
any division
: a = x0 < x1 < x2 < ... < xn = b
with < , the variation f [xi1 , xi ] is less then . This means that
one can well approximate the density function f on the subinterval
[xi1 , xi ] with any fixed value f ( i ) of f at a fixed point i [xi1 , xi ].
The set of the fixed points { i }, i [xi1 , xi ], i = 1, 2, ..., n is called
a set of marking points for the division . Thus, the mass of the bar
can be well approximated by the sum:
n
(1.2)
S(f; ; { i }) =
f ( i )(xi xi1 ).
i=1
50
2. DEFINITE INTEGRALS
F 1.
Thus, these sums can well approximate the area of the trapezoid
aABb (see Fig.1) If the set of all these Riemann sums (when and { i }
vary such that 0) have one and only one limit point I(f ), we say
that this number I(f ) is exactly the mass of the bar (think of this intuitively!). Here it was an example which justify the following definition.
We recall that a limit point for a nonempty subset A of R is a point
a of R such that for any small real number > 0 the -neighborhood
(a , a + ) contains an infinite number of elements which are in A.
For instance, {0} is a limit point of the set A = {1, 1/2, 1/3, ...1/n, ...}.
D 3. We say that a function f : [a, b] R is (Riemann)
integrable on [a, b] if there exist a real number I(f), called the definite
b
integral of f from a to b and denoted by a f (x)dx, such that for any
> 0 there is a > 0 with the following property: if is a division
of [a, b] with < , then |S(f ; ; { i }) I(f )| < for any set of
marking points { i } of the division .
b
The above defined number I(f ) = a f (x)dx can be well approximated with Riemann sums of type (1.2). It is easy to see that such a
number I(f ) is unique (do it!). The above definition says that if we
look at a Riemann sum as a function of the division and of { i }, a
set of marking points of , this last defined function "has a limit" as
0 if and only if f is Riemann integrable on [a, b].
51
n
i=1
f( i )(xi xi1 ) = k
n
(xi xi1 ) = k(b a),
i=1
thus all the Riemann sums are equal to the constant number k(b a),
i.e. f is integrable on [a, b] and its integral I(f ) = k(b a).
Even for not complicated functions, to prove the integrability and
to compute directly I(f ), usually is not an easy task.
E 27. For instance, let f(x) = x, x [0, 1]. Then
n
n
S(f ; ; { i }) =
f( i )(xi xi1 ) =
i (xi xi1 ).
i=1
i=1
n
n
xi + xi1
(xi xi1 )+
i (xi xi1 ) =
i
2
i=1
i=1
+
n
xi + xi1
i=1
Since
n
xi + xi1
i=1
(xi xi1 )
(xi xi1 ) =
1
2
and since for any fixed > 0 and for any division with <
n
x
+
x
i
i1
i
(xi xi1 ) < ,
2
i=1
n
i (xi xi1 )
i=1
1
<
2
for any
1 division1 with < . This means (see the definition above)
that 0 xdx = 2 .
52
2. DEFINITE INTEGRALS
T
13. Let f : [a, b] R be a Riemann integrable function.
Then it is bounded, i.e. f = sup |f(x)| is a finite number.
x[a,b]
b
x[a,b]
sup
inf
x[xi1 ,xi ]
x[xi1 ,xi ]
i=1
are called the inferior and respectively the superior Darboux sums associated to function f and to division .
Now, s (f ) and S (f) can be interpreted as the sum of the hatched
areas of rectangles in Fig.2 and respectively Fig.3.
It is clear enough that
(2.2)
53
F 2.
F 3.
is the least upper bound I (f ) of {s }. This last number is called the
inferior Darboux integral of f. Since the set or real numbers {S}, when
runs on the set of all divisions of [a, b], is lower bounded by m(b a)
(see (2.2)), there is the greatest lower bound I (f ) of {S }. This last
number is called the superior Darboux integral of f. There are examples
for which these two Darboux integrals are not equal. For instance, let
f : [a, b] R be the mapping which associates to a rational number
of [a, b] the value 0 and to an irrational number of [a, b] the value 1.
Then, I (f ) = 0 and I (f ) = 1. To make things clearer, let us consider
54
2. DEFINITE INTEGRALS
F 4.
two divisions and of [a, b] such that contains the points of
and maybe some additional other points. We write this as: .
Adding successively to only one point c at a time, we can easily
prove (do it using a picture!-see Fig.5) that:
(2.3)
s s S S .
F 5
Taking now two arbitrary divisions and of [a, b], we can
construct the "least" division = which contains and
at the same time: and . Thus (2.3) becomes:
s s S S ,
55
x[xi1 ,xi ]
(n)
{ i } of
(n)
(2.4)
|I(f ) S(f ; ; { i })| <
4
for any marking points { i } of the division . Take now two sets of
marking points { i } and { i } with the property that:
(2.5)
|S S(f ; ; { i })| < and |S(f ; ; { i }) s | < .
4
4
So, one can write:
S s |S S(f ; ; { i })| + |S(f ; ; { i }) I(f )| +
+ |I(f) S(f; ; { i })| + |S(f; ; { i }) s | < + + + = .
4 4 4 4
Thus S s < for any division with < . We just proved
an implication of the following basic result.
T
14. (Darboux Criterion) f : [a, b] R is Riemann integrable if and only if I (f) = I (f), i.e. if and only if for any small
real number > 0, there is another small real number > 0 such that
if is any division with < , one has that S s < .
for any division with < and for any set of marking points
( i ) of .
R 11. (Riemann Criterion) It is not difficult to prove that
f : [a, b] R is Riemann integrable if and only if there is a real
number I(f ) such that for any sequence {n } of divisions of [a, b] with
56
2. DEFINITE INTEGRALS
(n)
n
ba
2i 1 b a
(2.7)
=
f a+
n i=1
2
n
for n large enough, is called "the rectangle method" (explain why?, by
drawing all...).
S s =
n
i=1
n
i=1
57
T
16. Let f : [a, b] R be a continuous function. Then f
is Riemann integrable.
P. We again apply Darboux Criterion. Let > 0 be a small
real number and let > 0 be another small real number (which depends on ) such that if |x x | < , one has that |f(x ) f(x )| <
(x1 a + x2 x1 + x3 x2 + ... + b) = .
ba
i.e. f is Riemann integrable on [a, b].
<
It is easy to see that the Riemann sums of f and of f" respectively are
the same with the only exception when n = b. In this last case, the
contributions of this marking point to both sums are f (b)(b xn1 ) and
y0 (b xn1 ) respectively. But, when 0, b xn1 0, thus
b
b
both integrals exists or not simultaneously and a f (x)dx = a f"(x)dx.
The same is true if f is not continuous at a, but it has finite side limit
on the right at a. Moreover, if c (a, b) and if f is continuous on
[a, c) (c, b], but it is not continuous at c, but having finite side limits
at c then, using extensions like above for f |[a,c) (f restricted to the
interval [a, c)) and for f |(c,b] respectively, we obtain that both integrals
c
b
f"(x)dx and c f"(x)dx exist. Moreover, it is not difficult to see that
a
b
f (x)dx exists and
a
b
c
b
"
(2.10)
f (x)dx =
f (x)dx +
f"(x)dx.
a
58
2. DEFINITE INTEGRALS
a
c1
cN
Here we clearly put a f (x)dx = 0 if such situation appears. The function f" is the extension of f at the ends of the corresponding intervals
by the values of the side limits of f . Moreover, it is easy to prove from
here that two continuous (but a finite number of points eventually, at
which they have finite side limits) functions f and g, which differs at
most on a finite set of points in [a, b], are or not simultaneously integrable and
b
b
(2.13)
f (x)dx =
g(x)dx.
a
For instance,
g(x) =
is integrable and
x, x =
0, x =
1
2
1
2
, g : [0, 1] R,
1
1
xdx = ,
2
0
0
as we just proved in example 27. The morale is that if the function is
bounded, we do not care with it at a finite number of points from [a, b],
when we are interested in the integration process of this function. For
instance, if
1, x [0, 1)
f (x) =
.
2 x [1, 2]
2
1
2
Since 0 f (x)dx = 0 dx + 1 2dx = 1 + 2 = 3, (see example 26) we do
not care of the value of the function in its discontinuity point x = 1.
g(x)dx =
We can give a more general frame for all of the questions discussed
above, by introducing a new basic notion.
59
n=1 l(In ) as small as we want. This means that for any small real
number > 0, there is
a set (finite or countable) of intervals {In } such
E 28. For instance, if A = {a}, a point, has the L-measure
zero. Indeed, let > 0 be a small real number and let the interval
I = (a /4, a + /4). Since a I and l(I) = /2 < , we get
that the Lebesgue measure of A is zero, i.e. L(A) = 0. It is easy
to see that if B, C are two sets with B C and L(C) = 0, then
L(B) = 0. Moreover, if A1 , A2 , ..., At have Lebesgue measures zero,
then L (ti=1 Ai ) = 0 (prove it!). What happens if instead of a finite set
of L-measure zero sets we have a countable set of L-measure zero sets?
Is their union again a L-measure zero set?
D 6. A mathematical object (a function for instance) has
a property "P" almost everywhere (a.e.) on a subset D of R if the
subset A D of all the points at which this property "P" fails has
Lebesgue measure L(A) = 0.
For instance, if D is a domain in R, a function f : D R is a.e.
continuous on D if the set A of discontinuity points of f has Lebesgue
measure zero. For instance, if A is a finite set of points.
A famous criterion was proved by a French mathematician, Henri
Lebesgue (1875-1941).
T
17. (Lebesgue criterion) Let f : [a, b] R be a function.
Then f is Riemann integrable if and only if it is bounded and the subset
A of [a, b] of all the points at which f is discontinuous has the Lebesgue
measure zero, i.e. if and only if it is bounded and a.e. continuous on
[a, b].
The proof of this result is very technical and it cannot be given
here. One can find it for instance in [Nik], 12.10. We shall apply this
basic theorem in order to prove some other properties of the definite
integral.
T
18. Let f : [a, b] R be a bounded piecewise continuous
function (it is continuous but a finite number of points at which it has
finite sided limits). Then it is integrable.
60
2. DEFINITE INTEGRALS
n
i=1
f ( i )(xi xi1 ),
61
point for f. Finally we get that the set A of the discontinuity points of
|f | is contained in the set B of the discontinuity points of f. Since f is
Riemann integrable, the L-measure of B is zero. Thus the L-measure
of A is also zero (see example 28).
(n)
Let now {n } be a sequence of divisions of [a, b], n : a < x1 <
(n)
(n)
(n)
x2 < ... < xkn = b, such that n 0. Then S(f ; n ; { i })
(n)
I(f ) and S(|f| ; n ; { i }) I(|f|). But
n
(n)
(n)
(n)
(n)
f( i )(xi xi1 )
S(f ; n ; { i }) =
i=1
n
(n) (n)
(n)
(n)
)
f(
i (xi xi1 ) = S(|f| ; n ; { i }).
i=1
b
b
So |I(f)| I(|f |), i.e. a f(x)dx a |f (x)| dx.
In the following we put together some basic properties of the Riemann integrable functions space Int[a, b], defined on a fixed interval
[a, b].
T
21. Let Int[a, b] be the set of all Riemann integrable
functions on [a, b].
a) Then Int[a, b] is a vector subspace of the vector space of all functions defined on [a, b]. Moreover, if f, g Int[a, b] and , R, then
b
b
b
(3.1)
[f (x) + g(x)]dx =
f (x)dx +
g(x)dx.
a
b
d
If [a, b][c, d] = , we define [a,b][c,d] f (x)dx = a f(x)dx+ c f (x)dx.
a
a
b
We also put a f(x)dx = 0 and b f (x)dx = a f (x)dx. With this
notation, let l, m, n be three arbitrary real numbers in the interval [a, b],
then for f : [a, b] R, integrable, one has:
n
m
n
(3.3)
f(x)dx =
f (x)dx +
f (x)dx
l
62
2. DEFINITE INTEGRALS
n
i=1
(n)
(n)
(n)
(n)
b
b
Taking limits here when n , we get that a f (x)dx a g(x)dx.
c) Since the discontinuity set of f on [a, b] is the union of the discontinuity sets of f on [a, c] and of f on [c, b] respectively, we see
that the L-measure of the first one is zero, i.e. f is integrable on
[a, b], if it is integrable on [a, c] and on [c, b] respectively. Let {n},
(n)
(n)
(n)
n : a < x1 < x2 < ... < xkn = c, be a sequence of divisions
(n)
(n)
(n)
(n)
(n)
(n)
(n)
(n)
63
order to prove (3.3). Assume for instance that m < n < l. Then, from
(3.2) we get:
n
l
l
f (x)dx =
f(x)dx +
f (x)dx.
m
So
f(x)dx =
f (x)dx =
f (x)dx
f (x)dx,
l
n
m
m
n
m
n
or l f (x)dx = l f(x)dx + m f (x)dx.
d) Assume that there is a c [a, b] such that g(c) > 0 (if g(x) < 0,
the reasoning is completely analogous). Since g is continuous, there is
an entire interval [c , c + ] [a, b], > 0, such that g(x) > 0 for
any x [c , c + ] (see [Po], theorem 34). Moreover, there is a point
x0 [c , c + ] with g(x0 ) =
inf g(x) (see [Po], theorem 32).
x[c,c+]
c+
g(x)dx+
c+
which contradicts the hypothesis. Hence, g(x) = 0 for any x [a, b].
R 13. We say that a number r R can be well approximated
with elements from a given subset A (the "approximation set") of R if
for any small real number > 0 one can find an element a of A
such that |r a | < . For instance, any real number r can be well
approximated with rational numbers (here A is Q, the set or rational
numbers). Let now f : [a, b] R be a Riemann integrable function.
b
Then I(f ) = a f (x)dx can be well approximated by an element of the
set of all Riemann sums of the form S(f; ; { i }) (see definition 3).
4. Mean theorem. Newton-Leibniz formula
b
In order to estimate a definite integral a f (x)dx, sometimes we
need "mean formulas". They are also useful to prove some basic results
which appear in many branches of pure or applied mathematics.
T
22. (Mean formulas) Let f : [a, b] R be a continuous function and let g : [a, b] [0, ) be a nonnegative and nonzero
continuous function. Then there is a real number [a, b] such that
b
b
(4.1)
f (x)g(x) dx = f()
g(x) dx.
a
64
2. DEFINITE INTEGRALS
In particular, if g(x) = 1 for any x [a, b], we get the classical "mean
formula":
b
(4.2)
f(x) dx = f()(b a).
a
This last formula says that the trapezoidal area [AabB] (see Fig.6)
is equal to the area of the rectangle with the base [a, b] and the height
equal to the ordinate of f at a point [a, b].
F 6
x[a,b]
for any x [a, b]. Let us use now theorem 21 and find:
b
b
b
m
g(x) dx
f (x)g(x) dx M
g(x) dx.
a
Since g(x) is continuous and not identical to zero, one has that
b
g(x) dx > 0
a
b
a
g(x) dx :
65
We use now Darboux theorem (see [Po], Th. 33) for the function f
b
a
f (x)g(x) dx
b
a g(x) dx
= f (),
f (t) dt
F (x) F (x0 )
a
(4.4)
lim
= lim a
.
xx0
xx0
x x0
x x0
x0
f (t) dt =
f(t) dt,
x0
F (x) F (x0 )
f( x )(x x0 )
= lim
= lim f ( x ).
xx0
xx0
xx0
x x0
x x0
Since x is between x and x0 , then x x0 , whenever x x0 . Since
f is continuous, the last limit in (4.5) is f (x0 ). Thus, we just proved
that "the area function" F of Newton is a primitive of f on [a, b].
Let now G be another primitive. Theorem 3 says that G(x) =
F (x) + C, where C is a real constant. Thus,
b
G(b) G(a) = F (b) F (a) =
f (x) dx.
(4.5)
lim
66
2. DEFINITE INTEGRALS
T
24. Let f : [a, b] R be an integrable function and let
b
F be a primitive of f on [a, b]. Then a f (x) dx = F (b) F (a).
But, using the Lagrange formula (see [Po], Ch.4, Cor.5) on the interval
[xi1 , xi ], we find ci [xi1 , xi ] such that F (xi ) F (xi1 ) = f (ci )(xi
xi1 ). Thus,
n
f (ci )(xi xi1 ) = F (b) F (a).
i=1
1
E 30. Let us compute 0 x2 dx. To use Newton-Leibniz for
3
mula we need a primitive function for f (x) = x2 . Since x2 dx = x3 ,
1
3 1
one has that 0 x2 dx = x3 = 13 03 = 13 .
0
x0
0
,
0
x
0
et dt
.
x
determinate case
we can apply lHspital rule. But the function
x t2
2
G(x) = 0 e dt is a primitive of g(x) = ex (see theorem 23). So
2
G (x) = g(x) and our limit is equal to lim ex = 1.
x0
x cos x|0 +
x sin xdx =
x(cos x) dx
by parts
67
1 + sin2 z
2 1 + sin z
2 1 + sin z
2
If in the last integral of the last sum of integrals we make the translation
(change of variable) z z = u, we get
3
2
2
1
1
dz =
2
2 du,
1 + sin u
1
+
sin
z
2
2
because sin z = sin( + u) = sin( u) = sin u. Thus
3
2
2
2
1
1
1
dz
=
2
dz
=
4
2
2
2 dz.
2 1 + sin z
2 1 + sin z
0 1 + sin z
In this last integral we can make the change of variable tan z = t and
obtain:
2
1
1
dt =
4
2 dz = 4
1 + 2t2
0 1 + sin z
0
4
1
4
2t = arctan 2t = 2,
2 d
2 0 1+
2
2t
0
because sin2 z =
t2
,
1+t2
68
2. DEFINITE INTEGRALS
69
m(B) if for any > 0 there are two elementary figures Eint
and Eext
with the following properties:
B Eext
1) Eint
3) m(Eext
) m(Eint
) < .
These three properties say that B is measurable and its measure
(volume) is the nonnegative real number m(B) if and only if B can
be well approximated (or covered) "from interior (inside)" and "from
(m)
(m)
exterior (outside)" by two sequences {Eint }m , {Eext }m of elementary
figures in Rn :
(5.1)
(5.2)
such that
(5.3)
(1)
(2)
(p)
(q)
(2)
(m)
, +
0, q
n 2(n+2)q n 2(n+2)q
2 +1
It is easy to see that this union is a disjoint one, i.e. the intersection
between any two distinct segments of this union is empty. Moreover,
q
(q)
1
1
1
1
the length of Eext is equal to 2n=1 2(n+2)
. Since 2(n+2)
q 1 + q
q 1 3q
2 +1
2
70
2. DEFINITE INTEGRALS
(q)
n=1 [n
1
2ns+1
,n +
1
2ns+1
for any s 1. Since the sum of the lengths of all intervals of this union
is
1
1
1
1
= s
1 = s
ns
2
2 1 2s
2 1
n=1
71
The intersection C =
of [0, 1]. This subset
n=1 An is an infinitesubset
2 n
is called a Cantor subset. Since m(An ) = 3 0, when n , its
measure is zero. In particular its Lebesgue measure is also zero.
A parallelepiped in R2 is simply a rectangular surface (let us abbreviate with "rectangle") with its sides parallel to the coordinates axes
(see Fig.7). Its measure is equal to its area. Using the area of such
a rectangle we can deduce formulas for the areas of a parallelogram,
a triangle or even for a disc (as the limit of the areas of some regular
polygons inscribed in the circumference of this disc). Look at Fig.7.
F 7
Indeed, the area of the parallelogram [EF GH] is equal to the area
of the rectangle [HH JG] = l(EF ) l(HH ). The area of the triangle
[KLM ] is a half from the area of the parallelogram [KLNM ]. To find
the area of a disc with centre at W and of radius R, we approximate
the disc with the surface bounded by a regular polygon with n sides
inscribed in the boundary circle of this disc. Now, the angle , in
radians (see Fig.7), is equal to 2
= n . So the area of the polygon is
2n
equal to n 2R sin n R cos n 12 . Hence, the area of the disc is
lim R2 cos
sin n
= R2 .
n
n
72
2. DEFINITE INTEGRALS
F 8
The intersection of two rectangles which belong to an elementary
figure has no interior points w.r.t. R2 if and only if either it is empty,
it is a point or a segment of a line parallel to one of the axes. For a
plane elementary figure see Fig.9.
In Fig.10 we see how to cover "from interior" with an elementary
figure a general plane figure A.
In Fig.11 we see how to cover "from exterior" with an elementary
figure another general figure A.
In Fig.12 we see the simultaneous process of approximation "from
interior" and "from exterior" with elementary figures Ei and Eo respectively, a general plane figure B.
The measure of a measurable figure A in R2 (a plane figure!) is
simply called its area (A). The areas of a finite union of points or of
a finite union of segments of lines are zero (Why?). The same is true
for a finite union of curves of class C 1 (piecewise smooth curves! ).
R 14. To define the area (A) of a measurable subset A of
R2 we used the above finite unions of rectangles as elementary figures.
Since any rectangle is obvious a union of two triangles (as surfaces!)
with their intersections a segment of zero areas and since any triangle
73
F 9
F 10
can be well covered by rectangles, we can use in definition 7 triangles
instead of rectangles, namely an elementary figure can be a finite union
of triangles. The same is true if instead of rectangles we use discs, or
regular polygons, etc.
A parallelepiped in R3 is an usual parallelepiped [a, b] [c, d] [e, f]
which has its side faces parallel to the coordinate planes. The intersection between two such parallelepipeds contains no interior points w.r.t.
R3 if and only if it is either empty, a point, a segment of a line or a rectangular surface parallel to one of the coordinates planes. The measure
74
2. DEFINITE INTEGRALS
F 11
F 12
vol(A) of a measurable subset A of R3 is simply called its volume. The
volume of a finite set of points, a piecewise smooth curve or a piecewise smooth surfaces (define them by analogy with piecewise smooth
curves) is zero. In this case we also can substitute parallelepipeds with
tetrahedrons, balls, regular polyhedrons, etc.
76
2. DEFINITE INTEGRALS
n
i=1
Mi (xi xi1 )
covers Df "from exterior". The area of this last figure is equal to S (f).
The integrability Darboux criterion (see theorem 14) says that Df is
measurable and its area is the common limit of {s (f )} and {S (f )}
b
when 0, i.e. m(Df ) = a f(x)dx.
Assume now that Df is measurable and its area is m(Df ). Let us
use now theorem 25 and, by looking at Fig.12, we see that for any
s (f )
Eint
Eint
S (f )
Df Eext
Eext
and
(6.3)
S (f )
m(Eext
s (f )
f (x)dx = m(Df ).
E 34. Let f (x) = sin x, x [0, 2]. We are interested in
the computation of the hatched area from Fig.13.
the remark 15 we see that the area of the "+" part is equal
Applying
F 13
and a set of marking points { i }i=1,n , i [xi1 , xi ], then the corresponding Riemanns sum
Sf (; { i }) =
n
i=1
f ( i )(xi xi1 )
is negative, because f( i ) = sin i 0. Thus the area (which is a nonnegative number) is the limit of the following sums
Sf (; { i }) =
n
i=1
n
i=1
f ( i )(xi xi1 ) =
2
= 2. Thus, the hatched area
Hence its value is sin x dx = cos x |2
2
is equal to 4 and it is not equal to 0 sin xdx = 0!.
In general, if f : [a, b] R is continuous almost everywhere (the
noncontinuity set of points A has the Lebesgue measure 0), then the
area bounded by the graphic of f, [a, b] and the lines x = a, x = b is
equal to the hatched area in Fig.14, i.e.
b
(6.4)
area(Df ) =
|f (x)| dx,
a
78
2. DEFINITE INTEGRALS
F 14
E 35. Let us compute area(Df ) for f : [2, 1] R, where
x + 1, x [2, 1),
.
f (x) =
x [1, 1]
x3 ,
Since
x 1, x [2, 1),
x3 , x [1, 0),
|f (x)| =
x3 , x [0, 1],
one has
area(Df ) =
2
0
1
|f(x)| dx =
3
(x )dx +
1
2
1
(x 1)dx +
x3 dx
1
4 0
4 1
x2
x
x
=
+ x +
2
4 1
4 0
2
= 1.
F 15
But whenever on a subinterval [c, d] [a, b], g(x) f (x), x [c, d],
we compute the area "between g and f" by the formula
d
d
[g(x) f (x)]dx =
|f (x) g(x)| dx.
c
Indeed,
areaf,g =
+
c
a
[g(x) f (x)]dx +
[g(x) f (x)]dx +
[f(x) g(x)]dx+
b
e
[f (x) g(x)]dx =
b
a
E 36. Let us compute the area between f (x) = sin x and
g(x) = sin 2x, x [0, ]. The best way is to look at the graphics of f
and g in Fig.17.
Since the intersection points of these graphics are x = 0, x = 3 and
x = , one can write:
areaf,g =
|sin x sin 2x| dx.
0
80
2. DEFINITE INTEGRALS
F 16
F 17
Since a continuous function keeps the same sign between two consecutive zeros of it (Why?-see Darboux theorem in [Po]), the sign of the
function h(x) = sin x sin 2x is the sign of h( 4 ) = 12 1 < 0 on
the interval [0, 3 ]. The sign of h(x) on the interval [ 3 , ] is the sign of
h( 3
) = 12 + 1 > 0. Thus,
4
3
areaf,g =
(sin 2x sin x)dx +
(sin x sin 2x)dx =
0
cos 2x 3
cos 2x
+ cos x |0 cos x | +
=
3
2 0
2
3
1 1 1
1 1 1
11
+ + 1+1+ + + = .
4 2 2
2 2 2
4
Assume now that we have a plane parametric curve
x = x(t)
() :
, x [a, b],
y = y(t)
such that x(t) is an increasing function of class C 1 and y(t) is a nonnegative continuous function (see Fig.18).
F 18
Then the area of the domain D() , bounded by (), the segment
[x(a), x(b)] and the lines x = x(a), x = x(b), can be approximated by
Riemanns sums of the form:
n
(6.5)
S() (; ( i )) =
y( i ) (x(ti ) x(ti1 )) ,
i=1
S() (; ( i )) =
y( i )x ( i ) (ti ti1 ) .
i=1
82
2. DEFINITE INTEGRALS
But these last sums are Riemanns sums for a new function f (t) =
y(t)x (t), t [a, b]. Hence the area above can be computed by the
formula
(6.6)
area(D() ) =
y(t)x (t)dt.
E 37. Let us compute the area bounded by the axis Ox and
the arc of the cycloid
x = a(t sin t)
() :
, t [0, 2],
y = a(1 cos t)
= 2a2 + 0 +
a2
2
F 19
of the disc of radius ( i ) and centre O, bounded by the arc (i1 i ) .
A very known elementary formula says that this last area is equal to
1
[( i )]2 (i i1 ), where i i1 is measured in radians. This last
2
formula is in fact the area of a triangle of basis ( i )(i i1 ) (the real
length of the arc (i1 i ) of that circle) and height ( i ). So the total
area can be well approximated by the following sum
S() (; { i }) =
n
1
i=1
2 ( i )(i i1 ).
But this last sum is exactly a Riemann sum for the function 12 2 (),
[, ]. Hence our area is equal to the corresponding Riemann integral
1 2
(6.8)
area =
()d.
2
84
2. DEFINITE INTEGRALS
F 20
Since the ray OM , M ((), ) covers the double hatched region I two
times the area of the hatched region is:
5
2
1
1 2 2
93 3
2
area =
9 d
9 d =
.
2 0
2 0
4
F 21
E 40. The graphic of the curve = () = a sin 3, where
[0, 2] has the form of a clover with three leaflets (see Fig.22).
Since sin 3 must be greater or equal to zero, we have that
2
4 5
[0, ] [ , ] [ , ].
3
3
3 3
85
F 22
86
2. DEFINITE INTEGRALS
F 23
Hence,
n
(7.1) vol(D)
f (xi1 )2 + f (xi )2 + f (xi1 )f (xi ) (xi xi1 ).
3 i=1
a Riemann sum for the function f 2 , the division and the set of
marking points ( i ). So
b
(7.3)
vol(D) =
f 2 (x)dx.
a
Formula (7.2) says that we can well approximate the volume of the rotational solid D with the sum of volumes of the cylinders Ci , generated
by the rotation of the line y(x) = f ( i ) for any x [xi1 , xi ], around
Ox-axis (see Fig.24).
E 41. Let us find the volume of a ball of radius R > 0, in
3
R.
Sucha ball is the rotational solid generated by the rotation of the
arc y = R2 x2 , x [R, R] of the circle of radius R, x2 + y 2 = R2 ,
87
F 24
around Ox-axis. Thus,
R
2
2
vol =
(R x )dx = 2
R
(R2 x2 )dx =
R
x3
4R3
2
= 2 R x
.
=
3 0
3
x = x(t)
y = y(t) , t [a, b].
(8.1)
() :
z = z(t)
88
2. DEFINITE INTEGRALS
(8.2)
i=1
n
i=1
F 25
Since x(t), y(t) and z(t) are of class C 1 , applying Lagrange formula
to them on each interval [ti1 , ti ], we get
x(ti ) x(ti1 ) = x (ai )(ti ti1 ) x ( i )(ti ti1 ),
y(ti ) y(ti1 ) = y (bi )(ti ti1 ) y ( i )(ti ti1 ),
z(ti ) z(ti1 ) = z (ci )(ti ti1 ) z ( i )(ti ti1 ),
89
n
i=1
x ( i )2 + y ( i )2 + z ( i )2 (ti ti1 ).
n
i=1
(b a) = .
ba
But this sum S1 is a Riemann sum for the function
f (t) = x (t)2 + y (t)2 + z (t)2 .
90
2. DEFINITE INTEGRALS
l=4
2
4
2
4
2
2
9a cos t sin t + 9a sin t cos tdt = 12a
= 12a
|cos t sin t| dt = 6a
E 42. Let M (x) be a moving point on the segment [a, b]
F 26
Let the norm (modulus) of this field be a continuous function f (x),
x [a, b]. If
: a = x0 < x1 < x2 < ... < xn = b
is an arbitrary division of [a, b] and { i } is a set of marking points
of it, then we can well approximate the work of f along the oriented
91
b
that we can well approximate the number I = a f (x)dx with Riemann
sums of the form
n
f ( i )(xi xi1 ),
Sf (; { i }) =
i=1
b
n
ba
2i 1
f (x)dx R(f ; n) =
f a+
h .
(9.1)
n i=1
2
a
i =
This
b formula is called the rectangles formula. In Fig.27 the integral
f (x)dx is just the area of the plane surface bounded by the graphic
a
of f (x), when x [a, b], the Ox-axis and the vertical lines x = a, y = b.
The approximate R(f ; n) from formula (9.1) is exactly the hatched area
of Fig.27, i.e. the sum of the areas of all the rectangles Di , where Di
has as a basis the segment [xi1 , xi ] and as height f ( i ), i being the
midpoint of [xi1 , xi ].
We can also be interested in the error err = |I R(f; n)| . If our
function is integrable, this error becomes smaller and smaller, when
n .
E 43. Let
use the rectangles formula to evaluate the
1 us
x2
definite integral I = 0 e dx. Higher Mathematics show that function
2
f(x) = ex has not any primitive which could expressed by elementary
functions. For an approximate computation, take n = 5; then 1 =
x0 +x1
2
3
4
= 0.1, 2 = x1 +x
= 0.3, 3 = x2 +x
= 0.5, 4 = x3 +x
= 0.7 and
2
2
2
2
5 = 0.9. So,
1
(9.2)
I
[exp (0.01) + exp (0.09) + exp (0.25) +
5
(9.3)
+ exp (0.49) + exp (0.81)].
92
2. DEFINITE INTEGRALS
F 27
But what about the error we just have made in this last approximation?
Let us evaluate the error in the case of rectangles formula (9.1),
when f is a function of class C 2 on [a, b].
For this, we fix an i {1,
the error
xi2, ..., n} and we try to estimate
xi1 +x
i
erri made by substituting xi1 f (x)dx with the area f
(xi
2
xi1 ) of the rectangle which has the basis the segment [xi1 , xi ] and
the height f (ci ), where ci = xi12+xi is the midpoint of this last segment
(see Fig.28).
F 28
93
xi1 + xi
erri =
f(x)dx f
(xi xi1 ) =
2
xi1
xi
|f (ci )| xi
+
=
[f (x) f(ci )]dx
(x
c
)dx
i
1! xi1
xi1
xi
M2 (xi ci )3 (xi1 ci )3
M2
2
(x ci ) dx = 0 +
+
=
2 xi1
2
3
3
xi1 +xi 3
xi1 +xi 3
(x
)
(x
)
M2
h3
M2
i
i1
2
2
=
= M2 =
(b a)3 .
3
2
3
3
24
24n
(9.4)
f (x) = f (ci ) +
Thus
n
i=1
(9.5)
erri n
M2
M2
(b a)3 =
(b a)3 .
3
24n
24n2
err
M2
(b a)3 ,
2
24n
94
2. DEFINITE INTEGRALS
more elementary then the initial one. In our case of rectangles approximation, we substituted f with f" such that f"(x) = f (ci ) for any
2
1
x [xi1 , xi ), i = 1, 2, ..., n. Then we approximated I = 0 ex dx with
b
n xi
n
"
f(x)dx =
f (ci )dx =
f(ci )(xi xi1 ) = R(f, n).
a
i=1
xi1
i=1
In (9.1) we interpolated the function f (x), x [xi1 , xi ] with a polynomial of degree 0, which has the same value as our function at the point
ci = xi12+xi , the midpoint of [xi1 , xi ]. If instead of a polynomial of degree 0, we interpolate f (x), x [xi1 , xi ] with the unique polynomial of
degree 1 (a segment of a line), which has 2 points in common with the
graphic of f, namely the points Mi1 (xi1 , f(xi1 )) and Mi (xi , f (xi ))
(see Fig.29), we get
b
b
I =
f (x)dx
f"(x)dx =
a
n
i=1
xi
xi1
f"(x)dx =
n
area[xi1 xi Mi1 Mi ].
i=1
F 29
ba
2n
(9.6)
n
ba
i=1
2n
[f (xi1 ) + f (xi )] =
95
n
ba
def
=
f (xi ) = T (f, n).
f (a) + f (b) + 2
2n
i=1
This last formula is called the trapezoids formula. One can also estimate
the error err = |I T (f, n)| in this case:
(9.7)
err
M2
(b a)3 ,
12n2
where M2 = sup |f (x)| . For a proof of this last inequality see for
x[a,b]
and smaller (see [GG] for instance). Let us use this last approximation
in order to find an approximation of the integral
b
b
f (x)dx
P (x)dx.
a
96
2. DEFINITE INTEGRALS
This last integral can be easily computed even the degree of P is very
large (we can derive an elementary formula which is a function of the
coefficients of P and of a and b). Thus, the approximate computation
b
of a f (x)dx reduces to an easy task.
Let us reformulate our general problem. Given n + 1 nodes (points,
numbers, etc.) x0 < x1 < ... < xn and a fixed arbitrary set of n + 1
real numbers {y0 , y1 , ..., yn }, let us find a polynomial Ln (x) (here L is
from Lagrange) of degree n such that
Ln (xi ) = yi , i = 0, 1, ..., n,
i.e. the polynomial function Ln (x) is passing through the xOy-plane
points Mi (xi , yi ), i = 0, 1, ..., n (see Fig.30).
F 30
Such a polynomial Ln (x) is called a Lagrange polynomial corresponding to the nodes x0 < x1 < ... < xn and to {y0 , y1 , ..., yn }.
T
27. Given x0 < x1 < ... < xn and {y0 , y1 , ..., yn }, there
is a unique Lagrange polynomial Ln (x) of degree n which is passing
through the points Mi (xi , yi ), i = 0, 1, ..., n.
P. Any polynomial Ln (x) of degree n can be represented as
Ln (x) = a0 + a1 x + ... + an xn ,
where a0 , a1 , ..., an are unknown coefficients. To determine Ln (x) means
to find these coefficients a0 , a1 , ..., an . Conditions Ln (xi ) = yi , i =
97
a0 + a1 x0 + ... + an xn0 = y0
a0 + a1 x1 + ... + an xn1 = y1
............................
.
a
+
a
x
+
...
+
a
x
=
y
0
1 n1
n n1
n1
a0 + a1 xn + ... + an xnn = yn
The determinant of the system is a Vandermonde determinant equal
to %
(xj xi ), which is not zero because xi = xj for any i = j.
0i<jn
Here x0 < x1 < ... < xn are our fixed nodes and let us remark that the
polynomial 0 (x) does not contain the factor (x x0 ), 1 (x) does not
contain the factor (x x1 ), 2 (x) does not contain the factor (x x2 )
and so on. Let us also remark that
(9.9)
T
28. a) The set of polynomials
{ 0 (x), 1 (x), ..., i (x), ... n (x)}
98
2. DEFINITE INTEGRALS
Ln (x) =
y0
y1
yn
0 (x) +
1 (x) + ... +
n (x).
0 (x0 )
1 (x1 )
n (xn )
99
100
2. DEFINITE INTEGRALS
x2i2
and if one uses formula (9.16) to compute each term of this last sum,
one gets
b
ba
[f(x0 ) + f (x2n )+
f (x)dx
6n
a
(9.17)
+4(f (x1 ) + f(x3 ) + ... + f (x2n1 )) + 2(f (x2 ) + f (x4 ) + ... + f (x2n2 ))].
F 31
If we take an equidistant division a = x0 < x1 < x2 < ... < xn = b
and if we interpolate the arc Mi1 Mi , where Mi (xi , f(xi )), with the
Lagrange polynomial of degree 1, i.e. with the segment [Mi1 Mi ], we
get the above discussed trapezoids formula (see (9.6)).
6. Take n = 4 and f(x) = x2 defined on [0, 1]. Then
1 E
x2 dx = 13 . Use the three approximate formulas R(f, n), T (f, n) and
0
101
1
S(f, n) discussed above to approximate the integral 0 x2 dx. Compare
the results with the exact computation, i.e. with 1/3.
10. Problems and exercises
1. Compute the following
definite integrals:
e ln2 x
ln 2 x
e
a) 1 x dx; b) 0
e 1dx; c) 1 lnx2x dx;
2
1
1
d) 0 1+cos
dx;
2 x dx; e) 0
1+cos2 x
2. Prove that if f : [a, a] R, a > 0, f is continuous and even,
a
a
then a f (x)dx = 2 0 f (x)dx.
3. Prove that if f : [a, a] R, a > 0, f is continuous and odd,
a
then a f (x)dx = 0.
4. Prove that if f : R R is continuous and periodic of period T >
+T
0 (this means that f (x+T ) = f (x) for any x in R, then f(x)dx =
T
T2
f(x)dx
for
any
R.
In
particular,
prove
that
f (x)dx =
0
T2
T
f(x)dx .
0
5. Compute the area bounded by the curves (help yourself by drawing everything!):
a)y = x2 , y = x2 and x = 2;
b)x = y 2 and x2 + y 2 = 2, x > 0;
2
2
c) (x5)
+ (y5)
= 0;
16
4
d)xy = 1, y = 2x and y = 12 x;
e)y = x2 4x + 6 and y = 3x2 + 6;
f)y = 25 x and x = 2 y y 2 .
6. The curve y = sin x, x [0, 2 ] rotates around Ox-axis and then
around Oy-axis. Compute the two volumes of the revolutionary bodies
which result.
7. Find the area bounded by the arc of the parabola y = 4x2 , Oxaxis and the lines x = 0 and x = a (a > 0), using only the definition
of definite integral with Riemann sums.
8. Find the area bounded by the curvilinear trapezoid generated
by the hyperbola y = 1/x, x = a, x = b (0 < a < b) and Ox-axis.
9. Let f : [0, 1] R be a continuous function defined on the
interval [a, b] with values in R. Prove that
1
n
1
k
lim
f
=
f(x)dx.
n n
n
0
k=1
Use this formula to compute the following
limits:
1
2
n1
a) S = lim n2 + n2 + ... + n2 ;
n
102
2. DEFINITE INTEGRALS
15 +25 +...+n5
;
n6
n
1
1
1
c) S = lim n+1
+ n+2
+ ... + n+n
;
n
n
n
n
d) S = lim n2 +1
;
2 + n2 +22 + ... + n2 +n2
n
e) S = lim 1+ n2+...+
.
n
n
x
10. Using the fact that F (x) = a f (t)dt
b) S = lim
is a primitive of f (x),
compute:
x sin t
x
x
dt
ln tdt
1+t4 dt
.
a) lim 1x1 ; b) lim 0 xt ; c) lim 0 x3
x1
x0
x0
x
11. Find the graphic of the function f (x) = 0 sint t dt, x R.
A
12. Compute the limits lim 0 eax cos bx dx and
A
A ax
lim 0 e
sin bxdx.
A
15. Find the area bounded by the curve: = a(1+cos 2), [0, ]
(Draw it!).
16. Find the area bounded by the Bernoullis lemniscate: 2 =
2
, 5
].
a cos 2, [ 4 , 4 ] [ 3
4
4
17. Find the length of the curves: a) y = ln x, x [ 3, 8]; b)
x = 14 y 2 12 ln y, y [1, e].
18. Find the lengths
of the following curves:
x = a(t sin t),
a) the cycloid:
, t [0, 2], a > 0,
y = a(1 cos t)
b) the cardioid: = a(1 + cos ), [0, 2] and
2
2
2
c) the astroide: x 3 + y 3 = a 3 , a > 0.
19. Find the volume of the revolutionary ellipsoid determined by
2
2
the rotation of the ellipse xa2 + yb2 = 1, a) around Ox-axis; b) around
Oy-axis.
?
20. Use the formula S = 2 ? y 1 + y 2 dx to find the area of
the parabolic mirror generated by the rotation of the arc of parabola
1
x = 16
ay 2 , y [0, 4a], around Ox-axis.
21. The curve y = a cosh xa (catenary), a > 0, x [0, a] rotates
around the Ox-axis and gives rise to a surface called catenoid. Find
the area of this catenoid.
22. Find the revolutionary areas obtained by the rotation around
the Ox-axis of the a) cycloid, b) cardioid and c) astroide from the
problem 18.
103
x = a cos t
y = a sin t , a, b > 0, t [0, 2].
H :=
z = bt
2
2
a) xa2 + yb2 = 1, x, y 0, x = 0, y = 0; b) y = x2 , y = x, x 0.
104
2. DEFINITE INTEGRALS
32. Use the formulas (see also the chapter with line integrals of the
first type):
2
L =
x2 + y 2 dt,
0
2
x x2 + y 2 dt
xG = 0
,
L
2
y x2 + y 2 dt
yG = 0
L
in order to compute the coordinates of the mass center of the line:
x = a(t sin t)
, t [0, 2).
y = a(1 cos t)
CHAPTER 3
same for any such sequence, we say that Ll (f, b) is the left limit of f at
b. If we take sequences {xn } , xn A, xn > b, xn b then, if the limit
Lr (f, b) = lim f (xn ) exists and it does not depend on the sequence
xn b,xn b
106
and f (ztn ) 3, thus the whole sequence {f(zn )} has not a unique
limit when n . This is why we say that this f has not a limit at 2.
The following theorem makes light on the relation between the side
limits and the limit itself.
T
29. Let A be a nonempty subset of R and let b be a limit
point of A in R. Let us assume that both side limits of f at b exist and
that they are equal to M. Then f has a limit at b and this limit is equal
to M.
P. Let {xn } be a sequence of elements of A which is convergent to b. If this sequence has either a finite terms on the left of b or a
finite terms on the right of b, then the limit of the sequence {f (xn )}is
either Ll (f, b) or Lr (f, b) respectively. Since both these numbers are
equal to M, the limit of {f (xn )} is M in this case. Assume* now+ that
(1)
the sequence {xn } is the disjoint union of two subsequences zkn and
* +
* +
(2)
(1)
ztn such that the terms of zkn are on the left of b and the terms
* +
(2)
of ztn are on the right of b. Here "disjoint" means that these last sequences have no terms in common. Since the
* left limit
+ at b*and the+right
(1)
(2)
limit at the same point are equal to M, f (zkn ) and f (ztn ) are
both convergent to M. Let us prove that the whole sequence {f (xn )} is
convergent to M. For this let us take an -neighborhood (M , M + )
of M. There are two natural numbers N1 and N2 such that if kn N1
(1)
(2)
and tn N2 one has that f(zkn ) (M , M ] and f (ztn ) [M, M +).
Let N = max{N1 , N2 }, the greatest element of the set {N1 , N2 }. Now,
(1)
(2)
if m N, then xm is either a zkn with kn N1 or a ztn with tn N2 .
Thus f (xm ) (M , M + ) in both cases. Hence, f (xm ) M
whenever m and the proof is complete.
107
R 16. Since on the real line R we have two directions around
a given point b, on the left and on the right, we might be inclined to
generalize theorem 29 to the case of a function of many variables, say
of two variables, in the following sense. Let A be a nonempty domain
(open and connected, see [Po] for instance) of the xOy-plane and let
b = (b1 , b2 ) be a limit point of A. Let f : A R be a function of
two variables defined on A with scalar real values. The temptation is
to say that if the limit along any straight line which is passing through
b exists and it does not depend on the direction of these lines (this
means that there exist a real number L such that if {Mn = (xn , yn )} is
a sequence of points on a line y b2 = m(x b1 ) for all slopes m, i.e.
yn b2 = m(xn b1 ) for any n, then f(xn , yn ) has a limit at b). But
this statement is wrong as follows from the example bellow. Let
y
x
3 x+y , if y =
f (x, y) =
,
3
0, if y = x
f : R R. Take b = (0, 0) and an arbitrary line y = mx which passes
through (0, 0). If (xn , yn ) is such that yn = mxn , then
2
f (xn , yn ) =
mxn3
2 0,
1 + mxn3
+B (t n + 1)3 + D (t n + 1)4
n+1
n+1
108
109
110
Conversely, suppose that for any > 0, there is a real number > 0,
such that if two numbers x and x are in A (b , b + ), then the
distance between f (x ) and f (x ) is less than , i.e |f (x ) f (x )| < .
We must prove that f has a limit L at b. For this, let xn b, xn A,
and let fix a small > 0. For this we take that > 0, defined by
111
e
dt,
x
0,
has
a
(finite)
limit
at
b
=
.
Take
for
this
x
and
0
x 0 and let us evaluate the distance between f(x ) and f (x ) :
x
x
2
et dt
et dt = ex ex ,
(1.1) |f (x ) f (x )| =
x
x
where x , x > 1. Take now a small > 0 and choose > 0 large
enough such that if x one has that ex < /2. This is possible
because ex 0, when x . Coming back to formula (1.1) we
finally get that
|f (x ) f (x )| < /2 + /2 = .
Thus Cauchy
works and so f has a limit at . This limit is
criterion
t2
denoted by 0 e dt and its computation will be given in the next two
chapters. It is a first example of an improper (generalized) integral.
112
0
f
(x)dx
+ 0 f (x)dx (see their definitions bellow). If the limit lim
f
(x)dx
exists,
we
call
it
the
principal
value
(pv)
of
the
improper
integral f(x)dx. For instance, take the integral x21+1 dx :
1
1
dx
=
lim
dx = tan1 tan1 () = .
pv
2
2
x + 1
x + 1
D 10. Let f : [a, ) R be a function defined on the
unbounded interval (infinite interval) [a, ) with real values such that
it is integrable on any subinterval of the form [a, x] [a, ). If the
x
new function F (x) = a f (t)dt, F : [a, ) R has a limit L R at
113
1
For instance, 0 1+x
2 dx is convergent because
x
1
lim
dt = lim [arctan x arctan 0] = .
2
x 0 1 + t
x
2
1
Thus, 0 1+x2 dx = 2 .
E 46. (Gabriels trumpet) Let us take a > 0 and f(x) = x1
defined on the infinite interval [a, ). Let us take A > a and let us
rotate the arc of the graphic of f restricted to [a, A] around Ox-axis.
The side surface of the solid obtained in this way is like a trumpet. Let
us make A go to . The "infinite" trumpet obtained in this way is
called a Gabriels trumpet. The infinite area bounded by the graphic of
f(x), x [a, ), the lines x = a and the Ox-axis (see Fig.1)
F 1
is
x
1
1
dx = lim
dt = lim [ln x ln a] = ,
x a t
x
x
a
so this last improper integral is divergent. Let us compute the volume
of the revolutionary solid bounded by the Gabriels trumpet:
x
1
1
1 1
dx
=
lim
dt
=
lim
+
=
.
x a t2
x
x2
x a
a
a
Thus the volume of this infinite solid is finite, namely a . Hence the last
improper integral of the first type is convergent. If a > 0 goes to zero,
the volume goes to . Very strange! The area of a longitudinal central
section of the Gabriels trumpet is infinite and its volume is finite!
T
32. (zero criterion) Let us consider
the conditions and
notation from definition 10. If the integral a f(x)dx is convergent,
then there exists at least one sequence {qn } , qn , such that f (qn )
114
Hence, if lim f (x) exists and it is not equal to zero, then the improper
x
But
n+1
f (x)dx = f (qn )
n=n0
n+1
dx = f (qn ),
n+1
where qn [n, n+1] (mean theorem). Since the series
f (x)dx
n=n0 n
is convergent, its general term f(qn ) converges to zero, when n .
The other statements are simple consequences of the definition of a
limit of a function at ( lim f (x) = lim f (qn ) = 0 for any sequence
x
qn ) and of the basic properties of sequences on a compact interval (see [Po], Weierstrass theorem). Indeed, if f were not bounded,
there exists a sequence {xn }, xn [a, ) for n = 1, 2, ..., such that
f(xn ) (say; you can easily put instead ). If {xn } itself is
bounded, there is a subsequence {xkn } of {xn } with xkn x0 [a, )
(Cesros Lemma, a particular case of Weierstrass theorem, see [Po]).
The continuity of f implies that f(xkn ) f (x0 ). Since {f (xkn )} is a
subsequence of {f (xn )}, then f (xkn ) . The uniqueness of the limit
of a sequence implies that f(x0 ) = , a pure contradiction! Thus the
sequence {xn } is not bounded to . Let {xtn } be a subsequence of
{xn } with xtn . Since lim f (x) = 0, one has that f(xtn ) 0. But
x
Here
is an example of an unbounded function f (x) on [a, ) such
that a f (x)dx is convergent (contrary to a Riemann integral on a
finite and closed interval [a, b]!). Take N large enough such that N a
and define f : [a, ) R, f (N + i) = N + i for any i = 0, 1, 2, ... and
f(x) = 0 for any x
/ {N, N + 1, N + 2, ...}. Using only the definition
of
an
improper
integral
of the first type and theorem 19 we see that
f (x)dx is convergent and it is zero, in spite of that fact that f is
a
unbounded: f (N + i) = N + i , when i .
The following example is a standard example.
115
+ 1 a + 1 + 1
a t
Since lim x+1 is finite and 0 in this case, if and only if + 1 < 0,
x
i.e. > 1.
There is a great number of similarities between the improper integrals of the first type and the numerical series. First of all, for a
function
x f : [a, ) R+ , such that for any x > a the "proper" integral a f (t)dt exists, let us write formally (for a fixed natural number
N a):
N
(2.1)
f (x)dx =
f (x)dx +
cn ,
a
n=N
n+1
and since cos x has no limit at , F (x) has no limit at . Thus the
Since the proof of this result was done in [Po], theorem 21, we omit
it here.
116
For instance, the integral a x1001 +1 dx, a 0, is convergent because
1
the numerical series
n=[a]+1 n100 +1 is convergent (apply the limit comparison test with the Riemann series for = 100 > 1, etc.). To try
to compute directly a primitive for x1001 +1 is a crazy idea! And, if we
know that this integral is convergent but we cannot compute it exactly, where is the practical gain? There is a big one! If we
that
Mknow
1
this integral is convergent we can approximate it with a x100 +1 dx,
where M is a large natural number. But this last integral can be easily
approximately computed by using some specialized software.
If we try to use approximate methods for computing a divergent
improper integral is another crazy idea! This means to obtain different
numerical values which are randomly distributed to . Thus these
values cannot approximate some unknown number!
This is way we need some tests in order to decide if an improper
integral is convergent or not. A basic test is obtained by applying the
Cauchy criterion for limits of functions (see theorem 31).
T
34. (Cauchy criterion for improper integrals I)
Let f : [a, ) R be a function
which is integrable on any finite
interval [a, x] for x [a, ). Then a f (x)dx is convergent if and only
if for any small > 0, there exists large enough
and depending on ,
x
0,
x
x x2 2 x x
x2
when x , x .
This last test is very used to derive other more useful in practice
tests. In many cases the following
test reduces the study of the improper integrals of the first type a f (x)dx to the case of the nonneg
ative function |f(x)| . If the integral a |f (x)| dx is convergent, we say
117
T
35. (absolute convergence implies convergence) Suppose
whenever x , x . Since
x
x
f (x)dx
|f (x)| dx ,
x
x
x
one has that x f (x)dx 0, whenever x , x , i.e. our integral
f (x)dx is also convergent.
a
sin x
For instance, let us prove that the integral I = 1 x2 dx is convergent. We shall prove that it is absolutely convergent. Indeed,
x |sin x| x 1 1
1
dx
dx =
0,
x2 x x
x2
x
when x , x . But
x
x
f (x)dx
g(x)dx 0,
x
x
118
x
so x f (x)dx 0, whenever x , x . Hence a f (x)dx is convergent.
T
37. (limit comparison test) Let f, g : [a, ) R+ be
two functions defined on the interval [a, ) with nonnegative values,
integrable on any subinterval [a, x] [a, ). Assume in addition that
g(x) > 0 for any x [a, ) and that the following limit "exists":
lim f (x) = L R {}.
x g(x)
i) If L = 0, , then the improper integrals a f (x)dx and a g(x)dx
have the same nature, i.e. they are simultaneously convergent or divergent.
ii) If L = 0 and a g(x)dx is convergent, then a f(x)dx is also
convergent.
iii) If L = and a g(x)dx is divergent, then a f (x)dx is also
divergent.
P. i) Take an > 0 sufficiently small such that L > 0 (since
(x)
f and g have nonnegative values, L is nonnegative). Since lim fg(x)
= L,
x
L <
f (x)
< L + ,
g(x)
119
or
(2.3)
(L ) g(x) < f(x) < (L + )g(x).
f (x)
If a f (x)dx is convergent, then f (x)dx and L
dx are also
f (x)
convergent; since g(x) < L , one has that g(x)dx is also convergent
(see theorem 36). Since
g(x)dx =
g(x)dx +
g(x)dx,
a
we have that
a g(x)dx is convergent.
If a g(x)dx is convergent, then
(L + ) a g(x)dx and (L + ) g(x)dx are also convergent. Use
the last inequality of 2.3 and theorem 36 to see that f(x)dx is also
convergent. Since
(2.4)
f (x)dx =
f (x)dx +
f (x)dx,
a
also convergent
so f (x)dx is convergent. From formula (2.4) we get
that a f(x)dx itself is convergent.
iii) If L = , then for any fixed M > 0, there exists a large number
(x)
> a such that fg(x)
> M if x [, ). Since f(x) > M g(x), x [, )
and since a g(x)dx and M g(x)dx are divergent, then f (x)dx
and since
3 2
x +1
lim 1
x
2
x3
=1
x3
T
38. (test p) Let f : [a, ) R+ be a function defined
on the interval [a, ) with nonnegative values, integrable on any subinterval [a, x] [a, ). Let
lim xp f (x) = L R {}.
120
i) If L = 0, and
p > 1, then a f(x)dx is convergent. If L = 0,
and p 1, then a f(x)dx is divergent.
ii) If L = 0 and p > 1, then a f(x)dx is convergent.
p = p .
Test p is very useful in apparently complicated problems. For instance, is it possible to use an approximation like this:
10000
x+1 x
x+1 x
dx
dx?
3
3
x2 + 1
x2 + 1
0
0
x
xp
p x+1
=
lim
=
lim x
3
x
x
x2 + 1
x + 1 + x 3 x2 + 1
= lim
x2
xp
1+
1
x
2
+ 1 x3 3 1 +
1
x2
1
xp
lim 1 + 2 = 0,
2 x x 2 3
approximate integral 0
dx is a Riemann integral and it can
3 2
x +1
be easily approximated by one the usual method described in Chapter
1.
Except Cauchy criterion, all the other tests given above are about
improper integrals of a nonnegative function. Here is a basic and useful test on improper integrals of functions which are not necessarily
nonnegative.
T
39. (Dirichlets test) Let f, g be two continuous functions
defined on [a, ) with
x values in R. Assume that the Newton primitive
function F (x) = a f(t)dt is bounded on [a, ), i.e. there exists a
number M > 0 such that |F (x)| M for any x [a, ). We also
assume that g is a function of class C 1 on [a, ) and lim g(x) = 0.
x
Then a f (x)g(x)dx is convergent.
121
by parts
f (x)g(x)dx =
F (x)g(x)dx = F (x)g(x) |xx
x
Thus,
F (x)g (x)dx
mean f ormula
F (x )g(x ) F (x )g(x )
Take now a small > 0 and let > 0 be large enough such that if
+
f(x)g(x)dx 2M [|g(x )| + |g(x )|] < 2M
= ,
x
4M
4M
if x , x [, ).
h(x)dx.
This last one is "identical" with the initial one because
0
does not matter what we put in x = 0, the value of the integral does
not change if that one is convergent. Since
1
sin x
sin x
sin x
dx =
dx +
dx,
x
x
x
0
0
1
it will be enough to prove that the last integral 1 sinxx dx is convergent.
In order to prove this we apply the Dirichlets test
(x) =
xby putting fcos
sin x, which has the Newtons primitive F (x) = 1 sin tdt =
cos x
bounded by 2 on [1, ), and g(x) = x1 , which is of class C 1 and
122
2
It is enough
x to2 prove that 1 sin x dx is convergent. Let us denote
F (x) = 1 sin t dt and let us change the variable t = u. So
x
2
1 x 1
2
sin udu.
sin t dt =
2 1
u
1
2
Since any real number z [1, ) can be written
1 as z = x for an x
[1, ), it is enough to see that the integral 1 u sin udu is convergent.
Here we apply again the Dirichlets test for f (u) = sin u and g(u) = 1u .
So the first Fresnels integral is convergent. We leave as an exercise
for the reader to prove (in the same way!) that the second Fresnels
integral is also convergent.
xb,x<b
If f is integrable on any subinterval [y, b], where y (a, b], then again
f is integrable on the entire interval [a, b] and
b
b
(3.2)
f (x)dx = lim
f (t)dt
a
ya,y>a
123
P. Since the proof for the second part of the statement is very
similar to the proof of the first part, we shall prove only this last one.
To prove the integrability of f on [a, b] we shall use Darboux Criterion
(theorem 14). Since f is bounded on [a, b] one can choose M > 0 such
that |f (x)| M on [a, b]. Let > 0 be a small positive real number
and let 1 = /2M. Let > 0 such that 1 and for any partition
= {a = x0 , x1 , ..., xn1 = b 1 } of the interval [a, b 1 ] with
< , one has:
S s =
Here Mi =
sup
n1
i=1
f (x) and mi =
x[xi1 ,xi ]
inf
x[xi1 ,xi ]
the partition
(3.3)
of the interval [a, b]. If we keep the above fixed, any partition of
[a, b], < , can be represented as a partition like in formula
(3.3), with a 1 1 , instead of 1 . Thus
S s S s + (Mn mn )1 /2 + M /2M = .
= lim
1 0
0
0
b 1
f (x)dx =
a
lim
xb,x<b
f (t)dt.
For instance, applying this last result we find that the noncontinuous function f : [0, 1] R,
x, if x [0, 1)
f (x) =
,
2, if x = 1
is integrable and
1
f(x)dx =
x2
1
lim
tdt = lim
= .
x1,x<1
x1,x<1
2
2
0
0
We say that a function f : I R, defined on an interval I with
real values is unbounded at a limit point b of I if there exists at least
one sequence {xn } with xn I, xn b such that the sequence {f(xn )}
is not bounded. For instance, f (x) = 1/x , x (0, 1] is not bounded
at 0. We also say that 0 is a singular point for f. We can also write
124
lim 1
x0,x>0 x
lim
dt = lim 2t = lim 2 2x = 2.
x0,x>0
x0,x>0
x0,x>0
t
x
1
For instance, I =
0 1
dx and I2 =
1 3 x
lim
x0,x<0
and
lim
1 dx
1 3 x
1 1
dx
0 3x
x
x0,x>0
dt = lim
x
= ,
3
x0,x<0 2
2
2
t
Thus, I = I1 + I2 = 0.
1
3 3 2
3
dt = lim
x3 = .
3
x0,x>0 2
2
2
t
125
c
b
In the case when at least one of the integrals a f (x)dx or c f (x)dx
is divergent (nonconvergent) one can define the principal value of
f (x)dx
f (x)dx +
f(x)dx .
c+
If this last limit exists, in practice one can work with it, but,...very
carefully, because its value is only a convention.
0
1
For instance, 1 x1 dx is divergent because neither 1 x1 dx, nor
1 1
dx is convergent.
0 x
1
However, the principal value of 1 x1 dx is 0. Indeed,
1
1
1
1
1
dx = lim
dx +
dx =
0,>0
1 x
1 x
x
=
lim [ln ln 1 + ln 1 ln ] = 0.
0,>0
x
a
1
(b x)+1 (b a)+1
dt
=
+
,
(b t)
+ 1
+ 1
126
if = 1, and
1
ba
dt = ln
,
bx
a (b t)
if = 1. It is easy to see that the limit in (3.4) exists if and only if
+1
< 1. In this last case I() = (ba)
.
+1
x
If F (x) = a f (t)dt, x [a, b) is the area function of Newton for
b
function f which appears in the last definition, then a f (t)dt is convergent if and only if the function F : [a, b) R has a (unique) finite
limit at the point b. Thus we can apply the general Cauchy Criterion
(see theorem 31, a)) for the function F and obtain:
T
41. (Cauchy criterion for improper integrals II) Let f :
[a, b) R be a function which is integrable on any finite interval [a, x]
b
for x [a, b). Then a f (x)dx is convergent if and only if for any small
> 0, there exists small
enough and depending on , such that if
x
dx = sin c
dx.
x1
x1
x
x
Thus,
x sin x
dx
2 x 1 + 2 x 1 < ,
x
x1
2
if x , x (1, 1 + ), with = 16
. Here a neighborhood of 1 in (1, 2] is
of the form (1, 1 + ), with small enough.
The similarity with the improper integrals of the first type is now
very clear. Indeed, it is enough to put instead of , the real number b
and instead of the neighborhood (, ) of infinite, with large enough,
the "neighborhood" (b , b) = [a, b) (b , b + ) of b in A = [a, b).
Even the other results relative to improper integrals of the first type
can be transferred almost word by word for improper integrals of the
second type, to be clear, we prefer to present them here with proofs.
127
For
instance,
let us use this last result to prove that the integral
1 sin(
4 x)
I = 0 x dx, with the unique singularity x = 0, is convergent. We
shall prove that it is absolutely convergent. Indeed,
x
x 1
|sin( 4 x)|
dx
dx = 2 x 2 x 0,
x
x
x
x
when x and x go to 0. Applying again Cauchy criterion, we get that
the integral I is absolutely convergent.
Thus, first of all we give some criteria for improper integrals of the
second type of nonnegative functions.
T
43. (comparison test 1) Let f, g : [a, b) R+ be two
functions defined on the interval [a, b) with nonnegative values, integrable on any subinterval [a, x] [a, b), unbounded at b and such
b
that f (x) g(x) for any x [a, b). i) If a g(x)dx is convergent,
b
b
then a f (x)dx is also convergent. ii) If a f (x)dx is divergent, then
b
g(x)dx is also divergent.
a
128
b
a
g(x)dx
T
44. (limit comparison test) Let f, g : [a, b) R+ be two
functions defined on the interval [a, b) with nonnegative values, with b as
the unique singularity and integrable on any subinterval [a, x] [a, b).
Assume in addition that g(x) > 0 for any x [a, b) and that the
(x)
following limit "exists": lim fg(x)
= L R {}.
xb
b
b
i) If L = 0, , then the improper integrals a f(x)dx and a g(x)dx
have the same nature, i.e. they are simultaneously convergent or divergent.
b
b
ii) If L = 0 and a g(x)dx is convergent, then a f (x)dx is also
convergent.
b
b
iii) If L = and a g(x)dx is divergent, then a f (x)dx is also
divergent.
P. i) Take an > 0 sufficiently small such that L > 0 (since
(x)
f and g have nonnegative values, L is nonnegative). Since lim fg(x)
= L,
xb
there exists a small enough > 0 such that a < b and if x [b, b),
then
f (x)
L <
< L + ,
g(x)
129
or
(3.5)
(L ) g(x) < f(x) < (L + )g(x).
b
b
b f (x)
If a f (x)dx is convergent, then b f(x)dx and b L
dx are also
b
f (x)
convergent; since g(x) < L , one has that b g(x)dx is also convergent (see theorem 43). Since
b
b
b
g(x)dx =
g(x)dx +
g(x)dx,
a
b
b
b
1
x(x+1)
lim
1
x0,x>0
x
and since
2
=1
1 dx
x
T
45. (test q) Let f : [a, b) R+ be a function defined on
the interval [a, b) with nonnegative values, with the unique singularity
130
xb,x<b
b
i) If L = 0, and q < 1, then a f (x)dx is convergent.
b
ii) If L = 0 and q < 1, then a f (x)dx is also convergent.
b
iii) If L = and q 1, then a f (x)dx is divergent.
Test q is very useful in apparently complicated problems. For instance, is it possible to use an approximation like this:
1 3
0.99999 3
x +3
x +3
dx
dx?
5
5
1x
1x
0
0
x +3
is not a good idea! Let us
To find an elementary primitive of
5
1x
prove that this improper integral of the second type is convergent and
then everything will be clear (see definition 11).
For this, let us use test q (see theorem 45):
3
q x +3
lim (1 x)
= L = 0,
5
x1,x<1
1x
by parts
f (x)g(x)dx =
F (x)g(x)dx = F (x)g(x) |xx
x
Thus,
F (x)g (x)dx
mean f ormula
131
F (x )g(x ) F (x )g(x )
Take now a small > 0 and let > 0 be small enough such that if
1 sin
3
1x
1 sindescribed
3
1x dx is convergent. Let us use the above Dirichlets test. For
0
1x
1
this we take f (x) = 1x
and g(x) = sin 3 1 x. A primitive of f is
dx =
dx+
I=
3
3
2
2
(x + 1) x 1
1
1 (x + 1) x 1
1
+
dx.
2
(x + 1) 3 x 1
132
both I1 = 0 sin xdx and I2 = 0 ( sin x)dx are divergent. Thus, the
decomposition I = I1 + I2 has no meaning at all!
We end this chapter with a more sophisticated example.
sin x
E 53. Let us see if the following integral I = 0 x+sin
dx
x
exists, i.e. if it is convergent. Let us see what happens on the interval
sin x
[0, ) with function f (x) = x+sin
. It is easy to see that this function
x
could be unbounded only at x = 0. But
3
x x3! + ...
sin x
= lim
lim
= 0,
3
x0,x>0 x + sin x
x0,x>0 x + x x + ...
3!
so that our function is bounded on [0, ) and the integral is an improper
integral of the first type, i.e. it has a singularity only at . Let us write
I = I1 + I2 ,
sin x
sin x
where I1 = 0 x+sin
dx
and
I
=
dx. In order to prove
2
2
x
x+sin x
that I is convergent (divergent) it is enough to prove that I2 is convergent (divergent) because I1 is a proper integral, i.e. an usual Riemann
integral on [0, 2]. And any proper integral is convergent! Let us write
now
sin x
sin x
sin2 x
=
.
x + sin x
x
x( x + sin x)
x
dx we get
Applying Dirichlets test (theorem 39) to the integral 2 sin
x
that this one is convergent. Thus the nature of the integral I2 is the
2x
sin2 x
x( x+sin x)
x
it with an easier nonnegative function g(x) = x(sinx+1)
f(x) =
2x
2x
sin
sin
. It is enough to prove that 2 x(x+1) dx is divergent to
x( x+sin x)
133
2x
conclude that 2 x(sinx+sin
dx is divergent and so I2 would be diverx)
gent. Since the integral
1
1 1 2 sin2 x
cos 2x
dx =
dx
2 2
x( x + 1)
2 2
x( x + 1)
is convergent
(apply again Dirichlets test) and since the integral
1 1
dx is divergent (apply test p for p = 1), from
2 2
x( x+1)
sin2 x
1 1 2 sin2 x
1
1
dx =
dx+
dx,
x( x + 1)
2 2
x( x + 1)
2 2
x( x + 1)
2
2x
we conclude that the integral 2 x(sinx+1)
dx is divergent. Thus I2 and
I are also divergent. This information is very important because it will
be a crazy idea to approximate with something a divergent integral. You
can say "maybe the given integral has something wrong in its form if
somebody
insists to compute it!". For instance, if instead of x one put
4
sin x
3
x the new obtained integral 0
dx were convergent (prove
4 3
x +sin x
this following the same steps as above!).
We saw that there is a close connection between the improper integrals of the first type and the numerical series (see theorem 33). One
has an analogous result for the improper integrals of the second type.
T
47. (series test 1) Let us consider the improper integral
b
of the second type I = a f (x)dx, with the unique singularity at the
point b. We also assume that f is continuous on [a, b). Let us take a
sequence a = b0 < b1 < ... < bn < ... < b such that bn b and let us
bn+1
consider the numerical series S =
f (x)dx.
n=0 un , where un = bn
Then, if the integral I is convergent, the series S is also convergent
and S = I. Moreover, if in addition f has nonnegative values on [a, b),
then the converse statement is also true. Namely, if the series S is
convergent, then the integral I is also convergent and I = S.
We leave the proof of this theorem as an exercise for the reader.
What happens with the above result
if b = .
- For instance, in order
, 1
1
to compute the series 2 n=1 n+1 n , one take the function
1
1
f(x) = 1x
and compute 0 f(x)dx = 2. Hence the series is convergent and its sum is equal to 2. Here we take bn = 1 n1 , etc.
Can we reduce the study
b and the computation of an improper integral of the second type a f (x)dx with the unique singularity at b
to an improper integral of the first type? The answer is yes! Let us
take a small arbitrary number > 0 and let us perform the change of
134
b
1
variables: t = bx
, x = b 1t , in the integral I() = a f(x)dx. Thus
1
I() = 1 f b 1t t12 dt. Let us denote by g(t) the new function
ba
u
f (b 1t )
of t, t2 . Since limI() is the same with lim 1 g(t)dt, the study
ba
0
u
b
135
. Let
M
f (x)dx M |x x | < M
= .
x
M
x ,
dx
a) 1 2x+
; b) 0 x5 +1 ; c) 0
; d) 1 ln x ; e) sin
dx;
3 2
3
4
x2
x
+1
1x
2
3 dx
2 (x2 +1)dx
xx3 +2
f) 0 x7 +1 dx; g) 1
; h) 1 (x+1)
; i) 0 cos(x2 )dx;
3
3
x1
x1
4 dx
(x2 +1)dx
1 dx
a2
b2
dx
, where t > a > b > 0; p) 0 e x2 e x2 dx.
o) t
x(xa)(xb)
a) 1 2x+
;
b)
;
3 2
1 x2 + 3 x4 +1
x
+4x+5
1 1
2
1
c) 0 x 2 (1 x) 3 dx; d) 0 x 2 ex dx;
1 x
8
4
e) 0 ex dx; f) 0 e4x dx; g) 0 tan
dx; h) 0 cos x2 dx.
(4+x2 )
CHAPTER 4
I(t) =
b(t)
f(x, t)dx
a(t)
137
138
1 cos
cos 1
+ =
,
if = 0. If = 0, I(0) = 0. A natural question arises: Is the function I() continuous at 0? Since lim I() =
0
0 l H ospital
=
lim sin
0
0
= 0,
the answer is yes, because I(0) = 0. This example is the easiest possible case which can appear. Usually, the primitive with respect to x
cannot be computed (expressed as an elementary function!) in I(t) =
b(t)
f (x, t)dx, so we need to use other "indirect" computation of this
a(t)
2
integral. For instance, I(c) = c ecx dx, for c > 0 is an improper
integral with a parameter c. Here J = (0, ), K = (0, ), a(c) = c,
the identity function and b(c) = . For any fixed c > 0 our integral
2
is convergent (apply the test p for p = 2). Since any primitive of ex
is not an elementary function (this is a very deep result in Math and
2
cannot be proved in this course!), any primitive of ecx , c > 0, is not
also an elementary function (why?). Thus we cannot directly compute
I(c). In the next section we shall see how to compute such integrals
with parameters
(not
exactly this last one! We shall only compute
c3 1
I (c) = e
1 .
2c
Let us consider in the following only proper integrals with one parameter, because we can ignore all the others parameters while we sepa b(t)
rately work with one of them. Thus, let us consider I(t) = a(t) f (x, t)dx,
t J R, J an interval, a, b : J K R and f(x, t) is integrable
w.r.t. the variable x on the interval K. The first natural question is if
the function I is continuous on J if the functions a(t), b(t) and f (x, t)
are continuous on J and respectively on K J.
T
48. (continuity theorem) With the above notation, if
functions a(t), b(t) and f (x, t) are continuous on J and respectively
139
b(t)
a(t)
f(x, t)dx is
(1.3)
a(t0 )
f (x, tn )dx+
a(tn )
b(t0 )
f (x, tn )dx+
a(t0 )
a(t0 )
b(tn )
f (x, tn )dx
b(t0 )
b(t0 )
f (x, t0 )dx.
a(t0 )
b(t )
a(t )
To evaluate the integrals a(tn0) f (x, tn )dx and b(t0n) f(x, tn )dx we apply
the mean formula (see theorem 22) and find:
a(t0 )
(1.4)
f (x, tn )dx = f(cn , tn ) [a(t0 ) a(tn )]
a(tn )
and
(1.5)
b(tn )
b(t0 )
where cn is between a(tn ) and a(t0 ) and dn is between b(tn ) and b(t0 ).
Since functions a(t) and b(t) are continuous and tn t0 , we see that
the sequence {cn } converges to a(t0 ) and the sequence {dn } tends to
b(t0 ). Since f is a continuous function as a function of two variables,
we see that f (cn , tn ) f(a(t0 ), t0 ) and f(dn , tn ) f(b(t0 ), t0 ). But
a(t0 ) a(tn ) 0 and b(tn ) b(t0 ) 0, so that
a(t0 )
f (x, tn )dx f (a(t0 ), t0 ) 0 = 0
a(tn )
and
b(tn )
b(t0 )
a(t0 )
a(t0 )
140
t0
(1.7)
I (t) =
(x, t)dx
a0 t
for any t J.
P. Let us fix t0 in J and let us evaluate the ratio
b0
[f(x, t) f (x, t0 )] dx
I(t) I(t0 )
= a0
.
t t0
t t0
141
T
50. We assume that all of these last conditions are sat b(t)
isfied for the integral of a parameter t, I(t) = a(t) f (x, t)dx, i.e. I(t) =
b0
f (x, t)dx in our case. Then function I(t) is differentiable and
a(t)
b0
f
(1.8)
I (t) =
(x, t)dx a (t)f (a(t), t)
t
a(t)
for any t J.
142
f
(x,
t
)dx
[f (x, t)] dx
0
I(t) I(t0 )
a(t)
a(t0 )
a(t)
=
=
+
t t0
t t0
t t0
b0
[f(x, t) f (x, t0 )] dx
a(t )
+ 0
.
t t0
The limit of
b0
[f (x, t) f (x, t0 )] dx
a(t0 )
when t t0 is exactly
t t0
b0
a(t0 )
f
(x, t0 )dx
t
(see the proof of theorem 49). Thus, it remains to prove that the
a(t0 )
[f (x,t)]dx
a (t0 )f (a(t0 ), t0 ) +
(x, t0 )dx,
a(t0 ) t
i.e. we just obtained formula (1.8) for t = t0 .
143
Here, we applied
formula
the both derivatives
, (1.8) to-compute
1 x2 -
2
0
e dx and cos t ex dx .
sin t
We are now ready to give the general formula of Leibniz for a proper
integral with a parameter t.
b(t)
T
51. (Leibniz formula) Let I(t) = a(t) f (x, t)dx be an
integral with a parameter t J, where both functions a(t) and b(t)
are differentiable on J and f (x, t) is continuous and of class C 1 with
respect to the variable t. Then the function I(t) is differentiable and the
following Leibniz formula is true:
b(t)
f
(1.9)
I (t) =
(x, t)dx + b (t)f(b(t), t) a (t)f (a(t), t).
a(t) t
a(t)
a(t0 )
b(t0 )
b(t0 )
a(t0 )
b(t0 )
b(t)
f
(x, t)dx.
t
f (x, t)dx
144
b(t0 )
f
(x, t)dx + b (t)f (b(t), t).
t
b(t)
If we make the sum of both sides for these above three formulas we get
a(t0 )
b(t0 )
f
f
I (t) =
(x, t)dx a (t)f (a(t), t) +
(x, t)dx
t
a(t)
a(t0 ) t
b(t0 )
f
t2
3
cos txdx + 2t
+
2
sin
t
I (t) =
=
=
t
t
t t
t
t
sin t3
sin t2
2
+ 2 sin t3 .
t
t
The following result was discovered by the Italian mathematician
Guido Fubini (18791943) in a more general form. This is why it is
called Fubinis theorem. We state this result here in a particular form.
This form is enough for us in the following applications.
=
T
52. (Fubinis theorem) Let K = [a, b] and J = [c, d] be
two real closed intervals and let f : K J R be a continuous function
f(x, t) of two variables. Then
b d
d b
(1.12)
f(x, t)dt dx =
f (x, t)dx dt.
a
145
F (u) =
f (u, t)dt, G (u) =
f (u, t)dt.
c
Thus, F (u) = G (u) for any u [a, b]. Hence F (u) = G(u) + C, where
C is a constant w.r.t. u. Let us put u = a and find F (a) = G(a) + C
and, since F (a) = G(a) = 0, we find that C = 0, i.e. F (u) = G(u) and
the first proof is completed. Here is another proof. We present it at
an intuitive level. But, by using the uniform continuity of f, one can
improve it up to a corect mathematical proof.
2) Let us consider two arbitrary divisions
x : a = x0 < x1 < ... < xn = b
and
t : c = t0 < t1 < ... < tm = d
n
i=1
J( i )(xi xi1 ),
146
d
In the same manner we can prove that M2 = c L(t)dx can be well
approximate with double sums of the form
m
n
f( i , j )(xi xi1 )(tj tj1 ).
(1.15)
j=1 i=1
Since the sum and the product are commutative we see that the above
double sums are equal. Hence the numbers M1 and M2 can be well
approximate by the one and the same set of numbers of the form
n
m
f( i , j )(tj tj1 )(xi xi1 ).
i=1 j=1
is called a Riemann double sum for the function f. If all this double
sums becomes closer and closer to a number I, we say that I is the
double integral of f on the rectangle D. Write I =
f (x, t)dxdt.
D
147
b d
d b
f (x, t)dxdt =
f (x, t)dt dx =
f (x, t)dx dt.
D
148
149
tu
of K. Weierstrass. Namely, let us put instead of arctan
a greater
u(u+1)
function h(u) which does not contain the parameter t at all
and then try
to prove the Cauchy criterion for the improper integral 1 h(u)du. In
tu
1
1
deed, since arctan
2 u(u+1)
, h(u) = 2 u(u+1)
and, since the improper
u(u+1)
1
integral (without a parameter) 2 1 u(u+1) du is convergent (apply test
p with p = 2), so the Cauchy criterion condition works, one has that
for any small > 0 there exists M > 0 such that if x , x > M we get
1
x
du < . Thus, since
2
x u(u+1)
x arctan tu x arctan tu
x
1
du
du
du
<
u(u + 1)
x u(u + 1)
2
u(u
+
1)
x
x
x
tu
du
we obtain that x arctan
< for any x , x > M. Hence
u(u+1)
g(t) =
arctan tu
du =
u(u + 1)
arctan tu
du +
u(u + 1)
arctan tu
du
u(u + 1)
xb
xb
Since f has a uniform limit g(t) at b, for a fixed small > 0, there is
a neighborhood Vb of b in K (see the above definition of this notion!)
such that
(2.3)
|g(t) f (x, t)| < , and |f (x, t0 ) g(t0 )| <
3
3
150
for any x Vb and for any t J. Now let us fix such an x0 Vb and
write again the inequality (2.2) for x = x0 :
(2.4)
|g(t) g(t0 )| |g(t) f(x0 , t)|+|f(x0 , t) f (x0 , t0 )|+|f(x0 , t0 ) g(t0 )| .
(2.5)
|f (x0 , t) f(x0 , t0 )| < .
3
Let us use the three inequalities (2.3) and (2.5) in the evaluation (2.4)
to finally obtain:
|g(t) g(t0 )| <
for any t J with t t0 < . But this exactly means the continuity
of the function g at t0 .
arctan tu
E 56. Let us take the function g(t) = 0 u(u+1) du (this
is an improper integral with a parameter
x t, seetuthe definition bellow)
obtained as a uniform limit of f(x, t) = 0 arctan
du when x and
u(u+1)
let us compute
arctan tu
limg(t) = lim
du.
t0
t0 0
u(u + 1)
Since g is continuous (see the last theorem above), we can write 0 =
g(0) = limg(t). Thus this limit is equal to 0. We simply put x = 0
t0
under the integral sign. But, we must be very careful and not to do this
before you did not prove that the limit is uniform!
a
lim
du =
du = ln
.
t a
u(u + 1)
u(u + 1)
2 a+1
a
(What happens when a 0?).
The above theorem is sometimes used to decide if a limit is uniform
or not. For instance, take f(x, t) = tx , where x R and t (0, 1]. If
g(t) = lim f (x, t), it it easy to see that
x
0, if t < 1
g(t) =
.
1, if t = 1
Since this function in not a continuous function, the above limit cannot
be uniform with respect to the parameter t. This is also a counterexample to the fact that the hypothesis on limit to be a uniform one is
necessary.
151
T
55. (integration theorem)Let K and J be real intervals,
let b be a limit point of K and let f : K J R, f (x, t), be a function
which has a uniform limit g(t) at b, relative to the parameter t. Assume
that [a, c] is an interval contained in J and that f is continuous with
respect to t on [a, c]. Then g is integrable on [a, c] and
c
c
(2.6)
g(t)dt = lim
f(x, t)dt,
xb
or
(2.7)
lim
xb
f (x, t)dt =
a
a xb
f (x, t)dt
g(t)dt
|f (x, t) g(t)| dt <
dt = .
ca a
a
a
a
c
c
Thus a f (x, t)dt a g(t)dt < for
cany x Vb and
c for any t J.
But this is equivalent to saying that a g(t)dt = lim a f (x, t)dt.
xb
0 x
for any fixed t in [0, 1]. If this limit were a uniform one, then formula
(2.6) would be true. But,
1
1
1 xt2
1
xt2
lim
xte
dt = lim e
=
= 0.
x 0
x
2
2
0
Thus the limit cannot be uniform. To directly prove that this limit
is not uniform w.r.t. t is not an easy task. Hence the condition of
uniformity in the last theorem is necessary.
T
56. (differentiation theorem) Let K and J be real intervals, let b be a limit point of K and let f : K J R, f (x, t), be a
152
We can now apply the above theory to our main topic, improper
integrals with parameters. What is such an integral? Assume that
b(t)
in the symbolic expression of an integral I(t) = a(t) f (x, t)dx, with
a parameter t J, one of the functions a(t) or b(t) is a constant b
R{} (we just fixed b(t) to be a constant!) and for any t J, on the
b
interval [a(t), b] , b is a singular point for the integral a(t) f (x, t)dx and
it is unique with this property. Such an integral is called an improper
integral with a parameter t. The same definition can
given for many
be
arctan tx
parameters instead of one. For instance, I(t) = t x(x+1) dx, t > 0,
1 tx
dx are improper integrals with a parameter t. In the
or I(t) = 0 sin1x
first example, b = and the improper integral is of the first type.
In the second case, b = 1 and the improper integral is of the second
type. To study such an integral, we simply need to study
b the nature
of a limit at the singular point b. Namely, let I(t) = a(t) f (x, t)dx
with b as the unique singular point. In fact, I(t) = limF (x, t), where
xb
x
F (x, t) = a(t) f (u, t)du. If for any fixed t J, this limit exists, i.e. the
b
usual improper integral a(t) f (x, t)dx is convergent, we say that our
improper integral with parameter t is simple convergent. If the limit
x
I(t) = limF (x, t) = lim
f (u, t)du
xb
xb
a(t)
153
a(t)
a(t)
I (t) =
a(t)
f
(x, t)dx a (t)f (a(t), t),
t
154
b
e) (Weierstrass test) Let I(t) = a f (x, t)dx, a R, be an improper
integral with a parameter t and with singularity b. If there exists a
function s(x), s : K R such that |f (x, t)| s(x) for any x K,
b
t J and if the improper integral a s(x)dx is convergent, then I(t) is
uniformly convergent.
P. Let us prove for instance Leibniz formula d).
x
b
Let F (x, t) = a(t) f (u, t)du. Since the integral I(t) = a(t) f (x, t)dx
is convergent, the function F (x, t) has as a limit at b, exactly the funcb
tion I(t). Since the integral H(t) = a(t) f
(x, t)dx is uniformly convert
x f
gent, the function L(x, t) = a(t) t (u, t)du has as a uniform limit the
function H(t). Applying theorem 56 we get that
x
F
f
I (t) = lim
(x, t) = lim
(u, t)du a (t)f(a(t), t) =
xb t
xb
a(t) t
b
f
(x, t)du a (t)f (a(t), t).
=
t
a(t)
x
Here we just applied Leibniz formula for the proper integral a(t) f(u, t)du
with parameter t.
Let us prove now Weierstrass test e). In order to prove that the
b
improper integral I(t) = a f(x, t)dx with parameter t is uniformly
convergent, we use Cauchy criterion a) of the same theorem. Let > 0
be a small real number and let Vb be a neighborhood
of b in K such
x
that for any x , x Vb one has x s(x)dx < (here we used the
b
fact that the improper integral a s(x)dx is convergent). Since
x
x
x
f (x, t)dx
|f(x, t)| dx
s(x)dx < ,
x
x
x
x
we finally derive that x f (x, t)dx < for any x , x Vb . Applying
again the Cauchy criterion a), we get that the integral I(t) is uniformly
convergent.
Let us use Leibniz formula d) of this last theorem (for improper in
tx
tegrals with a parameter) to compute the integral I(t) = 0 arctan
dx,
x(1+x2 )
t > 0. We can easily see that this integral is uniformly convergent (for
applying Leibniz formula this is not necessarily!). To see this we write
arctan tx
1
x(1 + x2 ) 2 x(1 + x2 ) .
155
1
Since the improper integral 2 1 x(1+x
2 ) dx is convergent (apply pwith p = 3), Weierstrass test e) in the above theorem says that
test
arctan tx
tx
dx is uniformly convergent. Since lim arctan
= t, the in2
1 x(1+x2 )
x0 x(1+x )
1 arctan tx
tegral 0 x(1+x2 ) dx is a proper integral. It is easy to see that a sum
between a proper integral and an uniformly convergent improper integral is also an uniformly convergent improper integral (prove this!).
Thus
1
arctan tx
arctan tx
arctan tx
I(t) =
dx =
dx +
dx
2
2
x(1 + x )
x(1 + x2 )
0
0 x(1 + x )
1
is an uniformly convergent integral. We also need that the integral
arctan tx
1
dx =
dx
H(t) =
2
2
t x(1 + x )
(1 + x )(1 + t2 x2 )
0
0
of the derivative function with respect to t be uniformly convergent.
Since
1
1
1
dx =
dx+
2
2
2
2
2 2
(1 + x )(1 + t x )
0
0 (1 + x )(1 + t x )
1
+
dx
2
(1 + x )(1 + t2 x2 )
1
1
1
and since 0 (1+x2 )(1+t
2 x2 ) dx is a proper integral for t = 0, it is sufficient
1
to prove that 1 (1+x2 )(1+t
2 x2 ) dx is uniformly convergent. Since
1
(1 +
x2 )(1
t2 x2 )
1
1 + x2
1
and since 1 (1+x
2 ) dx is convergent (test p for p = 2), applying again
1
Weierstrass test e) we get that 1 (1+x2 )(1+t
2 x2 ) dx is uniformly convergent. Now we can apply Leibniz formula for a(t) = 0 and b = :
1
I (t) =
dx.
2
(1 + x )(1 + t2 x2 )
0
But
1
1
1
t2
1
=
2
2
2
2
2
2
(1 + x )(1 + t x )
1t 1+x
1 t 1 + t2 x2
for any t = 1. Thus,
1
1
t2
1
I (t) =
dx
dx =
2
2
2
1t 0 1+x
1 t 0 1 + t2 x2
1
t
1
=
arctan x|
arctan tx |
.
0 =
0
2
2
1t
1t
21+t
156
the uniform convergence of the integral I(t) = 1 sinx2tx dx. For this, let
> 0 be a small real number and let M > 0 be a sufficiently large real
x
number such that if x , x > M then x x12 dx < (here we use the
fact that the integral 1 x12 dx is convergent, see test p). But
x
x sin tx x |sin tx|
1
dx
dx
dx <
2
2
2
x
x
x
x
x x
for any x , x > M. Thus, the Weierstrass test e) tells us that the
E 57. Let us compute the value of the following integral
with two parameters and :
x2
2
e
ex
dx, , > 0.
(2.9)
I(, ) =
x
0
Since
2
2
2
2
ex ex
0
2xex 2xex
lim
= = lim
= 0,
x0
x
0 x0
1
for any fixed and , the integral has only b = as a singularity.
Considering successively I(, ) as an integral with a parameter and
then, with a parameter respectively, we can apply Leibniz formula
separately for and respectively. Let us prove the simple convergence
of I(, ). Since
lim x
x2
2e
x2
2e
= 0, lim x
= 0,
x
x
x
if , > 0, the p-test with p = 2 gives us the simple convergence of
I(, ). We need now the uniform convergence of
2
2
I
ex ex
2
=
dx =
xex dx.
x
0
0
x
157
For any fixed 1 > 0, this last integral is uniformly convergent on the
interval J = [1 , ). Indeed,
2
2
x2
xe
= xex xe1 x
2
and 0 xe1 x dx is convergent (apply test p for p = 2), thus applying
again
test e) of theorem 57 we obtain that the integral
Weierstrass
x2
0 xe
dx is uniformly convergent w.r.t. . In the same way we
can prove that the integral
2
2
I
ex ex
2
=
dx =
xex dx
x
0
0
is uniformly convergent on any interval [ 1 , ) with respect to if
1 > 0 is fixed. Thus
1 x2
1
I
x2
(2.10)
xe
dx =
=
=
e
2
2
0
0
and
1 x2
1
I
x2
=
xe
dx = e
=
.
(2.11)
2
2
0
0
Integrating with respect to in the equality (2.10) we get
1
I(, ) = ln + C().
2
Let us introduce this expression of I(, ) in formula (2.11):
1
,
C () =
2
so C() =
Hence
1
2
1
1
1
I(, ) = ln + ln + k = ln + k.
2
2
2
We see that if = , I(, ) = 0 = k. Finally, I(, ) = 12 ln .
This last example can be generalized in the following form.
T
58. (Froullanis integrals) Let f : [0, ) R be a continuous bounded function with f () = . For any 0 < a < b we define
f (ax) f (bx)
I(a, b) =
dx.
x
0
a) Then the integral is simply convergent and
b
(2.12)
I(a, b) = [f (0) f ()] ln .
a
158
Since
and
a
a
f (z)
dz =
z
f (z)
dz =
z
f (z)
dz +
z
f(z)
dz +
z
f(z)
dz +
z
f (z)
dz +
z
a
a
f (z)
dz
z
f (z)
dz,
z
Let us apply now the mean formula of theorem 22 to both of these last
integrals. We obtain
f (ax) f (bx)
b
dx = [f () f ()] ln ,
(2.14)
x
a
or
f (bx) f (ax) = f (cx) x (b a),
159
Since (b a) 0 g(x)dx is convergent, Weierstrass test c) of theorem
(bx)
57 tells us that I(a, b) = 0 f (ax)f
dx is uniformly convergent.
x
For instance,
I(a, b) =
arctan ax arctan bx
a
dx = ln .
x
2 b
(= g(x))
1 + x2 t2
1 + x 2 2
for any t [, M ] with [a, b] [, M ] and 0 1+x12 2 dx is convergent,
we see that I(a, b) is uniform convergent on [, ) for any fixed > 0.
But not always one can use Froullanis formula (2.12) even the integral
is of the same form. For instance,
cos ax cos bx
dx, 0 < a < b.
I(a, b) =
x
0
f (xt) =
160
and 0 ekx dx is convergent, we can write (Leibnizs formula):
(2.15)
J
a
=
ekx sin axdx = 2
(compute it two times by parts).
a
a + k2
0
Thus
a
1
da = ln(a2 + k 2 ) + C(k).
2
+k
2
Making a 0, because of the continuity of J (a, k) w.r.t. a (here we
use the uniform continuity of J relative to a and theorem 57 b)), one
has that 0 = ln k + C(k), or C(k) = ln k. Thus
a2 + k 2
J(a, k) = ln
.
k
If instead of a we put b, we get
1 cos bx kx
b2 + k 2
e dx = ln
.
x
k
0
J(a, k) =
a2
But
cos ax cos bx kx
e dx =
x
0
b2 + k 2
a2 + k 2
b2 + k 2
ln
= ln
= ln
k
k
a2 + k 2
for any a, b, k > 0. Since for any k [, ), with > 0, the integral
I(a, b, k) is uniformly convergent w.r.t. k
cos ax cos bx kx cos ax cos bx x
(
e
e and
x
x
cos ax cos bx x
e dx is convergent),
x
0
fixing a k0 > 0 and taking 0 < < k0 , we can apply again theorem 57
and find that I(a, b, k) is continuous at k0 as a function of k. Now we
can make k 0 in the equality
cos ax cos bx kx
b2 + k 2
(2.16)
e dx = ln 2
x
a + k2
0
cos axcos bx
and finally find that 0
dx = ln ab for any a, b > 0. Is this
x
last integral uniform convergent with respect to the parameters a and
b ? To use formula 2.16 it is not a good idea because the integral
I(a, b, k) is uniformly convergent w.r.t. k only on any interval of the
I(a, b, k) =
161
type [, ) and not on the entire interval (0, ). We shall prove now
that the integral
b
cos ax cos bx
I(a, b) =
dx = ln
x
a
0
is not uniformly convergent w.r.t. a and b (simultaneously), where
a, b (0, ). Suppose it is uniformly convergent. Applying theorem 57
1
b) we get for a = 2n
, b = n1 and n that 0 = ln 2, a contradiction!
Thus our integral cannot be uniformly convergent on (0, ). It is an
open problem for me if this integral is uniformly convergent on any
interval of the type [, ), where > 0. But on intervals of the type
[, M ], 0 < < M ? These informations could not help us to compute
the integral by Leibniz formula because the integral
cos ax cos bx
dx =
sin axdx
a
x
0
0
is not convergent!
E 58. (Dirichlets integral) The following integral with a
parameter ,
sin x
I() =
dx
x
0
x
0
0
which is divergent! This is why Weierstrass invented an indirect method
to compute this integral. To force the convergence to (0 is not a
singular point!), Dirichlet considered the following more complicated
integral with two parameters , :
sin x
(2.17)
D(, ) =
ex
dx, > 0, R.
x
0
It is easy to see that we can reduce ourselves to the case > 0. It is also
clear that the integral D(, ) is uniformly convergent if [0 , ),
162
x sin x
T () =
e
dx =
ex cos xdx = 2
x
+ 2
0
0
x sin x
=
e
dx = 2
.
x
+ 2
0
Integrating with respect to we get:
sin x
dx = arctan + C().
D(, ) =
ex
x
The uniform continuity w.r.t. > 0 makes D(, ) a continuous function of ((see theorem 57 b)). Thus D(, 0) = 0 = C() for any
> 0. Hence we finally obtain
sin x
(2.18)
D(, ) =
ex
dx = arctan .
x
163
2
x
x
sin 5x
sin2 5u
1
2
I=
dx = lim
du = lim
sin 5u
du =
2
2
x 0
x
u
x 0
u
0
x
x
1
sin 5u cos 5u
2
lim sin 5u 10
du .
x
u 0
u
0
(2.20)
Since
sin2 5u
sin 5u
lim
= 5lim
lim sin 5u = 5 1 0 = 0,
u0
u0 5u
u0
u
x sin 5u cos 5u
x sin 10u
2
1 x
sin2 5x
du
=
5
du. Thus the
sin 5u u 0 = x and 10 0
0
u
u
value of I from (2.20) becomes
sin2 5x
sin 10u
5
du.
I = lim
x
x
u
0
sin2 5x
Since x x1 , we find that the limit is equal to 0. Looking at the
Dirichlets integral we see that 0 sinu10u du = 2 (here = 10). Thus,
I = 5
.
2
Let us integrate this last equality with respect to u and then let us change
the order of integration (see Fubinis theorem for improper integrals,
theorem 57 c); verify the uniform convergence!):
2 2
u2
2
u2
J
e du = J =
ue du
eu t dt =
=
u2 (t2 +1)
e
u du dt =
=
1
2
1
(1+t2 )u2
e
dt =
2(t2 + 1)
0
1
1
dt = arctan t |
.
0 =
2
1+t
2
4
164
Hence
(2.21)
J=
If we put x =
get
(2.22)
x2
dx =
2
tu2
1
.
du =
t 2
60. (Fresnels
integrals) The following integrals I1 =
E
2
sin x dx and I2 = 0 cos x2 dx are called Fresnels integrals. Let
0
us see that I1 is convergent and then
A we 2shall compute it. Since I1 =
A
2
lim
sin x dx, let us evaluate 0 sin x dx. Let us change the variA 0
ut2
e
dt = 1u 2 (see formula (2.22)), we can put instead of 1u in
0
2
formula (2.23) the expression 2 0 eut dt. Thus we get
sin u ku
1
ku
ut2
e du =
J1 (k) =
e
sin u
e
dt du =
2 u
0
0
0
165
1
u(k+t2 )
=
sin u e
dt du.
0
0
We now apply Fubini theorem (see theorem 57 c)) to change the order
of integration:
1
u(k+t2 )
sin u e
du dt.
J1 (k) =
0
0
a
From formula (2.15), 0 ekx sin axdx = a2 +k
2 , we get
1
2
sin u eu(k+t ) du =
.
1 + (k + t2 )2
0
Thus
1
1
J1 (k) =
dt.
0 1 + (k + t2 )2
The continuity of J1 (k) on [0, ) finally implies that
sin u
1
1
du =
(2.24)
I1 = J1 (0) =
dt.
2 u
0 1 + t4
0
1
1
To compute 0 1+t
4 dt we need the decomposition of 1+t4 into simple
fractions. Since
2
t4 + 1 = t2 + 1 2t2 = (t2 + 1 t 2)(t2 + 1 + t 2),
we get
1
At + B
Ct + D
+
,
=
4
2
2
1+t
t +1t 2 t +1+t 2
where A = 21 2 , C = 21 2 , B = D = 12 . Hence
1
A
(2t 2)
A + 2B
1
dt+
dt
+
dt
=
1 + t4
2
t2 + 1 t 2
2
t2 + 1 t 2
C
(2t + 2)
B 2C
1
dt +
dt =
+
2
t2 + 1 + t 2
2
t2 + 1 + t 2
1
t2 + 1 + t 2 1
1
1
= ln
d t +
2
4 2 t2 + 1 t 2 4
2
t 12 + 12
1
1
1
1
t2 + 1 + t 2
+
d t+
= ln
+
2
4
2
4 2 t2 + 1 t 2
t + 12 + 12
1
1
+ 2 tan1 ( 2t 1) + 2 tan1 ( 2t + 1).
4
4
166
Thus,
,
1
2
dt
=
0
+
+ +
= .
4
1+t
4 2
4
2
4
2 2
0
1
f
(x, cx,tn )(tn t0 ),
t
b
b
a
f
(x, cx,tn )dx
t
I(, ) =
1
167
x x
dx,
ln x
It is sufficient to prove that any of this last two integrals are proper
integrals (do it!). Thus I(, ) is a proper integral and
1
1
1
x x
t
t
dx =
x dt dx =
x dx dt =
ln x
0
0
0
=
1
xt+1
1
+1
dt =
dt = ln
.
t+1 0
+1
t+1
Here we just applied Fubini theorem 52, because all integrals which
appear can be considered proper integrals.
3. Eulers functions gamma and beta
A polynomial function, P (x) = a0 + a1 x + ... + an xn , x R, a0 , ...an
P (x)
are fixed real numbers, a rational function R(x) = Q(x)
, where P (x),
Q(x) are polynomial functions, an exponential function f (x) = ax ,
a > 0, a = 1, a logarithmic function f (x) = loga x, x > 0, a > 0, a = 1,
a power function f(x) = x , x > 0, R, a trigonometric function
f(x) = sin x, cos x, tan x, cot x, or their inverses, a composition of
these previous ones, all of these functions are called elementary functions. We know that all these elementary functions are very useful in
many branches of applied mathematics. The first function which is not
elementary but is very useful in many applications of mathematics is
the gamma function of L. Euler (1707 1783). It is also called Eulers
function of the second type. Its formal definition is the following:
D 13.
(3.1)
(x) =
We see that this function is in fact an improper integral with a parameter x. In this case we must begin with a proof of its existence. We
shall prove something more.
T
59. As an
improper integral with a parameter x, the
gamma function (x) = 0 tx1 et dt, x (0, ) is uniformly convergent on every closed subinterval [, M] (0, ). In particular, it is
168
P. Since for k = 0 in formula (3.2) we obtain the definition formula (3.1), we fix a k in N and we shall prove the statement
of
for a more general case of improper integral (k) (x) =
theorem
x1
t (ln t)k et dt, x (0, ) with parameter t. Let us formally write:
0
(k)
(k)
where
(k)
1 (x)
and
(k)
2 (x)
If we could prove that these two last improper integrals with parameter
x are uniformly convergent on [, M ], their sum (k) (x) would also be
(k)
uniformly convergent on the same interval. Let us start with 1 (x). It
is an improper integral of the second type with a singular point t = 0.
Since
k
x1
1
k
k
t
1
t
1
t (ln t) e t |ln t| e = t
ln
et ,
t
applying Weierstrass test e) of theorem 57, it will be enough to prove
1
k
the convergence of the integral 0 t1 ln 1t et dt. We can assume
that is sufficiently small (we prove the uniform convergence on a
larger interval if we diminish !), for instance that 0 < < 1. Let us fix
now a number q such that 0 < q < 1, q + 1 > 0 and another small
number with 0 < < q1+
. We did this such that the following limit
k
to be 0!
1 k
k
ln
1
(3.3)
lim tq t1 ln
et = lim tq t1 tk tk .
1
t0,t>0
t0,t>0
t
t
(ln 1t )
k 0, whenever
( 1t )
169
k
1
q 1
lim t t
ln
et = lim tq+1k 0 = 0,
t0,t>0
t0,t>0
t
k
tp tM1 tk ln t
p M 1
k t
lim t t
(ln t) e = lim
=0
t
t
et
t
for any p because the exponential function et goes faster to than any
(3.4)
t e dt e
tx1 dt = e ,
x
0
0
whenever x 0. Thus, it is not possible for a given small > 0 to find
a , 0 < < 1, such that
x1 t
t
e
dt
<
0
for any x (0, M ] because the quantity on the left goes to when x
becomes closer and closer to 0 (see formula (3.4)).
The second problem: 2) Is our integral (x) = 0 tx1 et dt uniformly convergent on an interval of the type [M, ), where M > 0?
The answer is also no. Indeed, for any fixed N > 1,
x1 t
x1
t e dt N
et dt = N x1 eN ,
N
170
( 12 ) = .
9) 0 y p1 ety dy = (p)
, t > 0, p > 0.
tp
P. Property 7) cannot be proved here because its proof is
either too long or it is shorter but involves a lot of higher mathematics.
Let us prove the
statements.
other
t
1) (1) = 0 e dt = et |
0 = 1.
2)
t
(2) =
te dt =
t(et ) dt =
0
= tet |
0 +
3)
(x) =
tx1 et |
0
or
(3.5)
for any x > 1.
et dt = 0 + 1 = 1.
x1 t
e dt =
+(x 1)
by parts
tx1 (et ) dt =
tx2 et dt = (x 1)(x 1)
(x) = (x 1)(x 1)
171
(3.6)
(z) =
.
(1 z) sin z
1
2
t=z 2
12 t
t e dt = 2
z 1 ez zdz =
=
2
0
0
2
= 2
ez dz = 2
= ,
2
0
2
because 0 ez dz= 2 (Euler-Poisson integral-see example 59).
5
2
32 ( 32 ) =
5
2
32 12 ( 12 ) =
15
.
8
E
(moment of order k) The following integral
62.
k x2
Mk = x e dx is called in Statistics and in Mechanics a moment of order k (...of something!). If k is odd Mk = 0 (Why?). If
k = 2n is even, then
1
1
x2 =t
2n x2
M2n = 2
x e dx =
t(n+ 2 )1 et dt = (n + ).
2
0
0
172
M2n
3
1 1
(2n 1)(2n 3)...1
1
= n
n
... ( ) =
.
n1
2
2
2 2
2
2
P. 1) Formula (3.2) implies (x) = 0 tx1 (ln t)2 et dt > 0
for any x (0, ). Thus the function (x) is convex.
2) Since (1) = (2) = 1 (see theorem 60), Rolles theorem (see for
instance [Po], Th.36) says that there exists a point xmin (1, 2) such
that (xmin ) = 0. Since (x) > 0, xmin is a point of minimum for .
It is the unique extremum point for . Otherwise, if there was another
one z = xmin , then (z) = 0 (Fermats theorem-see for instance [Po],
Th.35). Applying Rolles theorem to the function (x) on the interval
with ends z and xmin respectively, we would find a point y in this last
interval such that (y) = 0, a contradiction, because (x) > 0 for
any x (0, ). Thus xmin is the unique extremum point for .
3) Let us compute
lim (x) =
x0,x>0
(x + 1)
1
=
= .
x0,x>0
x
+0
lim
Here we just used the recurrence formula (x+1) = x(x) (see theorem
60) and the continuity of (see theorem 59).
4) The continuity of , just used above, and the basic formula
(n) = (n 1)! implies that
lim (x) = lim (n) = lim (n 1)! = .
173
F 1
Another fundamental non-elementary function is the beta function
of Euler or the first type Euler function. It is an improper integral with
two parameters x and y. Its formal definition is:
D 14.
(3.7)
B(x, y) =
1
0
1
2
and
B1 (x, y) =
tx1 (1 t)y1 dt
1
1
2
174
Let us apply now the Weierstrass test c) of theorem 57 and try to prove
1
that the integral 02 tp0 1 (1 t)y1 dt is convergent. For this we apply
the q-test (the singularity is t = 0):
lim tq tp0 1 (1 t)y1 = 1
t0,t>0
t1,t<1
x1
y1
x1
of 0 x [t (1 t) ] dt or for 0 y [t (1 t)y1 ] dt. Let us fix a
point (x0 , y0 ) (0, ) (0, ) and let us choose p0 , q0 > 0 such that
x0 > p0 and y0 > q0 . Thus, (x0 , y0 ) [p0 , ) [q0 , ) and, since the
beta function B(x, y) is uniformly convergent on [p0 , )[q0 , ), from
theorem 57 b) and d), applied to B0 (x, y) and to B1 (x, y) separately,
we see that B(x, y) is continuous, differentiable and even of class C
on (0, ) (0, ) (work slowly everything!).
In the following result we put together the main properties of the
function beta.
175
F 2
1
T
63. Let B(x, y) = 0 tx1 (1 t)y1 dt, x > 0, y > 0 be
the beta function. Then
1) B(x, y) = B(y, x) (symmetry).
y
2) B(x, y + 1) = x+y
B(x, y) (reduction formula).
x
3) B(x + 1, y) = x+y B(x, y) (reduction formula).
ux1
4) B(x, y) = 0 (1+u)
x+y du.
uy1
5) B(x, y) = 0 (1+u)x+y du.
6) B(x, y) = (x)(y)
(-reduction). This formula reduces the com(x+y)
putations with function
B
to computations with function .
2x1
2
7) B(x, y) = 2 0 sin
u cos2y1 udu (the trigonometric expression).
P. First of all we want to remark that all the following computations are made in fact with proper integrals, then we take limits
to obtain the improper integrals formulations. But we omit to specify
this and we directly work with the improper form! Let us use this
extremely excessive method only to prove 1).
B(x, y) = lim
tx1 (1 t)y1 dt =
0,1
u=1t
= lim
0,1
(1 u)x1 uy1 du =
176
=
2)
B(x, y + 1) =
1
x1
t
0
(1 t) dt =
1
0
t
(1 t)y dt =
x
1
x
y 1 x
t
y 1 x1
y
y1
=
t (1t) dt =
t (1+t1)(1t)y1 dt =
(1 t) +
x
x
x
0
0
0
1
1
y
y
y
y
tx1 (1 t)y1 dt
tx1 (1 t)y dt = B(x, y) B(x, y + 1).
x 0
x 0
x
x
Thus
,
yy
1+
B(x, y + 1) = B(x, y),
x
x
or
y
B(x, y).
B(x, y + 1) =
x+y
3) We use now 1), 2) and again 1) to prove 3):
x
x
B(y, x) =
B(x, y).
B(x + 1, y) = B(y, x + 1) =
x+y
x+y
1
4) In B(x, y) = 0 tx1 (1t)y1 dt let us make the change of variable
u
t = 1+u
=
u
1
=1
.
t=
1+u
1+u
We simply get
x1
y1
u
1
1
ux1
B(x, y) =
du
=
du.
1+u
1+u
(1 + u)2
(1 + u)x+y
0
0
5) If in the formula 4) we use the symmetry 1) we get:
uy1
B(x, y) = B(y, x) =
du,
(1 + u)y+x
0
y p1 ety dy =
(p)
, t > 0, p > 0.
tp
177
Let us multiply this last equality by tp1 and then let us integrate the
obtained result with respect to t from 0 up to :
tp1
p1
p+q1 (t+1)y
dt =
t
y
e
dy dt.
(3.9) (p + q)
(t + 1)p+q
0
0
0
or
(p)(q)
.
(p + q)
1
7) In the definition formula B(x, y) = 0 tx1 (1 t)y1 dt of the
function beta let us put t = sin2 u :
2
sin2x2 u cos2y2 u 2 sin u cos udu =
B(x, y) =
B(p, q) =
=2
21
13
5
1
Let us now compute J = 0 t 4 (1 + t)2 dt.
=
178
ux1
Formula B(x, y) = 0 (1+u)
x+y du from the above theorem can be
1
used with x 1 = 4 and x + y = 2. Thus, x = 54 and y = 34 . Hence
1
( 5 )( 3 )
( 1 ) ( 34 )
5 3
J = B( , ) = 45 34 = 4 4
.
4 4
1
( 4 + 4 )
1
3
2
2
find ( 4 ) ( 4 ) = sin = 2 . Hence J = 8 .
1
4
and
E 63. Another important integrals are I1 (m) = 02 sinm xdx
and I2 (m) = 02 cosm xdx. Let us compute I1 (m) (here m is a natural
number).
1
2
( )
1
m+1 1
1 m+1
m
2
m+2 2 .
I1 (m) =
sin xdx = B
,
=
2
2
2
2 2
0
If m = 2k (even), then
2
1 (k + 12 )( 12 )
1 (k 12 )(k 32 )... 12 ( 12 )
I1 (2k) =
=
=
2 (k + 1)
2
k!
1 3 5 ... (2k 1)
.
2k+1 k!
If m = 2k + 1 (odd), then
=
k!( 12 )
1 (k + 1)( 12 )
1
I1 (2k + 1) =
=
=
2 (k + 1 + 12 )
2 (k + 12 )(k 12 )(k 32 )... 12 ( 12 )
2k k!
.
1 3 5 ... (2k + 1)
We leave as an exercise to the reader to compute I2 (m).
=
n
ba
ba
u
n
n
n
n
Jn =
u (b a u) du = (b a)
u 1
du.
ba
0
0
u
Let us change again the variable u with t = ba
. Hence
1
2n+1
Jn = (b a)
tn (1 t)n dt = (b a)2n+1 B(n + 1, n + 1) =
0
= (b a)2n+1
(n + 1)(n + 1)
(n!)2
= (b a)2n+1
.
(2n + 2)
(2n + 1)!
179
= 0.
1
1
4. Starting with 0 xa1 dx = a1 , a > 1 , find 0 xn1 ln3 xdx for
n = 2, 3, ... .
5. Find an appropriate set of convergence for the following improper
integrals with parameters, verify the conditions of Leibniz formula and
applyit to compute them.
ax
dx;
a) 0 arctan
x(1+x2 )
arctan( tan x)
b) 02
dx, 0;
tan x
dx
c) 0 (x2 +)n+1 (start with 0 (x2dx+) and compute its derivatives,
many times);
1
2 x2 )
d) 0 ln(1
2 1x2 dx, || < 1;
x
a cos x)
e) 0 ln(1+sin
dx;
cos
x
eax ebx
f) 0
dx, a > 0, b > 0;
eaxxebx
g) 0
sin(mx)dx, a, b > 0;
x
1+a
cos
x
h) 02 ln 1a cos x cos1 x dx, |a| < 1.
6. Prove that the famous Bessels function Jn (x) = 2 0 cos(nt
x sin t)dt, n = 0, 1, 2, ... , is a solution of the ordinary differential equation (Bessels equation): x2 y + xy + (x2 n2 )y = 0.
7. Compute:
x
2
sin x t2
x2 t2
x2 t3
(tan1 t) dt
e dt
e
dt
x e dt
a)lim 0tan x et2 dt ; b) lim 0 x2 +1 ; c)lim xx2 t2 ; d)lim sin
.
x+1 t2
e dt
x
x0
x3
dt
x0
180
1
a) 0 t 4 (1 + t)2 dt; b) 02 sin3 x cos5 xdx;
1 2
1
c) 02 sin3 x cos2 xdx; d) 0 x 3 (1 x) 3 dx;
2
2
e) 0 x6 ex dx; f) xn ex dx, n a natural number;
1
3
g) 0 ex dx; h) 0 t3 1 tdt;
1 1
x
1
1
i) 0 (1 x2 )10 dx; j) 0 1x
dx;
l)
dx;
3
3 dx; k) 0
1+x
0 1+x3
dx
3 x
m) 0 (1+x2 )2 ; n) 0 1+x2 dx.
10) Compute:
2
t tx2
a) t e
dx ; b) 04 ln(1+ttan x)dx, t 0; c) 02 ln(cos2 x+
t=1
2
2 sin2 x)dx (Hint:
Compute
first
of
all
I(t)
=
ln(cos2 x+t sin2 x)dx,
0
2);
then put
t =
x2
d) 0 1+x4 dx;
11) Prove that equality: 12 = implies equality:
n + 12 = 135...(2n1)
for any n N.
n
2
1
4
12) If A = 6 and B = 13 , compute 0 6 x(1 + x) 3 dx as
an expression of A and B.
13) Reduce to computations with function the following integral
2
sin10 x cos12 xdx.
0
CHAPTER 5
Line integrals
1. The mass of a wire. Line integrals of the first type.
D 15. A 1-dimensional deformation or simply a deformation of an interval I R = R {} in the n-dimensional
r (t) = (x1 (t), ..., xn (t)) is called the position vector of "the moving
point" M(x1 , x2 , ..., xn ) at the moment t". Such a deformation is also
called a parametric path in Rn because it is uniquely determined by the
n scalar functions x1 = x1 (t), ..., xn = xn (t), where t is called a parameter. A parametric representation (parametrization)of this path is
usually given in the following way:
x1 = x1 (t)
.
(1.1)
, t I.
x = x (t)
n
n
The image
r (I) in Rn is commonly called the deformation of I through
the deformation functions x1 = x1 (t), ..., xn = xn (t) or simply a curve
C in Rn . This curve C is also called the support curve of the deforma
tion
r . We say that the curve C is continuous if the vector function
k
k
any t I. C is of class C on I if r is of class C on I. The curve C
is piecewise smooth if
r is smooth, but a finite set {t1 , t2 , ..., tm } I.
182
5. LINE INTEGRALS
F 1
For instance, if n = 1 a continuous curve is an interval (why?). Let
the following parametric path be in plane:
x = R cos t
(1.2)
, t [0, 2).
y = R sin t
Thus,
r : [0, 2) R,
r (t) = (R cos t, R sin t) is the corresponding
parametric path. Whenever t runs from 0 up to 2 (without reaching it; otherwise the point N (R, 0) would appear two times and our
curve would not be smooth more-it would had a "double point"!) the
moving point M (x(t), y(t)) will describe a complete circle of radius R,
"oriented" in the direct trigonometric direction, or counterwise clock
sense (see Fig.2).
Let now A(x1 , y1 ) and B(x2 , y2 ) be two points in the Cartesin plane
xOy (see Fig.3). The following parametrization:
x = x(t) = x1 + t(x2 x1 )
(1.3)
, t [0, 1]
y = y(t) = y1 + t(y2 y1 )
describes exactly the "oriented" closed segment [AB].
Indeed, if M (x(t), y(t)) is a moving point on [AB], for t = 0 it becomes A and for t = 1 it becomes B. It is an easy exercise of Analytical
Geometry to see that any point on the segment [AB] is of this type
183
F 2
C will be a finite union of simple curves Ci , i = 1, 2, ..., N, such that
Ci Cj = or a point for i = j.
F 3
Let us come back to the circle (1.2), but instead of the interval
[0, 2) we consider a new interval [, ); this means that we start to
go on the circle from M (R, 0), in the counterclockwise direction, up
to we come back to M. This is the same with changing the variable t
with a new one v = t K = [, ). The new parametrization in
the variable v is:
x(v) = R cos v
, t [0, 2).
y(v) = R sin v
184
5. LINE INTEGRALS
("
x(u), y"(u)), but the same curve, i.e. q ([, )) = r ([0, 2)). What
q (u) =
r ((u)), i.e.
q =
r . Two paths
r and
q which can be
obtained one from each other by a composition with a diffeomorphism
are called equivalent. We see that the images of all equivalent paths
are identical. Thus they give rise to one and the same curve. In the
Advanced Mathematics the notion of a curve is an abstract object,
namely the set of all equivalent parametric paths with a given one
r.
In fact one works with a representative or with a representation of
such an object, namely with a particular parametric path. Here we do
not use such a sophisticated way to define a curve. We shall always
identify the abstract curve with the image of a parametric path which is
a representative of this curve. Thus a circle is an usual circle, a line is an
usual line, etc. But, we always have to fix a particular parametrization
of such a "curve" to work with. Instead of writing all the parameter
write the couple (I, r ) and say:"Let the curve (or the deformation)
(I,
r )", etc.
in R2 ) and let C =
r (I) be its support or the effective curve.
.
(I = [a, b] is closed and finite) wire (I,
r , f ), where we denote by [AB]
185
F 4
. If
mass of the wire (I,
r , f ) would obviously be equal to c l([AB]).
the density function is continuous, it is also uniformly continuous (the
. is closed and bounded and we can apply theorem 59, [Po]).
arc [AB]
. are very close, then f (x ) and f (x ) are also very
Thus, if x , x [AB]
close (read again the definition of uniform continuity, definition 22 and
example 13 from [Po]). Let us consider a division :
a = t0 < t1 < ... < tn = b
of the segment I = [a, b] and let us look at the corresponding division
r () : M0 =
r (a), M1 =
r (x1 ), ..., Mn =
r (b),
. (see Fig.4). If the norm of the division is
of the arc [AB]
small enough then the uniform continuity of f implies that the length
of the arc [M
i1 Mi ] are sufficiently small (as we want). Thus we can
approximate the density function f on such an arc with the value of
it at a fixed point Pi (x( i ), y( i ), z( i ) [M
i1 Mi ], where i [ti1 , ti ]
for any i = 1, 2, ..., n. The points { i } are called marking points for
186
5. LINE INTEGRALS
which is a continuous deformation of the same interval I = [a, b], together the density function f ) is:
(1.5)
S((I,
r , f ); ; { i }) =
n
i=1
##
#
#
f(x( i ), y( i ), z( i )) #Mi1 Mi # .
that |H S((I,
r , f ); ; { i })| < for any division of [a, b] with
< and for any set of marking points { i }, i [ti1 , ti ]. This
is also equivalent to saying that H is a unique point with the following property: "There exists a sequence of divisions {n }, n n+1
(the points of n are between the points of n+1 ) such that n 0
(n)
T
64. Let (I = [a, b];
r ; f ),
r (t) = (x(t), y(t), z(t), be
a
smooth
wire
with
f
a
continuous
function.
Then the line integral
f (x, y, z)ds of the first type exists (the mass of the wire exists) and
C
187
x2 (t) + y 2 (t) + z 2 (t)dt.
P. The proof follows the idea of the proof of the formula (8.3,
S((I,
r , f ); ; { i }) =
n
n
i=1
##
#
#
f (x( i ), y( i ), z( i )) #Mi1 Mi # =
f (x( i ), y( i ), z( i ))
i=1
[x(ti ) x(ti1 )]2 + [y(ti ) y(ti1 )]2 + [z(ti ) z(ti1 )]2 .
=
n
f (x( i ), y( i ), z( i ))
i=1
where ci , di , ei [ti1 , ti ] (we applied Lagrange formula for each functions x(t), y(t) and z(t) on the intervals [ti1 , ti ]). Since the curve
C is of class C 1 on [a, b], functions x (t), y (t) and z (t) are continuous, so that we can use freely the approximations: x2 (ci ) x ( i ),
y 2 (di ) y ( i ), z 2 (ei ) z ( i ). Thus, our last Riemann sum becomes:
(1.7)
S((I,
r , f ); ; { })
i
n
i=1
f (x( i ), y( i ), z( i )) x2 ( i ) + y 2 ( i ) + z 2 ( i )(ti ti1 ).
The approximation here is better and better if the norm of the divisions is smaller and smaller. Hence these Riemann sums have
a unique limit point H if and only if the sums on the right in formula (1.7) have such a point H. But the sums on the right are nothing
sums for the usual definite Riemann integral
b else than Riemann
f (x(t), y(t), z(t)) x2 (t) + y 2 (t) + z 2 (t)dt. Thus, finally, this last
a
integral exists and it is equal to H. Hence H exists and the formula
(1.6) is true.
188
5. LINE INTEGRALS
(1.9)
. =
length([AB])
b
C1
C2
Cn
This is called the mean formula for line integrals of the first type.
We saw that any curve of class C 1 on an interval [a, b] has a length,
i.e. it is rectifiable. Here is an example of a continuous curve which is
not rectifiable even I is a finite interval.
189
F 5
(B13 B14 B16 B17 ) is similar to (A1 A2 A4 A5 ), the corresponding angles
d
have the same measure. Thus their heights are R2 = 23
tan . The
heights of the trapezoids which corresponds to ( 3 ) is R3 = 23d 2 tan .
For ( n ) the corresponding R is Rn = 23dn1 tan . Since R1 + R2 + ... +
Rn + ... = 34 d tan , () = lim ( n ) is bounded. It is not so difficult
n
4n
d.
3n
F 6
with the density function f(x, y) = x2 + y 2 . a) Find the perimeter
of the frame. b) Find the mass of it. c) Find the mass center of the arc
. d) Find the moment of inertia IOy of the segment [OB] relative
[AB].
to the Oy-axis. Here is the solutions to these questions.
190
5. LINE INTEGRALS
Now, length([OB]) = [OB] ds, where ds = x2 + y 2 dt = 2dt. Thus,
12
length([OB]) = 2
dt = 1.
0
. In this case
Let us compute the length of the arc [AB].
ds = ( sin t)2 + cos2 tdt = dt.
Thus,
.
4
[AB]
0
Now, the length of [OA] is obviously 1 and the perimeter of the frame
is equal to 1 + 4 + 1 = 2 + 4 .
b) Since
. + mass[OB] =
mass[OABO] = mass[OA] + mass[AB]
2
2
2
2
=
(x + y )ds +
(x + y )ds +
(x2 + y 2 )ds =
. =
length([AB])
[OB]
1
2
(t + t ) 2dt +
2
ds =
[AB]
dt =
[OA]
(t2 + 02 )dt =
1 1
2
= + + = + .
3 4 3
3 4
c) First of all let us explain some formulas in connection with the mass
. By
centre. Let G(xG , yG ) be the mass centre of the loaded arc [AB].
definition, if we concentrate the entire mass of the arc in the point G,
both static moments with respect to axes of this last obtained system is
equal to static moments with respect to axes of the initial arc. If one
191
yG
Hence
[AB]
[AB]
[AB]
xG =
(1.14)
f (x, y)ds =
xf (x, y)ds
[AB]
f (x, y)ds
[AB]
[AB]
yf(x, y)ds.
[AB]
, yG =
yf (x, y)ds
[AB]
f(x, y)ds
Now we have to compute three line integrals. But the mass was just
computed in b), mass = 4 . Let us compute the line integrals which
appear at the numerators:
xf (x, y)ds =
x(x2 + y 2 )ds =
=
=
Hence
[AB]
0
[AB]
1
cos t(cos2 t + sin2 t)dt = sin t |04 = .
2
yf (x, y)ds =
y(x2 + y 2 )ds =
[AB]
[AB]
1
sin t(cos2 t + sin2 t)dt = cos t |04 = 1 .
2
2 2
42 2
xG =
=
, yG =
.
2
x
1
IOy =
x2 f ds =
t2 (t2 + t2 ) 2dt = 2 2 = .
5 0
10
[OB]
0
1
2
192
5. LINE INTEGRALS
Let us put together all the formulas which give us the coordinates
Let now denote Ix , Iy , Iz the moments of inertia of the above wire w.r.t.
Ox-axis, Oy-axis and Oz-axis respectively. Let IO be the moment of
inertia of the same wire w.r.t. the origin O. Then
2
2
(1.16)
Ix = (y + z )fds; Iy = (x2 + z 2 )f ds;
C
Iz =
(y 2 + x2 )f ds; IO =
C
(x2 + y 2 + z 2 )f ds.
x = a cos t
y = a sin t , t [0, 2], a, b > 0.
:
z = bt
Here ds = x2 + y 2 + z 2 dt = a2 + b2 dt. Let us rotate around Ozaxis and let us compute its moment of inertia. If nothing is mentioned
on the density function, we tacitly consider it to be f (x, y, z) = 1. Thus
one has
2
2
2
Iz = (y + x )f ds =
a2 a2 + b2 dt = 2a2 a2 + b2 .
C
(Mi1 Mi Mi Mi1
) with the directrix curve [M
i1 Mi ] and generating
lines parallel to Oz-axis can be well approximated with the area of the
193
Looking at the definition 17 and at the formula 1.5 we obtain that the
B ] and
. [A
area (ABB A ) of the cylindrical surface bounded by [AB],
the segments [AA ], [BB ] (see Fig.7) can be computed by using the
following formula:
(1.17)
(ABB A ) =
fds.
[AB]
F 7
E 68. Let us find the area of the surface which are a part
of the cylindrical surface with directrix curve the parabola y = 2x2 in
xOy-plane, generator lines parallel to Oz-axis, delimited by the xOyplane and the plane x + y + z = 10 (see Fig.8). Since z = 10 x y,
f(x, y) = 10xy in formula 1.17 and since x = t, y = 2t2 , t [1, 1]
we get:
is a parametrization of the curve [AOD],
1
=
(10 x y)ds =
(10 t 2t2 ) 1 + 16t2 dt.
[AOD]
194
5. LINE INTEGRALS
2
2
(10 2t ) 1 + 16t dt = 2
(10 2t2 ) 1 + 16t2 dt,
etc.
F 8
2. Line integrals of the second type.
Let M be a moving point on a segment [a, b] from a to b in a field
of forces f (x) = f (x) i , x [a, b]. We know (see example 42) that the
b
[a, b] of M is equal to
f(x)dx. If the field f is a space field
work W
a
f
work is the vector projection of f along the vector AB, i.e. the vector
f (P )AB AB
(2.1)
f (P ) AB,
where P is a fixed point on [AB].
195
directly oriented if whenever t1 < t2 on [a, b], then length[AM
1] <
length[AM2 ], where M1 (x(t1 ), y(t1 ), z(t1 )) is the point on the curve
which corresponds to t1 [a, b] and M2 (x(t2 ), y(t2 ), z(t2 )) is the point
on the curve which corresponds to t2 [a, b]. This means that whenever
t goes from a to b, the corresponding moving point M(x(t), y(t), z(t))
goes from A to B on the curve, without turning back even for a very
small "period of time". We always consider in our examples that a
has two orientations: "the direct one", from A to B and
curve [AB]
"the inverse one", from B to A.
It can be proved (see any elementary course in Differential geometry) that any smooth curve , realized as a deformation of an interval,
can be oriented, i.e. it has two orientations. We divide the arc [AB]
into n subarcs [M
i1 Mi ]. The division {A = M0 , M1 , ..., Mn = B} is
considered to be the image of a division : a = t0 < t1 < ... < tn = b
F 9
If the norm of the division is very small, since the curve [AB]
is smooth, the lengths of the subarcs [M
i1 Mi ] are very small. Thus
196
5. LINE INTEGRALS
S( F , , { i }) =
F (Pi ) Mi1 Mi ,
(2.2)
i=1
([M
work W
i1 Mi ])of F on [Mi1 Mi ] was approximated with F (Pi )
F
Mi1 Mi .
D 19. With the above notation and definitions, for a
3
2
g : [a, b] R (or R ), let us assume that there exists a real number S with the following property: if > 0 is a small positive real
number, then there exists another small positive real number > 0
(depending
on ) such
that if is a division of [a, b], one has that
S S( F , , { i }) < . This (unique) number S will be denoted by
/
/
"closed" (
r (a) =
r (b)). If we change the direct orientation with
the inverse one (write ) the line integral will have a minus in front
/
/
def
of it, i.e.
F d r = F d
r . Moreover, if = N
i=1 i is
F d r = i=1 F d
r (this is a consequence but I prefer to put
it in a definition!).
197
F d
r for a fixed curve
line integral F d
r . The following theorem will clarify this question.
T
65. Let us consider again the above orientated smooth
with a parametrization x = x(t), y = y(t) and z = z(t),
curve [AB]
t [a, b], with a division of the interval [a, b],with its Riemann sum,
etc. (see Fig.9 and all the starting discussion). Then
b
/
F dr =
F (x(t), y(t), z(t))
r (t)dt,
(2.3)
a
[AB]
or
(2.4)
F d
r =
[AB]
where
r (t) = (x(t), y(t), z(t)) = x(t) i + y(t) j + z(t) k .
P. First of all, in order to evaluate a Riemann sum of the
Let us now apply Lagrange formula for functions x(t), y(t) and z(t)
defined on the interval [ti1 , ti ] :
x(ti ) x(ti1 ) = x (ci )(ti ti1 ),
where ci [ti1 , ti ],
198
5. LINE INTEGRALS
where ei [ti1 , ti ]. Since the norm is very small, i.e. the lengths
of intervals [ti1 , ti ] are small enough and since the functions x (t), y (t),
z (t) are continuous (the curve is of class C 1 being smooth), we can well
approximate x (ci ), y (di ) and z (ei ) with x ( i ), y ( i ) and with z ( i )
respectively (ci , di and ei are very close to i and the previous functions
are continuous!). Thus formula (2.5) can be rewritten as
F (Pi ) Mi1 Mi =
= [P (x( i ), y( i ), z( i ))x ( i ) + Q(x( i ), y( i ), z( i ))y ( i )](ti ti1 )+
which is nothing else than a Riemann sum for the simple Riemann
integral
b
[P (x(t), y(t), z(t))x (t) + Q(x(t), y(t), z(t))y (t)+
a
Since d
r = (x (t), y (t), z (t))dt, formula (2.3) is an immediate consequence of formula (2.4).
This last theorem says that in order to compute a line integral of
the second type, we must find a suitable (not so complicated!) para then we simply apply formula (2.4) to
meterization of the arc [AB],
reduce the computation to a calculation of a Riemann definite integral.
If the curve and the field of forces are all in the same plane xOy, we
put z(t) = 0 and R(x, y, z) = 0 in formula (2.4), i.e. we get an easier
formula:
/
b
F dr =
F (x(t), y(t))
r (t)dt =
[AB]
199
F 10
. b) Compute
a) Find the work on the arc of the circle [BC];
d
r ; c) Compute
[AB]
P dx + Qdy;
[CA]
F dr =
F dr +
F dr +
F d
r.
(2.7)
[CABC]
[CA]
[AB]
[BC]
Let us find 3 separate parametrizations for the component curves [CA],
and [BC].
[AB]
x = 2 + (2)t
[CA] :
, t [0, 1];
y = 0 + (1)t
200
5. LINE INTEGRALS
:
[AB]
:
[BC]
i.e. t goes from
x=0
, t [1, 2];
y=t
x = 2 cos t
, t [0, ] ,
y = 2 sin t
2
F dr =
P dx + Qdy =
[BC]
(2 cos t)2 (2 cos t) + (2 cos t)(2 sin t)(2 sin t) dt =
= 8
b)
[BC]
cos2 t sin t + cos2 t sin t dt = 0.
F d
r =
[AB]
2
1
02 0 + 0 tdt = 0.
c)
/
[CA]
P dx + Qdy =
7
(2 2t)2 (2) + (2 2t)(t)(1) dt = .
3
F d
r be the
T = m2 |
v | is the kinetic energy of the moving system,
v =
r is the
velocity vector and A, B are the end points of the trajectory . Here the
difference T (B) T (A) is called "the gain in kinetic energy". Thus,
the gain principle in Physics says that the work done by a moving point
. is equal to the gain in kinetic energy of the moving
on a trajectory [AB]
point.
201
F ( r (t)) v (t)dt = m
v (t)
v (t)dt =
W = F dr =
a
b
b
v
v
m
2
=m
|
v | = T (B) T (A).
dt =
2
2
a
a
R
20. Maybe somebody asks what happens with a line in/
F d
r if we change the parametrization of the given curve
tegral
r (t ) =
r ((t )) and dt = dtdt dt. Thus,
/
b
d r
F (r ) dr =
F ( r ) dt =
dt
a
b
d
r dt
=
F ( r ((t )))
dt =
dt
dt
a
b
/
=
F ( r (t)) r (t)dt = F d
r.
a
Thus the value of the line integral does not change. It depends only on
the curve itself and not on its particular parametrization.
3. Independence on path. Conservative fields
/
Looking at formula (2.4) we see that the line integral
F d
r
[AB]
D R3 (or R2 ) be a continuous field. We say that the integral F d
r
202
5. LINE INTEGRALS
which connects A and B, the line integral of the second type F d
r
does not depend on the curve itself but only on the end points A and
B of it. This/means that if
/ is another path which connect A and B
one has that F d
r = F d
r.
It is clear enough that this property characterizes the field F defined on D. We shall define a class
of fields which has the above prop/
erty, namely that the integral F d
r is independent on path.
= P, U
= Q and U
= R. It is clear that F is
R(x, y, z) k then U
x
y
z
conservative if and only if the differential form = P dx + Qdy + Rdz
has a primitive U (x, y, z), i.e. a scalar function U (x, y, z) such that
dU = . We also say in this case that is exact or closed on D. The
2
2
2
U(x, y, z) = x2 + y2 + z2 is a "potential" function for F . If we add an
arbitrary constant K to this U(x, y, z) we also get a potential function
for F . It is clear enough that not all fields are conservative. For in
203
F 11
Indeed, let us find the general form of all the potential functions
U(x, y, z) of G :
U
x = 0
U
=0
.
Uy
= mg
z
Let us integrate the last equation w.r.t. z and put the constants which
appear only once:
U (x, y, z) = mgz + K(x, y),
where K(x, y) is a constant w.r.t. z but, in general, it can depend on x
and y because, in general, U may depend on x and y. Let us introduce
204
5. LINE INTEGRALS
"closed" curve (
r (a) =
r (b)) is always equal to zero. Here is the
mathematically stated result.
T
67. (Leibniz-Newton formula for line integrals) Let F :
D R3 be a continuous conservative (potential) field and let be an
arc of an oriented smooth curve in D with its end points A and B. Let
F d
r = U (B) U (A) = U (x(b), y(b), z(b)) U (x(a), y(a), z(a)),
b) In particular,
F d
r does not depend on the curve which
connect the points A and B, i.e. the integral F d
r does not depend
on path in D.
205
F d
r = 0. Conversely, if for any smooth closed curve of D we
/
/
F dr =
[P (x(t), y(t), z(t))x (t) + Q(x(t), y(t), z(t))y (t)+
+
F d
r = U (M) U (M ) = V (M ) V (M ),
0
or
206
5. LINE INTEGRALS
has that F d
r = 0. Take now two points T and W in D and two
i.e.
1
2
F d
r =
on path.
F d
r =
F d
r
1
2
F d
r and our integral
F d
r = 0,
F d
r does not depend
F 12
Let us compute the circulation (or the work) of the plane field
207
tiresome. The best method is to check first of all if the field is conservative or not. If we were lucky that the field to be conservative, then the
line integrals does not depend on path and we can choose a very easy
path which connect the starting and the end points of the arc. In our
case the arc is closed, so that the integral is zero. Let us check now if
our field is conservative or not. For this, let us try to find U (x, y) such
that
U
U
= 2xy, and
= x2 .
x
y
We integrate the first equality w.r.t. x and find: U = x2 y+K(y). Let us
put this expression of U in the second equation and find: x2 + K (y) =
x2 . Thus, K (y) = 0 and K(y) is a constant K. Hence U (x, y) =
x2 y + K, where K is an arbitrary constant. Therefore our field is
conservative and, as a consequence, the given line integral is zero (see
theorem 67).
But, how to test if a field is conservative or not without direct
checking if a potential (primitive) function exists, like we did above?
We begin with the following remark.
T
68. Let F : D R3 ,
R Q
R P
Q P
curl F = F =
j+
k.
y
z
x
z
x
y
If here instead of P, Q, R we put
R
y
Q
z
2U
yz
2U
zy
U U
,
x y
and
U
z
respectively, we get
Q
P
and x y = 0, i.e. curl F = 0 . In the plane field situation, we put
2U
2U
instead Q, U
and instead of P, U
, so that Q
= xy
and P
= yx
.
y
x
x
y
Since u is of class C 2 ,
2U
xy
2U
,
yx
i.e.
Q
x
P
.
y
208
5. LINE INTEGRALS
We say that a plane domain D is simple connected if any continuous "closed" curve D can be continuously contracted up to a
point in D. We say that a space domain D is simple connected if any
continuous "closed" surface (the image of a sphere through a continuous deformation in R3 ) can be continuously contracted up to a
point in D. Practically, if D has no "hole" it is simple connected. For
instance, any disc in R2 is simple connected but R2
{(0, 0)} is not
simple connected because it has a hole, the origin of the axes.
R 21. If D is a simple connected domain then theorem 68
= P
in the plane
has a reciprocal. Namely, if curl F = 0 or Q
x
y
y
not simple connected domain and let F = (P, Q), where P = x2 +y
2
and Q =
/
x
.
x2 +y 2
y
x
2
dx
+
dy =
x + y2
x2 + y 2
x2 +y2 =1
Q
x
y 2 x2
(x2 +y2 )2
P
y
but
xdx +
209
F 13
gravitational field). Take U(x, y, z) =
U(0, 0, 0) = 35
.
2
x2 +y 2 +z 2
2
F d
r does not depend
/
F d
r , where
on path on a domain D, then instead of writing
When a line integral of the second type
[AB]
simply write
F d
r . To compute such an integral we can use a
A
F d
r = U (B) U(A) or
F d
r =
F d
r . The usual
A
(1,1,2)
(3,0,2)
/
(3,1,2)
(3,1,2)
/
(1,1,2)
(3,02)
/
(3,0,2)
210
5. LINE INTEGRALS
xdx+
ydy +
1
2
2
3
0
2
7
x2 y 2
z 2
1
zdz =
+ + = 4 +0 = .
2 1 2 1 2 2
2
2
R 22. The idea coming from this last example can be generalized in order to construct a primitive for a conservative continuous
U (s, u) =
/P
M0
P dx + Qdy =
[M0 P1 ]
P dx + Qdy +
[P1 P ]
P dx + Qdy.
or
(3.3)
U(s, u) =
P (x, y0 )dx +
x0
211
Q(s, y)dy.
y0
We see that here we have integrals with parameters. Let us use the
U
(s, u) = Q(s, u).
u
212
5. LINE INTEGRALS
F 14
. is: x = x, y = g(x), x [a, b] (this
Since a parameterization of [CD]
/
b
means that x goes from b to a) one has that
ydx = a g(x)dx.
[CD]
[DA]
ydx =
[BC]
. so that dx = 0
ydx = 0, because x = a is fixed on [DA],
on it. Finally, from these observations and from formula (4.2) we get:
/
/
/
/
/
ydx =
ydx
ydx
ydx
ydx =
[CD]
(D)
b
a
g(x)dx
[DA]
[AB]
[BC]
f (x)dx = area(D).
a
213
Thus
1 3
area(D) = a2
2 4
3
sin 2tdt = a2
8
2
2
0
1 cos 4t
3a2
dt =
.
2
8
[A4 A6 ]
ydx +
ydx +
[A2 A6 ]
ydx = 0 and
[A6 A2 ]
[A6 A4 ]
214
5. LINE INTEGRALS
F 15
integral is zero (dx = 0). In general, these dividing curves can not be
always chosen to be segments parallel with the Oy-axis. Hence, these
/
/
d
r = 0. Let us use these observations to prove that formula (4.1) is
true even in the general case when the domain is not simple w.r.t. to
Ox-axis but it can be divided into a finite set of nonoverlaping simple
domains w.r.t. Ox-axis. Look at Fig.15 and follow the next reasoning:
/
/
/
area(D) = area(D1 )+area(D2 )+area(D3 ) = ydx ydx ydx =
D1
= [
ydx +
[A
4 A3 A2 ]
[A
6 A5 A4 ]
[A
4 A3 A2 ]
ydx +
[A
2 A6 ]
ydx +
ydx +
ydx +
[A
2 A1 A6 ]
[A
2 A1 A6 ]
ydx
D2
D3
ydx+
[A
6 A4 ]
[A
4 A6 ]
ydx
[A
6 A5 A4 ]
ydx] =
[A
6 A2 ]
ydx =
ydx.
In this way we can extend all the formulas (4.1), (4.3) and (4.4) to the
case when the domain D has its boundary D a closed direct oriented
215
= (xj yj+1 yj xj+1 ) dt = OAj OAj+1 k dt.
Hence,
(4.5)
(4.6)
n1
1 1
area(D) =
OAj OAj+1 k dt. =
2 j=0 0
n1
1
=
OAj OAj+1 k .
2 j=0
This last expression of the area does not depend on the origin O or
of the coordinate system. Thus, a very nice consequence of the vector
formula 4.5 is the following.
216
5. LINE INTEGRALS
T
70. Let A0 , A1 , ..., An1 , An = A0 and M be n+1 distinct
n1
points in a plane (P ). Then the quantity j=0
M Aj MAj+1 is a real
number which does not depend on M. Its absolute value is equal to two
times the area of the polygonal domain D bounded by the polygonal line
[A0 A1 ...An1 An].
R 25. Let D be a plane bounded domain with its boundary
D a "closed" piecewise smooth direct oriented curve. For a moving
and Oy. By d
r we mean the vector d
r = dx i + dy j which can be
orientation of D by using the screw rule ({O; i , j , k } is a direct
(
r d
r ) k.
(4.7)
area(D) =
2
D
217
F 16
In Fig.17 we see the same type of examples in space.
F 17
Recall that an direct oriented segment [AM ], A(a, b, c), M (x, y, z)
of a line is a smooth deformation of the direct oriented interval [0, 1]
218
5. LINE INTEGRALS
f1 (t) = a + (x a)t
f2 (t) = b + (y b)t , t [0, 1].
f3 (t) = c + (z c)t
T
71. Let D be a starred domain in R3 and let = P dx +
Qdy + Rdz be a closed differential form on D, i.e. P, Q, R are of class
(5.1) =
1
0
219
d
[tP (f1 (t), f2 (t), f3 (t))] dt = tP (f1 (t), f2 (t), f3 (t))|10 =
dt
0
= P (f1 (1), f2 (1), f3 (1)) = P (x0 , y0 , z0 ).
We leave the reader to use the same methods in order to prove that
U
U
(x0 , y0 , z0 ) = Q(x0 , y0 , z0 ) and that z
(x0 , y0 , z0 ) = R(x0 , y0 , z0 ).
y0
0
=
The computations are easier in this case (do them!). Finally we get the
same function U defined on D (if A is fixed). For instance, let us use
this last idea to find a primitive of the form = yzdx + zxdy + xydz.
F 18
and let us compute the value of U at B(3, 1, 3) :
U(3, 1, 3) =
A1/
(3,1,2)
yzdx+zxdy +xydz +
A(0,1,2)
B(3,1,3)
/
yzdx+zxdy +xydz =
A1 (3,1,2)
3
1 2 dx +
3 1 dz = 9.
220
5. LINE INTEGRALS
F 19
R 26. Let D be a plane simple connected domain and let
U(x, y) =
P dx + Qdy,
221
P dx+Qdy = 0 for
Q
x
[A0 A1 ...An1 An ]
P dx + Qdy = 0,
F restricted to . Now, theorem 67 says that
i.e. what we wanted to prove.
[A0 A1 A2 ]
Find the mass, the coordinates of the mass centre and the moment of
inertia w.r.t. Oy-axis.
x = a cos
y = a sin ,
5. The segment [0, 2] is deformed into a helix:
z = b
where a, b > 0 and [0, 2]. Assume that the density function is
f(x, y, z) = 4. Compute the mass, the coordinates of the mass centre
and the moment of inertia w.r.t. Oz-axis.
6. The wire = {M (x, y) : (x 1)2 + y 2 = 1}, with the density function f(x, y) = x rotates around Ox-axis. Find its moment of
inertia.
222
5. LINE INTEGRALS
7. Let A(a, 0), B(0, b), n = [AB], be the segment AB and let m =
2
2
.
[AB], be the arc of the ellipse xa2 + yb2 = 1 which connects A and B.
The metallic frame [AmBnA] is loaded with a density function f(x, y)
at the point M (x, y), which is three times the value of the projection
of M on the Ox-axis. Find its mass centre.
be the arc of the parabola x =
8. Let A(1, 1), B(1, 1) and [AOB]
[AB] with the density function f (x, y) = x + 1
y 2 . The frame [AOB]
rotates around Ox-axis. Find its moment of inertia.
9. Let A(1,
0) be two points in the xOy-plane.
1) and B(2,
3
Find I = [OA][AB] (x + y 3 )ds.
10. Find C xyds,
C is the square |x| + |y| = a > 0.
where
ds
x = a(t sin t)
, t [0, ].
y = a(1 cos t)
x2
a2
y2
b2
= 1 if its density
x = t2
, t [0, 1].
y = 3t
17. Find C (x + y)ds, where C is the arc:
2
z = t3
18. Use Riemann sums to find the side area of the parabolic cylinder
y = 38 x2 , bounded by the planes z = 0, x = 0, z = x, y = 6.
/
19. Compute xdy, where C is the direct oriented (trigonometric
sense) curve which bounds the triangle realized by the coordinates axes
and the line x2 + y3 = 1.
/
20. Compute xydx + x2 dy, where C is the arc of the parabola
C
223
21. Find the work of the field F (x, y) = xy i + x2 j on the following oriented curves:
a) the rectangle frame [OABCO], where A(0, 1), B(2, 1) and C(2, 0).
The orientation is O A B C ).
b) the curve [OBAO], where [OB] and [AO] are segments of lines,
[BA] is an arc of a circle of radius 2, B(2, 0) and the angle (AOB) is
equal to 60 . The orientation is O B A O.
c) the triangle frame [ABCA], where A(1, 2), B(3, 4) and C(5, 1).
The orientation is A B C A.
d) the curve [OmAnO], where A(1, 1), [OmA] is the arc of the
parabola y = x2 and [AnO] is the arc of the parabola x = y 2 . The
orientation is/O A O.
22. Find F d
r , where
r (t) = t i + t2 j + t3 k , t [0, 1] and
C
(2,3)
/
(1,1)
in order to find the areas of the figures bounded by the following closed
curves:
x = a cos3 t
x = t sin t
y2
2
a)x + 4 = 1; b)
, t [0, 2]. c)
,t
y = a sin3 t
y = 1 cos t
[0, 2], and the Ox-axis.
27. Find the length and the area bounded by
224
5. LINE INTEGRALS
z=t
function f(x, y, z) = x2 + y 2 . Find its static moment relative to xOyplane.
29. Let = {M(x, y) : x2 + y 2 = a2 and x + y + z = 0} with its
direct orientation induced by the direct orientation of the plane xOy.
CHAPTER 6
Double integrals
1. Double integrals on rectangles.
A lamina or a thin plate is a bounded plane closed domain (an open
and connected bounded subset of R2 together with its boundary) D with
a density function f (x, y) defined on it. In practical applications f(x, y)
is greater or equal than zero. But here we shall consider the density
function f : D R to have arbitrary values and to be piecewise continuous. This means the f is bounded and continuous on D except maybe
a finite union of points or smooth curves (which have area zero!). The
boundary D of D is considered to be a piecewise smooth curve (in
particular it has a zero area!). Let us recall the definition 7 of the area
of a plane figure. We say that a plane figure A has area (measure)
(A) if for any > 0 there exist two elementary figures (finite union
of nonoverlaping (their intersections does not contain interior points!)
simple rectangles [a, b] [c, d]) Ei and Eo such that Ei A Eo ,
area(Eo )area(Ei ) < and area(Eo ) (A) area(Ei ). This means
that we can well approximate the figure A with elementary figures from
inside and from outside too. We know that the domain D which is the
support of a lamina defined above has an area (because D is piecewise
smooth!). We always in this chapter assume this and, because of this
type of approximation, we begin with a particular form of D, namely
when D is a simple rectangle [a, b] [c, d] and f : [a, b] [c, d] R
is a continuous function defined on it (any piecewise continuous function can well be approximated with continuous functions!). Let the
rectangle (as a surface!) D = [ABCE] in Fig.1.
Let x : a = x0 < x1 < ... < xn = b be an arbitrary division
of [a, b] and let y : c = y0 < y1 < ... < ym = d be an arbitrary
division of [c, d]. Let Dij = [xi1 , xi ] [yj1 , yj ] and let Pij (ci , dj ) be
a marking point in Dij for any i = 1, 2, ..., n and j = 1, 2, ..., m. By
definition the area of Dij is (xi xi1 )(yj yj1 ) and D = i,j Dij .
Let us assume now that x 0 and y 0, when n
and m , i.e. area(Dij ) 0. Hence we can well approximate the
density function f (x, y) on Dij with its value at the marked point Pij ,
i.e. f (x, y) f (ci , dj ) for any (x, y) Dij . We can remark that {ci }
225
226
6. DOUBLE INTEGRALS
F 1
and {dj } are sets of marking points for x and y respectively. Thus
we can well approximate:
n
m
def
(1.1) mass(D)
f (ci , dj )area(Dij ) = Sf (x , y , {(ci , dj )})
i=1 j=1
where mij =
inf
(x,y)Dij
i=1 j=1
(x,y)Dij
f on D and it is denoted by I =
227
b d
d b
f (x, y)dxdy =
f (x, y)dy dx =
f(x, y)dx dy.
D
These last formulas says that either we integrate f (x, y) w.r.t. y from
c to d and obtain a new function of x which is finally integrated from
a to b (the first equality), or we firstly integrate f (x, y) w.r.t. x from a
to b and obtain a new function of y which is finally integrated from c
to d (the second equality).
P. We preserve the above notation in the next considera
b d
tions. Let J =
f (x, y)dxdy, I1 = a c f(x, y)dy dx and I2 =
d b
D
f (x, y)dx dy. The number J exists because of theorem 73. The
c
a
d
integral I(x) = c f (x, y)dy is an integral with a parameter x. Thus
b
I1 = a I(x)dx and we can well approximate it with Riemann sums of
228
6. DOUBLE INTEGRALS
(1.3)
n
i=1
d
But each integral I(ci ) = c f (ci , y)dy can be approximated by Riemann sums of the form:
m
m
(i)
(1.4)
I(ci )
f (ci , dj )(yj yj1 )
f(ci , dj )(yj yj1 ),
j=1
j=1
d
c
J1 (y)dy and
E 72. Find the mass of the plate D = [0, 1] [1, 2] if the
density function is f(x, y) = x2 y + xy 2 . We use the iterative formula
(1.2):
1 2
2
2
2
2
mass(D) =
(x y + xy )dxdy =
(x y + xy )dy dx =
0
2
1
2
2
y 3
23
1
2y
22
21
=
x
+x
dx =
x
+x x x
dx =
2
3 1
2
3
2
3
0
0
1
1
3 2 7
3x
7 x2
1 7
5
=
x + x dx =
+
= + = .
2
3
2 3
3 2 0 2 6
3
0
The other variant of the formula is "easier" to work with.
2 1
2
2
2
2
(x y + xy )dxdy =
(x y + xy )dx dy =
229
1
2
2
x3
x2 2
y y2
y
y 3
5
= .
y + y dy =
+
dy =
+
3
2
3
2
6
6 1 3
1
0
a Riemann sum of function xf(x, y). Hence the theoretical static moment My of the lamina (D, f ) relative to Oy-axis can be computed by
the formula:
(1.5)
My =
xf (x, y)dxdy.
In the same manner we can deduce a formula for the static moment
Mx of the lamina (D, f ) w.r.t. Ox-axis:
(1.6)
Mx =
yf (x, y)dxdy.
The coordinates (xG , yG ) of the mass centre G of the lamina (D, f) are
defined such that if we concentrate the mass of D at the point G, then
both moments of this last system must coincide with the correspondent
global moments, i.e.
My =
and
Mx =
D
230
6. DOUBLE INTEGRALS
xG = D
f (x, y)dxdy
, and yG = D
yf(x, y)dxdy
.
f (x, y)dxdy
For instance, let us compute the mass centre of the square D = [1, 1]
[0, 2] with the density function f(x, y) = y. First of all let us remark
that D is symmetric w.r.t. Oy-axis. Moreover, the distribution of the
mass is symmetric w.r.t. the same axis: f (x, y) = f (x, y) = y. Thus,
G is on Oy-axis, i.e. xG = 0. In order to compute yG we need to
compute two integrals:
1 2
1
f (x, y)dxdy =
ydxdy =
ydy dx = 2
dx = 4
D
and
yf (x, y)dxdy =
y dxdy =
1
1
8
y dy dx =
3
2
dx =
16
.
3
16
231
of inertia w.r.t. O.
Let us compute for instance the moment IOy of D = [0, 1] [0, 1]
with the density function f (x, y) = xy.
1 1
2
3
x f (x, y)dxdy =
x ydy dx =
IOy =
1
3
1
ydy dx =
2
x3 dx =
1 1
1
= .
2 4
8
Let us also compute IOx for the rectangle of figure Fig.2. Whenever
we have no density function given, we consider it to be the constant
function f(x, y) = 1.
F 2
Thus we have:
2
IOx =
y dxdy =
D
y
1
1
y 3
4
dx dy = 2 = .
3 1 3
1
1
E 75. We also can compute the volume of some type of
3D-domaine called rectangular cylindrical solids. In Fig.3
232
6. DOUBLE INTEGRALS
F 3
f (x, y)dxdy.
233
When f (x, y) has also negative values, we can use the more general
formula:
(1.10)
vol =
|f (x, y)| dxdy.
1 1 ,
1,
c
c c
c -1
c x y dy dx =
cy xy y 2 dx =
vol =
a
b
a
2b
0
0
0
0
1
c
c
c 1
c
c
c
.
c x
dx = cx x2 x = c
a
2b
2a
2b
2a 2b
0
0
F 4
2. Double integrals on an arbitrary bounded domain
All the plane domains (connected subsets of R2 ) which we work with
in the following are closed (D D) bounded and with a finite area
(D). This last general condition is not so easy to be verified in practice. Since in engineering one needs only closed bounded domains D
with a piecewise smooth boundary D, we shall limit our study for such
domains. It is not difficult to prove (see the beginning considerations
234
6. DOUBLE INTEGRALS
Di
(n)
(n)
Eins
(n)
(n)
Eout
(n)
(n)
Here Eins D Eout , and lim (Eins ) = (D) = lim (Eout ). Pracn
n
tically this definition can not be used at all! Thus, we shall use our
previous experience to take again the definition of the double integral
on the class of plane domains D just mentioned above. By diam(D),
the diameter of a bounded domain D, we mean the following number:
*##
+
#
#
diam(D) = sup #MM # : M, M D .
For instance, the diameter of a closed disc B[A, r] is 2r, i.e. its usual
diameter. The diameter of a rectangle is equal to the length of one
of its diagonal. The diameter of a parallelogram is equal to the length
of its greatest diagonal. And so on! A division of the domain D
(like above!) is a finite set of domains Di , i = 1, 2, ..., n, of the same
type like D, such that Di = D and Di Dj = or a figure of
zero area (in fact points or piecewise smooth curves!) for i = j (see
235
n
f ((ci , di ))area(Di ).
i=1
F 5
D 24. A function f : D R is (Riemann) integrable
f(x, y)dxdy) such
on D if there exists a real number I (denoted by
D
that for any small > 0, there exists a small (depending on ) with
the following property: if is a division of D with < , then
|I Sf (, {Pi (ci , di )})| < for any set of marking points {Pi (ci , di )}
of . This means that we can well approximate the number I with
Riemann sums of the form Sf (, {Pi (ci , di )}), when 0.
We shall state without a proof some results which are analogous
with the corresponding results for the simple Riemann integral introduced and studied in chapter II. It will not be so difficult for the reader
to imitate the proofs given there. If some difficulties will appear, look
in [Pal] for complete proofs.
T
75. Let D be a plane domain like above and let f : D
R be a Riemann integrable function. Then f must be bounded.
236
6. DOUBLE INTEGRALS
This last result says that the class of integrable functions is included
in the class of bounded functions. This is why any function considered
by us in the following is assumed to be bounded.
Let D be like above, let = {Di }, i = 1, 2, ..., n be a division of D
and let f be a bounded function defined on D with values in R. Let
mi = inf{f (x, y) : (x, y) Di } and let Mi = sup{f (x, y) : (x, y) Di }
for any i = 1, 2, ..., n. Then
n
s (f ) =
mi area(Di )
i=1
for any set of marking points {Pi (ci , di )} of the division , where m =
inf{f (x, y) : (x, y) D} and M = sup{f (x, y) : (x, y) D}. Since the
set {s (f) : goes on the set of all divisions of D} is upper bounded by
M area(D), it has a least upper bound I (f). Since the set {S (f ) :
goes on the set of all divisions of D} is lower bounded by m area(D),
it has a greatest lower bound I (f ). In general, I (f ) I (f ).
T
76. (Darboux criterion) Let D be like above and let f :
D R be a bounded function. Then f is integrable on D if and
only if I (f) = I (f ), i.e. if and only if for any > 0 there exists a
> 0 such that if < then S (f ) s (f ) < . In this last case
I (f ) = I (f ) =
f (x, y)dxdy.
D
This criterion is very useful whenever we want to prove that a specified class of functions is integrable.
T
77. Let D be a closed bounded plane domain with D a
piecewise smooth curve and let f : D R be a continuous function
defined on D. Then f is integrable on D. If f is continuous on a subset D
A of D such that A has an area equal to zero, then f is also
integrable on D.
P. We prove only the first statement of the theorem. Since
D is closed and bounded, D is a compact subset of R2 . Since f is
237
n
i=1
f (x(i) ) f (x(i) ) area(Di )
n
f (x(i) ) f (x(i) ) area(Di ) <
area(Di ) = ,
area(D)
i=1
i=1
#
#
because < implies diam(Di ) < and so, #x(i) x(i) # < .
Thus we can apply the uniform continuity of f and finally we get that
S (f ) s (f) < , i.e. that f is integrable.
238
6. DOUBLE INTEGRALS
The following result put together some basic properties of the double integral.
T
78. a) the mapping f
f (x, y)dxdy is a linear
D
ticular, if f 0 on D, then
D
dxdy.
f (x, y)dxdy
f (x, y)dxdy 0.
D
d)
f (x, y)dxdy
|f (x, y)| dxdy.
D
D
e)
f (x, y)dxdy = f (x0 , y0 ) area(D), where f is continuous and
D
f(x, y) > 0 has area equal to zero (the proof of this statement is more
difficult).
239
i=1
Di
F 6
240
6. DOUBLE INTEGRALS
With these notation and definitions one has the following basic
result.
T
79. (iterative general formula) Let D be a simple domain
w.r.t. Ox-axis like above and let f : D R be a piecewise continuous
function (bounded and continuous on D except a subset of zero area)
defined on D. Then
b (x)
(2.2)
f(x, y)dxdy =
f (x, y)dy dx.
a
(x)
(x)
Here I(x) = (x) f (x, y)dy is an integral with a parameter x in its
general form (see formula (1.2)). This formula says that in order
to compute a double integral on this particular type of domain D, we
fix an x on [a, b], the projection of D on Ox-axis, cut the domain D
with the vertical line which passes through x and obtain the segment
[UV ], where U (x, (x)) and V (x, (x)), compute the simple integral
(x)
I(x) = (x) f(x, y)dy with a parameter x, along this segment and fib
nally compute the next simple integral a I(x)dx. In fact, we just computed the mass I(x) of the segment [UV ], which depends on x, then we
b
"made the sum" a I(x)dx of all these masses I(x).
P. We intend to use the similar iterative formula for a rectangle (see formula (1.2)) for an extension-function f"(x, y) : =
[LM NP ] R of f : D R to . We simply extend f from D to
the rectangle = [a, b] [c, d] by putting zero in all the points of
D :
f (x, y), if (x, y) D
"
f(x, y) =
.
0, if (x, y)
D
But now we can apply the iterative formula (1.2) for the rectangle
= [a, b] [c, d] and find:
b d
"
"
f(x, y)dxdy =
f (x, y)dy dx =
b
a
(x)
f"(x, y)dy +
=
(x)
(x)
b
a
(x)
f"(x, y)dy +
(x)
241
f"(x, y)dy dx =
(x)
For instance, let us compute the mass of the plate D with the
density function f (x, y) = 3xy 2 , where D is the domain bounded by
the line y = x and the parabola y = x2 . Since x [0, 1] and since
x x2 , when x [0, 1], we get:
1 x
1
x
2
2
mass(D) =
3xy dxdy =
x
3y dy dx =
x y 3 x2 dx =
x2
1
x5 x8
1 1
3
x (x x )dx =
= = .
5
8 0 5 8
40
3
(y)
242
6. DOUBLE INTEGRALS
F 7
=2
3 5
(x 1) 2
4 3
32
x 1dx = 2
= 42 = .
3
3
3
2
1
Let us compute now the static moment w.r.t. Oy-axis, by using formula
(2.3) (decomposing D into two nonoverlaping subdomains, compute
also this moment by using formula (2.2)):
MOy (D) =
xdxdy =
1
=
2
[(y + 1) 1]dy =
2
2
y2 +1
xdx dy =
[y 4 + 2y 2 ]dy =
24 11
.
15
Thus,
xG =
xdxdy
mass(D)
24 11
15
32
3
33
.
30
Prove that this xG is the same like the x-coordinates of the mass centre
of the domain D bounded by y = 2, x = y 2 + 1 and by x = 1.
Let us now compute the moment of inertia IOx (D) of the plate D
from Fig.8 with the density function f (x, y) = 2x. The formula is the
same formula for rectangles (see formula (1.8)) extended to a general
243
2
=
3
2x
2 2x
y 2 dy dx =
x2
3
2
(16 2x 2 x6 )dx =
3
2
32 2 5 x7
768
x2
.
=
5
7
35
0
F 8
In example 75 we deduced a formula (1.10) to compute the volume
of a cylindrical solid bounded by a rectangular domain D and "above"
by a piece of a surface z = f (x, y). The same type of reasoning can be
extended for a general domain D like above and the formula remains the
same: vol =
|f (x, y)| dxdy. Let us apply this formula to compute
D
the volume of the cylindrical solid (generated by lines parallel to Ozaxis) with the basis the domain D bounded by the coordinate axes
Ox, Oy, and the line x + y = 1, and limited "above" by the surface
z = x2 + y 2 . Hence
1 1x
2
2
2
2
vol =
(x + y )dxdy =
(x + y )dy dx =
D
244
6. DOUBLE INTEGRALS
1
3 1x
y
(1 x)3
2
2
x y+
dx =
x (1 x) +
dx =
3 0
3
0
3
1
x
x4 (1 x)4
1 1
1
1
= +
= .
3
4
12
3 4 12
6
0
/
Q P
dxdy.
(3.1)
P dx + Qdy =
x
y
D
(3.3)
(3.4)
(3.5)
a)
F 9
x=x
arc[BDA] :
, x [a, b] ,
y = (x)
x = (y)
arc[DAC] :
, y [c, d] ,
y=y
x = (y)
arc[CBD] :
, y [c, d].
y=y
/
P
dxdy = P dx. Indeed,
We firstly prove that
y
D
P
dxdy =
y
b
P (x, (x))dx
/
/
P dx +
Q
dxdy
x
Q
dxdy =
x
d
P
(x, y)dy dx =
y
b
a
arc[BDA]
(x)
(x)
arc[ACB]
D
(y)
(y)
P (x, (x))dx =
/
P dx = P dx.
D
Qdx. Indeed,
Q
(x, y)dx dy =
x
245
246
6. DOUBLE INTEGRALS
Q((y), y))dy
/
Q((y), y))dy =
c
Qdy +
arc[CBD]
Qdy =
Qdy.
arc[DAC]
We now add the two equalities obtained in a) and b) and we finally get
the Green formula.
R 29. If our domain D is not simple with respect to one
axis or to both, we break it into a finite number of subdomains which
are simple w.r.t. both axis and they preserve the other properties of D.
Then we apply Green formula for each of these last domains. Let us
do this for the domain D of Fig.10,
F 10
bounded by the arc [ABCDEF GHA] :
Q P
Q P
dxdy =
dxdy+
x
y
x
y
D
D1
Q P
x
y
D2
Green
arc[GHABCEG]
dxdy +
P dx+Qdy+
Q P
x
y
D3
arc[EF GE]
P dx+Qdy+
dxdy =
arc[CDEC]
P dx+Qdy =
P dx + Qdy +
arc[GHABC]
(3.6)
arc[EF G]
Since
/
P dx + Qdy+
P dx + Qdy.
arc[GE]
P dx + Qdy +
arc[CDE]
arc[EC]
P dx + Qdy +
arc[CE]
P dx + Qdy+
arc[EG]
P dx + Qdy +
P dx + Qdy +
arc[CE]
247
P dx + Qdy = 0 and
arc[EC]
P dx + Qdy +
P dx + Qdy+
arc[EG]
arc[GE]
D
Q P
x
y
dxdy =
P dx + Qdy +
arc[GHABC]
P dx + Qdy =
arc[CDE]
P dx + Qdy,
arc[EF G]
248
6. DOUBLE INTEGRALS
arc[AB]
geometrical form of the arc [AB] which connect these points A and
B. Indeed, if we take a direct oriented closed piecewise smooth curve
D and if we denote by D D the subdomain of D bounded by
(here we need that D be simple connected), by applying Green formula
for D with D = , we get:
/
Q P
P dx + Qdy =
dxdy = 0.
x
y
P dx + Qdy is independent on
arc[AB]
the path which connect A and B and, consequently, the field F = (P, Q)
is conservative.
E 78. (a practical method for computing the static moments
for plane domains) In Mechanics we meet the following situation. Let
D be a plane domain with a complicated boundary D. Moreover, we
do not know exactly to describe this boundary; it is only supplied by a
large number of points
A0 (x0 , y0 ), A1 (x1 , y1 ), ..., An (xn , yn )
which are situated on D (see Fig.11).
F 11
249
Q(x, y) =
Green formula:
xk+1
k+1
and P = 0 in the
xk+1
dy.
k+1
D
D
##
#
#
If n is large enough and if the lengths #Aj Aj+1 # are small enough, we
can well approximate D with the polygonal line [A0 A1 ...An1 An A0 ].
Thus
/ k+1
x
k
(3.7) x dxdy =
dy
k+1
D
D
/
/
n
1
1
k+1
(3.8)
x dy +
xk+1 dy.
k + 1 i=1
k+1
k
x dxdy =
[Ai1 Ai ]
[An A0 ]
[Ai1 Ai ]
[Ai1 Ai ]
Hence
(3.9)
k+1
dy =
1
yi yi1
1
k+2
=
xk dxdy
250
6. DOUBLE INTEGRALS
n
xk+2
xk+2
1
xk+2
xk+2
i
i1
0
n
+
(yi yi1 )
.
(y0 yn )
(k + 1)(k + 2)
x0 xn
xi xi1
i=1
This last formula is important in practice. For instance, if D is bounded
by a polygonal line [A0 A1 ...An1 An A0 ] and if k = 0, we get
n
1
(yi yi1 )(xi + xi1 )
(3.10) area(D) =
(y0 yn )(x0 + xn ) +
2
i=1
For instance, if n = 2 (a triangle), we
computing the area of a triangle
1 x0
area(A0 A1 A2 ) = x1
2 x
2
Here we do not need to put the absolute value for the determinant because the direct trigonometric direction of the sequence of points A0 ,
A1 , A2 assures the nonnegativity of this determinant. We propose to
the reader to find nice geometrical or mechanical interpretations for
formulas (3.9) and (3.10).
We can even continue to find "nice" formulas. Let the mm matrix
Iij (D) =
xi y j f (x, y)dxdy
D
of the generalized moment of inertia for a plate (D, f), where f is the
density function. If one can well approximate this f by a polynomial
P (x, y) in two variables, we can reduce the problem of the calculation
of such moments to the computation of double integrals of the following
type
xi y j dxdy for i, j {0, 1, 2, ...}. Applying again Green formula
we get
i j
x y dxdy =
xi+1 j
y dy.
i+1
E 79. Let us use the Green formula (see theorem 80) to
/
compute the line integral I =
xydx + x2 dy (see Fig.12). Thus,
arc[OABO]
I=
(2x x)dxdy =
2x
dy dx =
1
0
1
x2 dx = .
3
F 12
4. Change of variables in double integrals. Polar
coordinates.
When we have to compute a double integral
f (x, y)dxdy we
D
need an analytical expression of f and a parameterization of the boundary D of the domain D. It is clear that if these ones are complicated,
our integral can not easily be computed.
E 80. For instance, let us try to find the mass of the disc
D = {(x, y) : x2 + y 2 9} with the density function f (x, y) = x2 y 2 .
mass(D) =
x2 y 2 dxdy =
x2
9x2
9x2
y 2 dy dx =
252
6. DOUBLE INTEGRALS
2
=
3
3
2
x
3
9x2
y 3 0
2
dx =
3
3
3
x2 (9 x2 ) 9 x2 dx.
parametrization sheet)
g : D of a closed bounded plane domain
If
g (u, v) = x(u, v) i + y(u, v) j , where x(u, v) and y(u, v) are the
g :
, (u, v) .
y = y(u, v)
Here we must be careful because the same letter x is used for the
variable x and, at the same time, like a name of a function x(u, v) of
variables u and v. The same is for the letter y. We intentionally did
this because we wanted to show that the variable x was changed with
a function x(u, v) of variables u and v and the variable y was changed
with a function y(u, v) of the new variables u and v. This change of the
"old" variables x and y with the "new" ones u and v is called a change
x
(u, v) x
(u, v)
u
v
J (u, v) = det y
(u, v) y
(u, v)
u
v
F 13
of
g (u, v) computed at the point Pij ( i , j ). Here the sign "" means
"well approximation". This approximation is better and better if the
norms of the divisions generated by {ui } and {vj } are smaller and
smaller, i.e. if ui ui1 0 and vj vj1 0 for any i and j.
The above formula is usually written in a formal way:
(4.1)
We say that the initial element of area dudv (which is the area of
=
(ci , vj1 ) i +
(c , vj1 ) j (ui ui1 ).
u
u i
Here we used Lagrange formula for functions t x(t, vj1 ) and t
y(t, vj1 ) on the interval [ui1 , ui ]. Since the length of this last interval
is small enough, since both functions just defined are of class C 1 , since
254
6. DOUBLE INTEGRALS
F 14
ci , ci , i [ui1 , ui ] and since j [vj1 , vj ], we can further make the
following approximation:
(4.2)
M0 M1
( , ) i +
( , ) j (ui ui1 ).
u i j
u i j
Secondly one gets:
=
(ui1 , dj ) i +
(ui1 , dj ) j (vj vj1 ).
v
v
Here we used Lagrange formula for functions s x(ui1 , s) and s
y(ui1 , s) on the interval [vj1 , vj ]. Since the length of this last interval
is small enough, since both functions just defined are of class C 1 , since
dj , dj , j [vj1 , vj ] and since i [ui1 , ui ], we can further make the
following approximation:
(4.3)
M0 M2
( , ) i +
( , ) j (vj vj1 ).
v i j
v i j
Hence
M0 M1 M0 M2
x
y
x
y
( i , j )
( i , j )
( i , j )
( i , j ) (ui ui1 )(vj vj1 ) k .
u
v
v
u
Thus
# #
#
#
#M0 M1 M0 M2 #
x
y
x
y
( i , j )
( i , j )
( i , j )
( i , j ) area([P0 P1 P2 P3 ]) =
u
v
v
u
= J( i , j ) area([P0 P1 P2 P3 ]).
# #
#
#
Since area([M0 M1 M2 M3 ]) #M0 M1 M0 M2 # , we finally get:
area([M0 M1 M2 M3 ]) J( i , j ) area([P0 P1 P2 P3 ]),
T
82. (change of variables formula) Let us preserve the
above notation and hypotheses. Let f : D R be a piecewise continuous function defined on D. Then
(4.4)
f (x, y)dxdy =
f (x(u, v), y(u, v)) |J(u, v)| dudv.
D
n
m
i=1 j=1
f (x( i , j ), y( i , j )) J( i , j ) (ui ui1 )(vj vj1 )
f (x(u, v), y(u, v)) |J(u, v)| dudv become closer and closer! There-
256
6. DOUBLE INTEGRALS
Formula (4.4) is called "change of variables formula" and it is extremely useful in practice.
The most popular change of variables are the change of the Cartesian coordinates (x, y) with the polar coordinates (, ) :
(4.5)
x = cos
,
y = sin
where goes from 0 (without it!) up to and [0, 2). The defor
mation induced by this change of variables is
g : (0, ) [0, 2)
2
R
{(0, 0)}, g (, ) = ( cos , sin ). It is important because it deforms the interior of a rectangle = (0, R] [0, 2), R > 0, into the
interior of the disc B((0, 0), R) = {(x, y) : x2 + y 2 R2 }. Since some
finite length smooth curves do not count for us during the double integration process, we will simply
say that any disc in a fixed plane is the
x = x0 + cos
image after a deformation
, (0, R), [0, 2),
y = y0 + sin
of a rectangle from the (, )-plane. Here (x0 , y0 ) is the centre of the
disc and R is its radius. The first one (see formula (4.5)) is a particular
case of this last more general polar coordinates change. The Jacobian
of the polar coordinates change is equal to
cos sin
det
= = 0.
sin cos
(see also [Po], Ch.11, Section 6). Hence formula (4.1) becomes:
(4.6)
dxdy = dd.
For instance, let consider again the double integral of example 80 and
let us change the Cartesian variables (x, y) with the polar coordinates
(, ) (see formula (4.5)). Here dxdy = dd. Thus, formula (4.4) can
be applied:
2 2
x y dxdy =
D: x2 +y 2 9
2
4
cos sin d d =
2
3
1
2
=
cos sin d d =
sin 2d
5 d =
4 0
0
0
0
2
5
5
1 cos 4
3
3
=
d
=
.
2
4
4
0
We can remark how easy become the calculations if we changed the
variables!
E 81. Let us compute the inertia moment of the ellipse
2
+ yb2 1 w.r.t. Oy-axis. Since nothing is said on the density
function, we take f (x, y) = 1. If one tries to compute the double integral
which appear here,
x2 dxdy, by using only iterative formulas,
x2
a2
2
x2
+ y2 1
a2
b
D:
one will see that the calculations becomes very difficult. Let us try to
use the following "general polar coordinates" change of variables:
x = a cos
, (0, 1], [0, 2).
y = b sin
It is easy to see that in this last case J = ab and our integral becomes
(we simply apply change of variables formula (4.4):
D:
= ab
x dxdy =
2
x2
+ y2 1
a2
b
1
0
2
2
cos d d = ab
0
1
= ab
4
2
2
cos d abd =
0
1
3
2
2
cos d
1 + cos 2
ab
d =
.
2
4
2
E 82. The area of the ellipse xa2 + yb2 1 can be immediately
computed by using the above change of variables.
area =
D:
2
x2
+ y2 1
a2
b
dxdy =
d abd = ab.
258
6. DOUBLE INTEGRALS
yG = D
.
x2 + y 2 dxdy
D
To compute these two double integrals we shall use the common polar
coordinates (because the circle D contains the origin! Otherwise this
method fails!). Let us write the Cartesian equation of the disc in the
language of polar coordinates: 2 cos2 + 2 sin2 + 4 sin 0, or
+ 4 sin 0, or 0 < 4 sin . This time, for any fixed value of ,
goes between 0 and 4 sin (Draw and look at it!). Now itself goes
between and 2. Hence
2 4 sin
2 3 4 sin
x2 + y 2 dxdy =
d d =
d =
3
64 2
sin d =
(1 cos2 )d(cos ) =
3
2
cos3
256
64
=
cos
=
.
3
3
9
Now, we look at the last calculations and make some slight modifications
in order to compute the double integral in the numerator:
2 4 sin
2
y x2 + y 2 dxdy =
sin d d =
64
=
3
4 sin
4
256 2 5
sin
d =
sin d =
4 0
4
2
= 64
(1 cos2 )2 d(cos ) =
= 64
Thus yG =
2
2
1
16
3
5
64 cos cos + cos = 64 .
3
5
15
64 16
15
256
9
= 12
.
5
E 84. Sometimes the centre of the disc is not in the origin
of the axes and the boundary of the disc does not passes through the
origin. For instance, let us compute the mass of the disc D : (x
1)2 + (y + 3)2 1 if the density function is f (x, y) = x. Let us use the
following change of variables:
x = 1 + cos
, (0, 1), [0, 2).
y = 3 + sin
Thus,
mass(D) =
xdxdy =
1
0
(1 + cos ) d d = .
E 85. Let us compute for instance the mass of the plate
[A0 A1 A2 A3 ] with the density function f(x, y) = y (see Fig.15).
F 15
iterative formulas, it is not so easy. Let us try to change this "complicated" domain into a rectangle, on which it will be easy to integrate.
We need some knowledge from a Linear Algebra course. Let us start
with the square = [0, 1] [0, 1] and let us try to find a "translated"
linear mapping
g : R2 R2 which "without the translation part"
260
6. DOUBLE INTEGRALS
is that
g is a dilation of axes + a translation + a rotation + a lin
ear deformation of angles!). Hence, the conditions:
g (0, 0) = (3, 2),
g (1, 0) = (13, 5), g (0, 1) = (4, 6) and g (1, 1) = (14, 9) (see Fig.6.15)
supply us with the values of a, b, c, d, e, h. In fact we do not need the
and h = 2. Thus
(10 + ) i + (3 + 4) j = (10 i + 3 j ) + ( i + 4 j ),
or
10 + = 10 +
.
3 + 4 = 3 + 4
= 36
1
D
1
ydxdy =
(3u + 4v + 2) 36dudv =
[0,1][0,1]
(3u + 4v + 2)dv du = 36
0
(3u + 4) du =
0
= 36
3
+4
2
= 18 11 = 18 (10 + 1) = 198.
x= cos
y= sin
Thus I =
.
2
D: x0,y0
The integral
1 2
d d =
= .
e
2
2
4
0
2
2
ex y dxdy is an improper dou-
D: x0,y0
ble integral of the first type (the function is bounded but the domain
is unbounded). Formula (4.5) and the theory of improper simple integrals are sufficient for the practical problems related to improper double
integrals.
For instance, let us consider the following improper double integral
1
D: x2 +y2 1
1
x2 +y 2
x= cos
lim
y= sin 0
23
1
4
3
3
d d = 2 lim 4 = .
0
2
3
Here we used the formula dxdy = dd. Pay attention, do not forget
262
6. DOUBLE INTEGRALS
R 30. Sometimes we encounter the following type of problems. We know that the area of a domain D is computed as follows:
15 34y2
4
(4.7)
(D) =
dx dy.
15
4
1y2
15
,
for
any
fixed
value
of
y
in
this
interval,
x
[1
1 y2, 3
4
4 y 2 ], i.e.
1 1 y2 x 3 4 y2.
This double inequality can be decomposed into two inequalities: (x
1)2 + y 2 1, i.e. the disc with centre at C1 (1, 0) and radius r = 1
and (x 3)2 + y 2 4, i.e. the exterior of the open disc with centre at
C2 (3, 0) and radius R = 2. To change the order of integration it is not
so easy. First of all we see that the domain D described by the last two
inequalities:
(x 1)2 + y 2 1
D:
(x 3)2 + y 2 4
is simple w.r.t. the Oy-axis but it is not simple w.r.t. the Ox-axis.
However, it is symmetric w.r.t. Ox-axis. Hence the area of D is two
times the area of the superior part of D. i.e. the domain D :
(x 1)2 + y 2 1
D :
, y 0.
(x 3)2 + y 2 4
Even if this last domain is not simple with respect to the Ox-axis (make
a drawing and see this!). In fact D can be decomposed into a union
of two nonoverlaping domains D1 and D2 corresponding to x [0, 1]
and to x [1, 54 ] respectively (prove this!). By making explicit the
expression of y as a function of x in the equalities (x 1)2 + y 2 = 1
and (x 3)2 + y 2 = 4 we finally get:
5 2xx2
1
2xx2
4
dy dx +
dy dx .
(D) = 2(D ) = 2
6xx2 5
263
x[0,), y[1,2]
xy 2 dxdy, where D is the domain bounded by y = 2x and
c)
D
y = x ; d)
x2 y 2 dxdy, where D is the finite domain bounded by
2
x = 0, y = 0 and 2x 3y + 1 = 0.
2. Compute the mass of the lamina D bounded by y = x2 and
D : 0 x2 + y 2 e2 ?
8. Find the static moment of D : x2 + y 2 2, x y w.r.t. Oy-axis.
9. Compute the mass of the disc x2 + y 2 x y 0 if the density
function is f(x, y)
= x + y.
10. Let A(1, 3), B(1, 3) and C(2, 0) be three points in the
264
6. DOUBLE INTEGRALS
ydx xdy if A(4, 2), B(4, 0), C(4, 2), [COA] is an arc
arc[ABCOA]+
where:
CHAPTER 7
Triple integrals
1. What is a triple integral on a parallelepiped?
f(x, y)dxdy are connected with plane domains
Double integrals
D
of volume and f (x, y, z) stands for "the density" function, etc. Since
all the theory of such triple integrals is nothing else then a slight generalization of the theory of double integrals, we do not insist more on it.
Thus some proofs will be omitted in this chapter, because the reader
can easily recover them by a simple imitation of the corresponding
proofs made by us in the case of the double or simple integrals.
D 25. By a space domain D we mean a subset D of R3
which is closed, bounded, connected and its boundary D is a piecewise
smooth surface of class C 1 (see bellow the definition of this notion or
look in any book of Differential Geometry). A couple = (D, f) of
a space domain D and a piecewise continuous function f : D R is
said to be a solid in R3 . Here a piecewise continuous function f defined
on D is a function defined on D, which is continuous except a subset
A of D such that vol(A) = 0 (we bellow recall the notion of a volume
or a measure in R3 . See also the general definition 7). We say that a
3
field g : W R , where W is a plane domain, such that g is of class
C 1 except a subset B of W of zero area (i.e. area(B) = 0). If f = 1 we
also call D a solid. Sometimes, even we do not specify anything about
f, we call such a space domain D a solid. The function f is called a
density function because it associates to any point M (x, y, z) of D, a
number f (x, y, z), "the density of the solid at M ".
265
266
7. TRIPLE INTEGRALS
F 1
Let now D = [a, b] [c, d] [e, g] be a parallelepiped space domain
and let us consider the following divisions x : a = x0 < x1 < ... <
xn = b, y : c = y0 < y1 < ... < ym = d, z : e = z0 < z1 <
... < zp = g of the segments [a, b], [c, d] and [e, g] respectively. Let
= x y z = {Dijk = [xi1 , xi ] [yj1 , yj ] [zk1 , zk ]} be the
3-dimensional division of D generated by x , y and z (see Fig.2).
Let
{Pijk ( i , j , k )}, i [xi1 , xi ], j [yj1 , yj ], k [zk1 , zk ]
(i.e. Pijk Dijk ) be a fixed set of marking points of the division and
let
= max{diam(Dijk )}
i,j,k
267
F 2
of Dijk . Thus, the entire mass of D can be well approximated by the
following triple Riemann sum:
(1.1)
Sf (; {Pijk ( i , j , k )}) =
p
n
m
i=1 j=1 k=1
f ( i , j , k ) vol(Dijk ),
for any division with < and for any set of marking points
{Pijk ( i , j , k )} of . This number I is denoted by
f (x, y, z)dxdydz
D
268
7. TRIPLE INTEGRALS
b d g
f(x, y, z)dxdydz =
f(x, y, z)dz dy dx.
(1.2)
a
means that the computation of a triple integral on a parallelepiped domain reduces to the calculation of three simple integrals, step by step,
i.e. in an iterative style.
b d g
T =
f (x, y, z)dz dy dx
a
and
I=
f (x, y, z)dxdydz.
Since, by definition, I exists if it is the unique limit point of the Riemann sums Sf (; {Pijk ( i , j , k )}), we shall prove that T itself is the
unique limit point of such type of sums. So I exists and it will be equal
to T. Let us preserve the notation from the statement of the theorem.
269
g
Since J(x, y) = e f (x, y, z)dz can be well approximated by Riemann
sums of the form:
p
J(x, y)
f (x, y, k )(zk zk1 ),
we see that K(x) =
the following type:
(1.3)
d
c
K(x)
d
k=1
p
k=1
j=1
(k)
(k)
(k)
k=1 j=1
b
p
m b
T
f(x, j , k )dx (yj yj1 )(zk zk1 ).
a
k=1 j=1
But
f (x, j , k )dx
njk
(jk)
f ( (jk) , j , k )(xi
i=1
(jk)
(jk)
xi1 ).
(jk)
(jk)
p
n
m
i=1 j=1 k=1
f ( i , j , k ) vol(Dijk ),
because of the commutative and associative properties of the usual addition of real numbers. Hence T can be well approximated by Riemann
sums of the type (1.1), i.e. I = T.
270
7. TRIPLE INTEGRALS
E 86. Let us compute the mass of the unitary cube D =
[0, 1] [0, 1] [0, 1] with the density function f (x, y, z) = 3xyz + 1. The
iterative method described above will be used.
mass(D) =
(3xyz + 1)dxdydz =
D
1 1
1
1
0
y=1
1
3xy
3xy 2
+ 1 dy dx =
+ y dx =
2
4
0
0
y=0
2
x=1
1
3x
11
3x
= .
=
+ 1 dx =
+ x
4
8
8
0
x=0
1
(3xyz + 1)dz dy dx =
z=1
3xyz 2
+ z dy dx =
2
z=0
0
(1.4) xG = D
f(x, y, z)dxdydz
, yG = D
f (x, y, z)dxdydz
zG = D
zf (x, y, z)dxdydz
.
f (x, y, z)dxdydz
If the solid (D, f ) is rotating around Oz-axis say, then the inertia mo
ment Iz =
(x2 + y 2 )f (x, y, z)dxdydz, etc. All of these formulas
D
271
F 3
The volume of such an elementary domain is equal, by definition,
to the sum of all volumes of the component parallelepipeds. Let us
recall definition 7 of a volume (measure in the 3-dimensional case).
D 27. A subset D of R3 has a volume vol(D) R+ if for
any small real number > 0 there exist two elementary domains Eint
and Eext such that:
1) Eint D Eext ,
2) vol(Eext ) vol(Eint ) < .
3) vol(Eint ) vol(D) vol(Eext ).
This means that a subset D R3 has a volume vol(D), a nonnegative real number, if and only if there exist two towers of elementary
(j)
(j)
domains {Eint } and {Eext } such that
(2.1)
(1)
(2)
(k)
(m)
(2)
(1)
Eint Eint ... Eint ... D ... Eext ... Eext Eext ,
272
7. TRIPLE INTEGRALS
(m)
(k)
when 0. I =
273
(m)
n
(m)
(m)
(m)
f ( i , i , i )vol(Di ),
i=1
(m)
n
i=1
mi vol(Di )
274
7. TRIPLE INTEGRALS
This criterion is very useful whenever we want to prove that a specified class of functions are integrable.
T
86. Let D be a closed bounded space domain with D a
piecewise smooth surface and let f : D R be a continuous function
defined on D. Then f is integrable on D. If f is continuous on a subset
D
A of D such that A has a volume equal to zero, then f is also
integrable on D.
P. We prove only the first statement of the theorem. Since
D is closed and bounded, D is a compact subset of R3 . Since f is
continuous, it is uniformly continuous (see [Po], theorem 59). In order
to prove that f is integrable we shall use the above Darboux criterion
85. For this, let us take a small > 0. The uniform continuity of f
implies that there exists a small > 0 (depending on ) such that if
275
and
Mi = sup{f (x, y, z) : (x, y, z) Di } = f (x(i) )
(see [Po], theorem 58). Hence
n
S (f ) s (f) =
f (x(i) ) f (x(i) ) vol(Di )
i=1
n
f (x(i) ) f (x(i) ) vol(Di ) <
vol(Di ) = ,
vol(D)
i=1
i=1
#
#
because < implies diam(Di ) < and so, #x(i) x(i) # < .
Thus we can apply the uniform continuity of f and finally we get that
S (f ) s (f) < , i.e. that f is integrable.
R 31. Up to now we used closed bounded domains Di with
piecewise smooth boundaries, as subdomains of a division of a fixed
domain D of the same type. Since any such subdomain Di can be well
approximated with elementary domains (finite union of nonoverlaping
parallelepipeds) or with finite unions of nonoverlaping tethrahedrons,
balls, prisms, etc., we can substitute these Di in definition 28 or in
theorem 85 with tethrahedrons, balls, prisms, etc. It is clear that in
general it is not possible to cover a domain D with nonoverlaping balls,
for instance. But, for any small > 0, there exists such a union of
balls U D, such that vol(D
U ) < . Hence we can work with the
following alternative equivalent definition for an integrable function f.
We say that f : D R is (Riemann) integrable on D if there exists a real number I such that for any small > 0 and > 0 there
exists a union U = {Bi }
of nonoverlaping balls, such that U D,
vol(D
U ) < and |I ni=1 f ( i , i , i )vol(Bi )| < for any set of
marking points {Pi ( i , i , i )}, Pi ( i , i , i ) Bi , i = 1, 2, ..., n. Similarly we can work with tethrahedrons, prisms, general parallelepipeds,
etc., instead of balls. This is why if one has a tower of domains like in
the formula (2.1),
(1)
(2)
(k)
(k)
Eint
276
7. TRIPLE INTEGRALS
or
(2.3)
f (x, y, z)dxdydz
f (x, y, z)dxdydz
(k)
Eint
ear mapping defined on the vector space Int(D) of all integrable functions defined on D. This means that
[f (x, y, z) + g(x, y, z)]dxdydz =
D
=
f(x, y, z)dxdydz +
g(x, y, z)dxdydz.
D
dxdydz.
c) if f g on D, then
f(x, y, z)dxdydz
g(x, y, z)dxdydz.
D
In particular, if f 0 on D, then
f (x, y, z)dxdydz 0.
D
d)
f (x, y, z)dxdydz
|f(x, y, z)| dxdydz.
D
e)
277
then the set A of points (x, y, z) for which f(x, y, z) > 0 has the volume
equal to zero (the proof of this statement is more difficult).
f) if = {Di }, i = 1, 2, ..., n is a division of D, then
n
f (x, y, z)dxdydz =
f(x, y, z)dxdydz.
i=1
Di
f(x, y, z)dxdydz
, yG = D
f (x, y, z)dxdydz
zG = D
D
zf (x, y, z)dxdydz
.
f (x, y, z)dxdydz
278
7. TRIPLE INTEGRALS
If our solid (D, f ) is rotating around the Oz-axis for instance, the
inertia moment can be computed as follows:
Iz =
(x2 + y 2 )f (x, y, z)dxdydz,
D
because the square of the distance of a point M (x, y, z) up to the Ozaxis is equal to x2 + y 2 . The reader can easily deduce other formulae
if one knows such a formula for a point with a "mass" at it. For
instance, a solid (D, f ) is moving around a straight line (d) and the
distance of a point M (x, y, z) of this solid up to the line (d) is a function
H(x, y, z). Then, the inertia moment of this single point is equal to
H 2 (x, y, z) f (x, y, z). Now we "globalize" this last relation and obtain
a general formula for the inertia moment of the entire solid, when it is
rotating around the line (d) :
I(d) =
H 2 (x, y, z) f (x, y, z)dxdydz.
D
x=x
y=y
, (x, y) = prxOy (S),
(S) :
z = z(x, y)
279
F 4
when (x, y) runs on a plane domain contained in the xOy-plane (see
Fig.5). This means that D is a cylindrical domain delimited "up and
down" by the explicitly described surfaces z = (x, y) and z = (x, y).
F 5
280
7. TRIPLE INTEGRALS
T
88. (a general iterative formula I) Let D be a general
domain (see its definition at the beginning of this section) in R3 and
let (D, f ) be a solid (f : D R is a piecewise continuous function).
We also assume that D is simple w.r.t. Oz-axis. Then:
(x,y)
(3.1)
f(x, y, z)dxdydz =
f(x, y, z)dz dxdy.
D
(x,y)
281
=
=
b
a
[a,b][c,d]
(x,y)
d
(x,y)
f"(x, y, z)dz dy dx =
f"(x, y, z)dz +
f"(x, y, z)dz)dxdy =
=
[a,b][c,d]
(x,y)
(x,y)
(x,y)
(x,y)
(x,y)
" y, z)dz+
f(x,
(x,y)
i.e. we just obtained the iterative formula (3.1). Here we used the
fact that f"(x, y, z) = 0 at all the points of the segment [A, B] which
are outside of the segment [M1 M2 ] and, at all the points of E which
are projected on the xOy-plane in the points of the region [a, b]
[c, d]
(see Fig.5). For the other points (x, y, z) of D, f"(x, y, z) =
f(x, y, z).
x2 +y2 4
3
2
x2 +y 2 4
2
z 2 x2 +y2
=6
x2 +y2 4
3
dxdy =
2
x2 +y2 4
3
dxdy
2
x2 +y2 4
x2 +y 2
4 (x2 + y 2 ) dxdy =
(x2 + y 2 )dxdy.
282
7. TRIPLE INTEGRALS
F 6
The first double integral is nothing else then 6 times the area of a disc
with radius 2, thus its value is equal to 24. Let us use polar coordinates
change of variables to compute the second double integral:
2 2
2
2
2
(x + y )dxdy =
d d =
x2 +y2 4
Hence,
2
3
2
0
2
4
d d = 2 = 8.
4 0
3
8 = 12.
2
We see that in the above iterative formula first of all one computes
a simple integral and then one computes a double integral. We shall
see in the following that in some cases it is possible to compute firstly
a double integral and then a simple one. Moreover, in the next result
the general domain D which appeared in the statement of theorem 88
needs not to be simple.
mass() = 24
T
89. (a general iterative formula II) Let be a general
domain and let (, f ) be a solid such that [e, g] = prOz (), S =
{Z = z}, where z [e, g], is the section of realized by the plane Z = z
and z is the projection of S on the xOy-plane (see Fig.7). Then,
g
(3.2)
f (x, y, z)dxdydz =
f (x, y, z)dxdy dz.
283
f (x, y, z)dxdy
g
e
I(z)dz
F 7
P. To avoid some nonessential technical tricks, we assume
that f : R is a continuous function. Let E = [ABCDA B C D ] =
[a, b] [c, d] [e, g] be a parallelepiped which contains and
f(x, y, z), if (x, y, z) ,
f"(x, y, z) =
0, if (x, y, z) E
.
[a,b][c,d]
f"(x, y, z)dxdy dz =
284
7. TRIPLE INTEGRALS
Iz =
z 2 (x2 + y 2 )dxdydz =
z2
2
d d dz = 2
x2 +y2 z2
2
(x2 + y 2 )dxdy dz =
2
z4
z 7
64
.
z dz = =
4
2 7 0
7
2
F 8
Both iterative formulas (3.1) and (3.2) refers to the Oz-axis. We can
easily imagine the other four types of formulas which refer to Oy-axis
and to Ox-axis.
E 89. For instance, let us find the coordinates of the mass
centre of the domain D : x2 + z 2 2y, 0 y 8 and the density
function f (x, y, z) = y. The matter is about a circular paraboloidal
domain with Oy as an axe of symmetry. The symmetry here is also
a static symmetry because the mass is symmetrically distributed w.r.t.
285
ydxdydz
use the first iterative formula (3.1). The projection of the domain on
the zOx-plane is the disc: x2 + z 2 16, with radius equal to 4. For
a fixed point P (x, 0, z) in this last disc, all the points of D which are
projecting in P are the points of the space segment
[M1 (x,
Thus,
ydxdydz =
1
=
2
x2 +z 2 16
x2 +z 2 16
x2 + z 2
, z), M2 (x, 8, z)].
2
1
2 8
y | x2 +z2 dxdz =
2
2
= 32
x2 +z2 16
x2 +z 2
2
1
dxdz
8
ydy dxdz =
(x2 + z 2 )2 dxdz.
x2 +z2 16
(x2 + z 2 )2
dxdz =
64
4
x2 +z 2 16
4 2
6
46
2
2 2
4
(x + z ) dxdz =
d d = 2 = .
6 0
3
0
0
x2 +z 2 16
x2 +z 2 16
x +z
2
286
1
=
3
7. TRIPLE INTEGRALS
x2 +z2 16
3 8
y | x2 +z2
2
83
=
3
1
dxdz =
3
1
dxdz
24
x2 +z 2 16
1
83
=
16
3
24
x2 +z 2 16
(x2 + z 2 )3 dxdz =
x2 +z 2 16
4
0
(x2 + z 2 )3
3
8
dxdz =
8
2
6
d d =
4
83
1
8
83
1
48
=
16
2 =
16
2
=
3
24
8 0
3
24
8
1 5
8 16 48 2 = 2 45 .
=
24 8
245
Hence, yG = 45 = 6.
3
tor function
g : D,
g (u, v, w) = (x(u, v, w), y(u, v, w), z(u, v, w))
1
g
: D are vector functions (fields) of class C 1 . Here x, y, z
are independent variables, but x(u, v, w), y(u, v, w), z(u, v, w) are three
functions of three independent variables u, v and w. We prefer not to
introduce new notation for the name of these three last functions (like
(u, v, w), (u, v.w), (u, v, w)). A change of the "old" variables x, y
and z with the "new" ones u, v and w is nothing else then such a smooth
deformation or a "regular transformation", another more mathematical
term for the same notion.
First of all we are interested how changes the volume of a small (its
diameter is small enough!) parallelepiped domain [P0 P1 P4 P3 P2 P1 P4 P3 ]
of the domain , which contains a fixed marking point P (, , ),
287
F 9
M0 (x0 , y0 , z0 ), M1 (x1 , y1 , z1 ), M2 (x2 , y2 , z2 ) and M3 (x3 , y3 , z3 ) then,
x0 = x(u0 , v0 , w0 ) x1 = x(u0 , v1 , w0 )
y0 = y(u0 , v0 , w0 ) ,
y1 = y(u0 , v1 , w0 ) ,
(4.1)
z0 = z(u0 , v0 , w0 )
z1 = z(u0 , v1 , w0 )
x2 = x(u0 , v0 , w1 ) x3 = x(u1 , v0 , w0 )
y2 = y(u0 , v0 , w1 ) ,
y3 = y(u1 , v0 , w0 ) .
z2 = z(u0 , v0 , w1 )
z3 = z(u1 , v0 , w0 )
T
90. (the change of an elementary volume) With the
above notation and hypotheses, one has that:
vol([M0 M1 M4 M3 M2 M1 M4 M3 ])
J
g (, , ) vol([P0 P1 P4 P3 P2 P1 P4 P3 ]) =
= J
g (, , ) (u1 u0 )(v1 v0 )(w1 w0 ).
The approximation means that the volume of the image of the parallelepiped
[P0 P1 P4 P3 P2 P1 P4 P3 ]
288
7. TRIPLE INTEGRALS
x1 x0
(4.5)
det x2 x0
x3 x0
y1 y0 z1 z0
y2 y0 z2 z0 .
y3 y0 z3 z0
x
(u0 , c, w0 ) (v1 v0 ),
v
x1 x0
y
(, , ) (v1 v0 ),
v
z
(, , ) (v1 v0 ),
v
y1 y0
z1 z0
289
x
(, , ) (w1 w0 ),
w
y
(, , ) (w1 w0 ),
w
z
(, , ) (w1 w0 ),
w
x2 x0
y2 y0
z2 z0
x
(, , ) (u1 u0 ),
u
y
y3 y0
(, , ) (u1 u0 ),
u
z
(, , ) (u1 u0 ).
z3 z0
u
With these approximations, we come back to the above determinant
(4.5) and find:
x1 x0 y1 y0 z1 z0
det x2 x0 y2 y0 z2 z0
x3 x0 y3 y0 z3 z0
x
y
z
(,
,
)
(,
,
)
(,
,
)
v
v
v
y
x
z
det w
(, , ) w
(, , ) w
(, , ) (u1 u0 )(v1 v0 )(w1 w0 ).
y
x
z
(, , ) u (, , ) u (, , )
u
Since the determinant of a transposed matrix is the same like the determinant of the initial matrix and since by changing the rows between
them, the absolute value of the obtained determinant does not change,
we finally get that the absolute value of this last value is nothing else
then
J
x
x
x
(, , ) v (, , ) w
(, , )
u
y (, , ) y (, , ) y (, , )
(4.7)
J
g (, , ) = det
u
v
w
z
z
z
(,
,
)
(,
,
)
(, , )
u
v
w
x3 x0
Let us use this basic result in order to prove the next theorem. We
shall again use the following simple observation: if two real numbers I
and J are limit points for one and the same subset A of real numbers
and if A has a unique limit point, then I = J. Instead of saying that I
is a limit point of A, we can say that I can be well approximated with
elements of A, etc.
290
7. TRIPLE INTEGRALS
T
91. (general change of variables in triple integrals) With
the above notation and hypotheses one has:
(4.8)
f (x, y, z)dxdydz =
D
g . Since
g is a diffeomorphism, D can also be well approximated
by the set of subdomains {Dijk }, i = 1, 2, ..., n, j = 1, 2, ..., m, k =
1, 2, ..., p.
Let {Pijk ( i , j , k )}, Pijk ijk , be a set of marking points in
(Pay attention, {ijk } is not a division of ). We just remarked above
(see remark 31) that the triple integral I =
f (x, y, z)dxdydz can
D
J
g ( i , j , k ) (ui ui1 )(vj vj1 )(wk wk1 ),
which is a sum that well approximates the triple integral
J=
f(x(u, v, w), y(u, v, w), z(u, v, w)) J
g (u, v, w) dudvdw.
291
deformation
g . Even
g : D is not more a difeomorphism,
but it is so whenever we restrict it to an open subset with
vol(
) = 0 and the subset D
g ( ) has volume zero, the change
of variables formula continues to work. Indeed,
f (x, y, z)dxdydz =
f (x, y, z)dxdydz+
D
g ( )
D
g ( )
f (x, y, z)dxdydz = 0 +
f (x, y, z)dxdydz =
g ( )
Jacobian J
g is zero at some points of , or g is not a bijection or a
diffeomorphism around some points of (see bellow the change of the
Cartesian coordinates x, y, z into the spherical coordinates , , ).
E 90. Let D be the skew parallelepiped [OACBDA C B ]
generated by the vectors OA = i + 3 j + k , OB = 3 i + k and
OD = i + j + 4 k (see Fig.10).
Assume that D is loaded with a density function f (x, y, z) = x +
y + z. Let us compute the mass of D, i.e. the triple integral I =
292
7. TRIPLE INTEGRALS
F 10
1 3 1
3 0 1 .
M
g =
1 1 4
Thus,
g acts on the column vector (u, v, w)t R3 as follows:
u
1 3 1
u
u 3v + w
g v = 3 0 1 v = 3u + w .
w
1 1 4
w
u + v + 4w
Hence
g (u, v, w) = (u 3v + w, 3u + w, u + v + 4w). Why
g () = D?
293
g (u, v, w) = u
g (1, 0, 0) + v
g (0, 1, 0) + w
g (0, 0, 1) =
= uOA + v OB + w OD D,
Thus,
g () D. Since any vector OM , with M D can be written
as a linear combination of the form:
OM = uOA + v OB + wOD,
v+4w,
g is also of class C 1 . Its inverse is also a linear transformation,
= 35
(u 3v + w + 3u + w + u + v + 4w)dudvdw =
[0,1][0,1][0,1]
1
0
1
0
1
(5u 2v + 6w) du dv dw =
1
5 2
=
u 2uv + 6uw dv dw =
2
0
0
0
1 1
5
=
2v + 6w dv dw =
2
0
0
1
1
1
5
3
2
=
v v + 6wv dw =
+ 6w dw =
2
2
0
0
0
1
3
3
9
= w + 3w2 = + 3 = .
2
2
2
0
1
between the Ox-axis and the projection OM of the position vector OM,
294
7. TRIPLE INTEGRALS
F 11
on the xOy-plane and, is the angle between
the po## the#Oz-axis
# and
#
##
#
sition vector OM (see Fig.11). Since #OM # = #OM # cos 2 =
##
##
##
#
#
#
#
#
#
#OM # sin and since x = #OM # cos and y = #OM # sin , one has
the following connections between the Cartesian coordinates (x, y, z)
and the spherical coordinates (, , ) :
z = z(, , ) = cos
J
g (, , ) = det
cos
0
sin
= 2 sin = 0,
domain of
g is the infinite parallelepiped = [0, ) [0, 2] [0, ]
the integral I =
295
the closed ball of radius R > 0 and with centre at O, we need in general
to use the change of variables formula by using spherical coordinates.
Let D = D
{Oz-axis}, let R = [0, R] [0, 2] [0, ] and let R =
(0, R] [0, 2) (0, ). Then, using the remark 33, we get
(4.11)
f(x, y, z)dxdydz =
f (x, y, z)dxdydz =
D
(4.12)
(4.13)
Hence,
(4.14)
f (x, y, z)dxdydz =
or
(4.15)
R
2
f (x, y, z)dxdydz =
D: x2 +y2 +z 2 R2
D: x2 +y2 +z 2 9
2
0
|cos | sin d d d =
296
7. TRIPLE INTEGRALS
=4
3
3
|cos | sin d d =
3
3
= 4 2
d
|cos | sin d =
0
0
3
2
4
= 8
cos sin d
cos sin d =
4 0
0
2
2
= 162
sin d(sin )
sin d(sin ) =
0
= 162
sin2 2
sin2
= 162.
2 0
2
2
Not always the too much processed formula (4.15) is useful. For instance, let C(0, 0, a) be a point on the Oz-axis, a > 0 and let D be the
closed ball with centre at a and with radius a (see Fig.12).
F 12
Let us compute the inertia moment Iz =
(x2 + y 2 )dxdydz of
297
2 2a cos
2
(x2 +y 2 )dxdydz =
2 sin2 2 sin d d d =
0
= 2
(4.16) = 2
sin3
sin3
2a cos
sin
sin3
2a cos
4 d d d =
2a cos
0
d d =
4
4 d d =
2a cos
5
26 a5 2
d =
sin3 cos5 d.
5 0
5
0
(x2 + y 2 )dxdydz =
26 a5 1
8a5
=
.
5
24
15
x = x(r, , z) = r cos
y = y(r, , z) = r sin ,
(4.17)
z = z(r, , z) = z
298
7. TRIPLE INTEGRALS
xG = D
xf (x, y, z)dxdydz
.
f (x, y, z)dxdydz
x=x
y = r cos ,
z = r sin
299
where r [0, 4], [0, 2] and x [3, 5]. Now we are really ready to
use the change of variables formula (4.8) with the Jacobian equal to r.
mass(D) =
(2x + 1)dxdydz = 2
xdxdydz +
dxdydz =
D
=2
xdxdydz + vol(D) = 32 + 2
xdxdydz =
D
= 32 +
= 32 +
2
0
2
0
5
3
2xdx d dr =
2 5
x |3 d dr = 32 + 16
d dr =
0
= 32 + 32 8 = 288.
xf (x, y, z)dxdydz, i.e. the static moment
Let us compute now
D
w.r.t. yOz-plane.
2
x(2x + 1)dxdydz = 2
x dxdydz +
xdxdydz.
D
But the last triple integral on the right was just computed above, so
that:
4 2 5
2
x(2x + 1)dxdydz = 128 + 2
r
x dx d dr =
D
2
3
2 4
3136
3520
3
= 128 +
r
5 3 d dr = 128 +
=
.
3 0
3
3
0
3520
Finally, xG = 3288
4.074 [3, 5].
The next result is very important in Mechanics. It can be done for
simple, double, triple or surface integrals (these last ones will be studied
in the next chapter). We shall give it here only for triple integrals. We
leave as an exercise for the reader to state and to prove such a result
for simple, double or surface integrals.
T
92. (the reduction theorem in Statics) Let
(D1 , f1 ), (D2 , f2 ), ..., (Dn , fn )
be n general nonoverlaping solids in R3 and let
G1 (x1 , y1 , z1 ), G2 (x2 , y2 , z2 ), ..., Gn (xn , yn , zn )
300
7. TRIPLE INTEGRALS
(4.18) xG =
yG
zG
=
=
mass(D)
xf (x, y, z)dxdydz + ... +
xf (x, y, z)dxdydz
D1
Dn
mass(D)
xf1 (x,y,z)dxdydz
D1
mass(D1 )
mass(D1 ) + ... +
mass(D)
xfn (x,y,z)dxdydz
Dn
mass(Dn )
mass(Dn )
301
E 93. (a system of two solids) Let us apply this basic result
(theorem 92) to compute the coordinates xG , yG and zG , the coordinates
of the mass centre for the system D, formed with two homogenous solids
D1 , D2 (considered with the density function f = 1), where D1 is the
2
2
2
"north" hemisphere of the ellipsoid: xa2 + yb2 + zc2 1, z 0 and D2 is
the "south" hemisphere of the ball: x2 +(y 2b)2 +z 2 b2 , z 0, where
a, b, c > 0. To compute the coordinates of the mass centres for D1 and
D2 respectively, we need appropriate changes of variables, inspired of
the usage of the spherical coordinates. For D1 we consider the "general
spherical coordinates", , , :
z = z(, , ) = c cos .
where [0, 1], [0, 2] and [0, 2 ]. The Jacobian of this transformation is equal to abc2 sin (prove this!). For instance, let us
compute the volume of D1 (which is equal to its mass because the density function is 1) by using formula 4.8:
1 2
2
vol(D1 ) =
dxdydz = abc
2
sin d d d =
0
D1
= abc
2 d
0
sin d
0
2
= abc
2
1
2abc
2 1 =
.
3
3
.
Thus, the volume of the entire ellipsoid xa2 + yb2 + zc2 1 is equal to 4abc
3
4R3
If a = b = c = R, we get the volume of a sphere of radius R : 3 . We
3
shall need bellow the volume of a half of a ball of radius b : vol = 2b
.
3
zdxdydz
dxdydz
D1
abc2
sin2 2
abc2
2
=
.
4
2 0
4
302
7. TRIPLE INTEGRALS
abc2
4
4abc
3
3c
Hence z1 =
= 16
.
Since D2 is symmetric w.r.t. the line x = 0, y = 2b, x2 = 0, y2 = 2b,
zdxdydz
dxdydz
D2
z = z(, , ) = cos .
D2
sin cos d
b4
b4
=
.
4
4
Thus z2 =
b4
2b3
3
= 3b
.
8
0 vol(D1 ) + 0 vol(D2 )
=0
vol(D)
2b3
2b3
3
=
3
2abc
ac + b2
+ 2b
3
3
3
3c 2abc
3 3b
2b
16
8
3
=
=
3
2abc
+ 2b
3
3
0 vol(D1 ) + 2b vol(D2 )
=
=
vol(D)
zG =
3c
16
vol(D1 ) 3b
vol(D2 )
8
vol(D)
2b
3 ac2 b3
.
16 ac + b2
303
CHAPTER 8
Surface integrals
1. Deformation of a 2D-domain into a space surface
Let uov be a plane Cartesian coordinate system in R2 and let Oxyz
be a Cartesian coordinate system in R3 . Let D be a plane general
domain (bounded, closed, connected and D is a piecewise smooth
S=
g (D) there exists a unique tangent plane to S. "Almost" means
that the set A of points on S at which we have not a unique tangent
plane has zero area (or area(g 1 (A) = 0). We always assume that S is
closed as a topological object in R3 , i.e. that R3
S is an open subset
of R3 . We recall that a subset A of R3 is said to be open (in R3 ) if
for any point P of it there exists an open ball B(P, r), r > 0 of R3
g (u, v) = (x(u, v), y(u, v), z(u, v), where x(u, v), y(u, v) and z(u, v) are
piecewise functions of class C 1 of independent variables u and v, we
also represent
g or S in a parametric way:
(1.1)
x = x(u, v)
y = y(u, v) , (u, v) D .
g :
z = z(u, v)
surface S =
g (D) and the surface itself S is also called the support of
the deformation
g . Such a deformation
g is also called a parametric
sheet. The same surface S can have many parametric representations.
For instance, the plane 2x 3y + z 1 = 0 can have the following three
305
306
8. SURFACE INTEGRALS
parametric representations:
x=x
y=y
g1:
(x, y) R2 .
z = 2x + 3y + 1
x=x
y = (2x + z 1) /3 (x, z) R2 .
g2:
z=z
x = (1 z + 3y) /2
y=y
(y, z) R2 .
g1:
z=z
F
F
F
grad F (x, y, z) =
(x, y, z),
(x, y, z),
(x, y, z) = 0 ,
x
y
z
x=x
x=x
y=y
y = y(x, z) , (x, z) D ,
S:
, (x, y) D , S :
z = z(x, y)
z=z
x = x(y, z)
y=y
S:
, (y, z) D .
z=z
307
2
1 x z 2 mustbe positive on a neighborhood U (find it!) of
(a, b, 0), so that y = 1 x2 z 2 on U.
Let us recall
now some facts from the differential geometry of a
x = x(u, v)
y = y(u, v) , (u, v) D . Let P0 (u0 , v0 ) be a fixed point
surface S :
z = z(u, v)
in the plane domain D (see Fig.1) and let denote the above deformation
g (u, v) by
r (u, v) = x(u, v) i + y(u, v) j + z(u, v) k = OM 0 , the
position vector of M0 (x0 , y0 , z0 ), where x0 = x(u0 , v0 ), y0 = y(u0 , v0 ),
r (P0 ) = M0 ,
z0 = z(u0 , v0 ). To easier understand what is M0 , we put
etc. (see Fig.1). Thus, a running point M on the surface S is the
image through
r of a running point P (u, v) of the plane domain D.
This means that M (x(u, v), y(u, v), z(u, v)) is such a running point on
S. Usually, we associate to any point M0 (x(u0 , v0 ), y(u0 , v0 ), z(u0 , v0 ))
of S two important vectors which generate the tangent plane TM0 at
M0 to S. These are:
(1.2)
r u (P0 ) = xu (u0 , v0 ) i + yu (u0 , v0 ) j + zu (u0 , v0 ) k and
r u (P0 )
r v (P0 )
n (P0 ) =
is called the normal versor at M0 to S. Here
r u (P0 )r v (P0 )
x = x , x = x ,
r = r , ... etc. Thus, the equation of the tangent
u
Y y0
Z z0
X x0
det xu (u0 , v0 ) yu (u0 , v0 ) zu (u0 , v0 ) = 0.
xv (u0 , v0 ) yv (u0 , v0 ) zv (u0 , v0 )
Let us introduce three new functions A(u, v), B(u, v) and C(u, v):
r u (u, v)
r v (u, v) = A(u, v) i + B(u, v) j + C(u, v) k . Hence the
normal versor
n (u, v), at a running point M (x(u, v), y(u, v), z(u, v)) of
S, has the following expression:
A(u, v)
(1.3)
n (u, v) =
i+
A2 (u, v) + B 2 (u, v) + C 2 (u, v)
B(u, v)
+
j+
2
2
2
A (u, v) + B (u, v) + C (u, v)
308
8. SURFACE INTEGRALS
(see Fig.1).
+
A2 (u, v)
C(u, v)
k.
2
2
+ B (u, v) + C (u, v)
F 1
We are interested now how the area of a small rectangle [P0 P1 P2 P3 ],
where P0 (u0 , v0 ), P1 (u1 , v0 ), P2 (u0 , v1 ) and P3 (u1 , v1 ) changes when we
(1.4)
(1.5)
d = A2 + B 2 + C 2 dudv,
309
area[M0 M1 M2 M3 ]
A2 (, ) + B 2 (, ) + C 2 (, ) area[P0 P1 P2 P3 ].
erated by the vectors M0 M1 and M0 M2 (see Fig.1), i.e. with the number
#
#
# # #
i
j
k
#
#
#
# #
x
x
(u0 , v0 ) (u1 u0 )
(, ) (u1 u0 )
u
u
y
y
y1 y0
(u0 , v0 ) (u1 u0 )
(, ) (u1 u0 )
u
u
z
z
z1 z0
(u0 , v0 ) (u1 u0 )
(, ) (u1 u0 )
u
u
x
x
x2 x0
(u0 , v0 ) (v1 v0 )
(, ) (v1 v0 )
v
v
y
y
y2 y0
(u0 , v0 ) (v1 v0 )
(, ) (v1 v0 )
v
v
z
z
z2 z0
(u0 , v0 ) (v1 v0 )
(, ) (v1 v0 ).
v
v
Let us come back to formula (1.7) and obtain:
# #
#
#
#M0 M1 M0 M2 #
x1 x0
310
8. SURFACE INTEGRALS
#
#
#
#
i
j
k
#
#
x y z #
#
#det
#
u
u
u
y
#
#
x
z
v
or
(u1 u0 )(v1 v0 ) =
(u0 ,v0 )
A2 (u0 , v0 ) + B 2 (u0 , v0 ) + C 2 (u0 , v0 )(u1 u0 )(v1 v0 )
A2 (, ) + B 2 (, ) + C 2 (, )(u1 u0 )(v1 v0 ),
area[M0 M1 M2 M3 ]
A2 (u0 , v0 ) + B 2 (u0 , v0 ) + C 2 (u0 , v0 ) area[P0 P1 P2 P3 ]
A2 (, ) + B 2 (, ) + C 2 (, ) area[P0 P1 P2 P3 ].
F 2
this last deformation is said to be a cylindrical deformation. The
parametric equations of this cylinder are:
x = x(u, v) = R cos u
z = z(u, v) = v
311
r u = R sin u i + R cos u j + 0 k
r v = 0 i +0 j + k.
Thus,
i
j
k
r u
r v = det R sin u R cos u 0 = R cos u i +R sin u j +0 k .
0
0
1
F 3
2
i
j
k
ru
r v = det Rh v sin u Rh v cos u 0 =
R
R
cos u
sin u 1
h
h
=
R2
v cos u i + v sin u j 2 v k .
h
h
h
312
8. SURFACE INTEGRALS
Thus
A2 + B 2 + C 2 =
Hence d =
R
v
h
1+
R2 2 R4 2 R
v + 4v = v
h2
h
h
1+
R2
.
h2
R2
dudv.
h2
F 4
and let
r (, ) = R sin cos i + R sin sin j + R cos k ,
[0, 2] and [0, ] be a deformation of the rectangle D onto the sphere
x2 + y 2 + z 2 = R2 . In this case,
i
j
k
=
r
r = det R sin sin R sin cos
0
R cos cos R cos sin R sin
Hence A2 + B 2 + C 2 = R2 sin .
z
z
z
rx
r y = det 1 0 x
=
i
j + k
x
y
z
0 1 y
Hence
(1.9)
A=
Therefore
(1.10)
d =
z
z
, B = , C = 1.
x
y
z
x
z
y
+ 1dxdy
in this case.
2. Surface integral of the first type. The mass of a
3D-lamina.
Let D be a (general) plane domain like above (closed, bounded, con
nected and D is a piecewise smooth) in the uov-plane. Let
r :D
3
R , r (u, v) = x(u, v) i + y(u, v) j + z(u, v) k be a space piecewise
= {
r (Di ) = Si }, i = 1, 2, ..., n be the corresponding division of
the space surface S. Let {Pi ( i , i )}, Pi ( i , i ) Di be a set of marking points for the division and let {Mi (x( i , i ), y( i , i ), z( i , i ))},
i = 1, 2, ...n be the set of marking points of which are the images
Sf ( , {Mi }) =
n
i=1
f(x( i , i ), y( i , i ), z( i , i )) area(Si ).
314
8. SURFACE INTEGRALS
(2.2)
[f (x, y, z) + g(x, y, z)]d =
f (x, y, z)d +
g(x, y, z)d.
S
2)
(2.3)
f (x, y, z)d =
N
i=1
S=N
i=1 Si
f (x, y, z)d,
Si
in particular if f 0, then
f(x, y, z)d 0.
4) (a mean theorem)
f (x, y, z)d = f (, , ) area(S),
(2.5)
S
6)
mass(S) =
f (x, y, z)d,
f (x, y, z)d
, yG = S
S
f (x, y, z)d
, zG = S
f (x, y, z)d
316
8. SURFACE INTEGRALS
T
94. Let (S, f ) be a 3D-lamina as above (D is a general
plane domain,
r : D R3 is a piecewise smooth deformation of D
onto S, f is piecewise continuous density function on S). Then we can
reduce the computation of I =
f(x, y, z)d to the computation of a
S
f (x(u, v), y(u, v), z(u, v)) A(u, v)2 + B(u, v)2 + C(u, v)2 dudv.
We simply substituted the independent variables x, y, z with the deformation functions x(u, v), y(u, v), z(u, v) and finally we putted instead
of d its expression from formula 1.5.
P. The proof is based on the same idea like the leading idea
of all the proofs for obtaining change of variables formulas. We well
approximate D with a finite union N
j=1 Rj D of nonoverlaping sim
deformation
r . Because of the hypotheses on D and on the deforma
tion
r of D onto S, the union N
j=1 Rj well approximate S and the
f(x( j , j ), y( j , j ), z( j , j )) area(Rj )
N
f (x( j , j ), y( j , j ), z( j , j ))
j=1
A( j , j )2 + B( j , j )2 + C( j , j )2 area(Rj )
Hence,
f (x(u, v), y(u, v), z(u, v)) A(u, v)2 + B(u, v)2 + C(u, v)2 dudv.
f (x, y, z)d
f (x(u, v), y(u, v), z(u, v)) A(u, v)2 + B(u, v)2 + C(u, v)2 dudv.
Since both these numbers are fixed numbers, they must coincide, i.e.
the equality (2.9) is completely proved.
We can now compute different quantities which are expressed by
surface integrals of the first type.
E 97. Let S : x2 + y 2 = 2z, 0 z 2 be a paraboloid (see
Fig.5).
F 5
It is realized as the image of disc x2 +y 2 4 of radius 2 and centre at
2
2
2
z 2
z
(2.11)
d =
+
+ 1dxdy = x2 + y 2 + 1dxdy.
x
y
318
8. SURFACE INTEGRALS
D:x2 +y2 4
x= cos
x= sin
2
0
x2 + y 2 + 1dxdy =
2 + 1
d d =
3 2
2
2
1
( + 1)
2 3/2
2 + 1 2 d(2 + 1) =
5 1 .
=
3
3
2
0
3
= 2
2
3
2 + 1d
2 +1=t2
c) Find the moment of inertia of (S, f), f = 3z, around the Ox-axis.
2
2
2 2
(x
x + y2
+
y
)
y2 +
1 + x2 + y 2 dxdy =
Ix = 3
2
4
S
3
=
8
3
(2.12) =
2
But
2
+1
2
5
+1
sin d =
3
sin d d +
4
2
2 2
4
4 sin + d d =
7
0
2 + 1d.
1 cos 2
d = ,
2
F 6
3. Flux of a vector field through an oriented surface.
Let us consider a plane (P ) and a fixed point O (the origin) in it.
Let (dx ) be an oriented line in (P ) which passes through O. Let (dy )
be another oriented line in (P ) which also passes through O and is
perpendicular on (dx ) at O (see Fig.6).
In fact we have two possibilities to orientate (by fixing a nonzero
vector or "an arrow" with the support line parallel to (dy )!) this last
line (dy ). One is given by a vector OB (see Fig.6) and the other is de
given by OC and, if one rotates the screw from OA to OC, it advances
coordinate system {O; i , j , k } is said to be direct or right oriented
and the other {O; i , j , k} is called inverse or left oriented. Thus
our plane (P ) has two "faces": one which corresponds to k (as a free
320
8. SURFACE INTEGRALS
on the basis of vectors { i , j , k }. This is why the true mathematical model of "orientation" is connected to the bases of the 3D-vector
space of free vectors. We say that two basis of vectors {v1 , v2 , v3 } and
{w1 , w2 , w3 } have the same orientation if the matrix C = (cij ), constructed as follows:
w1 = c11 v1 + c21 v2 + c31 v3
w2 = c12 v1 + c22 v2 + c32 v3
w3 = c13 v1 + c23 v2 + c33 v3 ,
(called the transition matrix from the basis {v1 , v2 , v3 } to the basis
{w1 , w2 , w3 }) has its determinant det C a positive real number. The
infinite set of all the bases in V3 , the real vector space of all 3D-free
vectors, can be divided into two nonoverlaping (their intersection is
empty) subsets A and A . Two bases {v1 , v2 , v3 } and {w1 , w2 , w3 } belongs to the same subset if the transition matrix from one to another
has a positive determinant. Let denote by A the subset (or class) which
contains the basis { i , j , k } and by A the subset (or class) which
contains the basis { i , j , k}. We leave as an exercise for the reader
to prove that A A contains all the bases of V3 and that A A = ,
the empty set. We call A the direct orientation of the space V3 and
A the inverse orientation of V3 . The same can be done for V2 , the real
vector space of the 2D-free vector space (i.e. the plane free vectors).
Thus, whenever we fix a Cartesian coordinate system uov in a plane
(P ), we just fixed a direct orientation:"from u to v". What is this?
curve in the uov-plane of Fig.7 is direct oriented because "its direction" or "its arrow" is "from u to v, the trigonometric direction or the
counterclockwise direction. Let D be a plane general domain (closed,
bounded, connected and D an oriented piecewise smooth curve). Being in the plane uov, we say that D is oriented by this plane. More
exactly, D is directly oriented as we can see in Fig.7. If we walk on
D in the direction of D, the plane domain D must remain on the
left side. This last quality makes D to be an oriented domain.
Let
g (u, v) = x(u, v) i + y(u, v) j + z(u, v) k be a smooth deformation (see its exact definition in Section 1, this chapter) defined
on an oriented (like above!) general domain D, with values in V3 (or
in R3 ). Let (S) =
g (D) be the surface defined by this deformation.
Let P0 (u0 , v0 ) be a point in D and let the direct orientated "coordinate
curves" u : v = v0 and v : u = u0 which are passing through P0
x = x(u, v0 )
y = y(u, v0 ) , u prouaxis (D);
(3.1)
u :
z = z(u, v )
0
x = x(u0 , v)
y = y(u0 , v) , v provaxis (D).
v :
z = z(u , v)
0
Hence, the "velocity" along u is
r
x y z
ru=
=
, ,
u
u u u
and the "velocity" along v is
x y z
rv=
=
, ,
.
v
v v v
We associate to the point M0 (S) its normal versor
r v (u0 , v0 )
r u (u0 , v0 )
n (M0 ) =
r (u , v ) r (u , v )
u
322
8. SURFACE INTEGRALS
if
n (M0 ) = OM0 ) on the unit sphere (US) : x2 + y 2 + z 2 = 1 in the
Oxyz-space (the space into which (S) is considered). Let us leave M0
to run freely on (S) and let us denote it by M. We obtain in this way
a new function M M , which associates to a point M of (S), a
point M on (U S). Let us call this function the orientation function
and denote it by Or : (S) (U S), Or(M ) = M .
F 7
D 30. Let us preserve all of these notation and hypotheses
like above. If the vector function Or : (S) (U S), Or(M ) = M , is
a continuous function, we say that our surface (S) is orientable. This
function defines the direct (right) orientation ("from u to v") or the
direct face of (S). The function Or : (S) (U S), Or (M ) = M ,
the symmetric of M w.r.t. the origin O, is also continuous if Or is
continuous and it defines the inverse (left) orientation ("from v to u")
or the reverse face of (S). The continuity of Or means that if a point M
starts from a fixed point M0 (S) and runs on any continuous "closed"
starts from
n (M0 ), after covering the entire curve , it comes back to
g and Or
g is continuous.
E 98. For instance, a plane (P ) : ax + by + cz + d = 0
is an orientable surface. Indeed, say a = 0, a > 0 and let us use the
r y
r z = det ab 1 0 = i + j + k ,
a
a
ac 0 1
then
n (M ) =
i + j + ac k
a
2
2
1+ b 2 + c 2
a
ai +b j +c k
.
2
2
a +b +c2
becomes:
by + cz + d
b
c
a
, y, z
,
,
,
a
a2 + b2 + c2
a2 + b2 + c2
a2 + b2 + c2
i.e. a constant function, which always is continuous. Therefore, any
plane has two faces, i.e. it is orientable.
Not all surfaces are orientable, i.e. they have two faces. An easy to
construct surface which has only one face is Mbius surface (see Fig.8).
This surface is obtained by taking a rectangle strip [ABCD] and by
gluing [AB] with [BC] such that A C and B D. Let () be the
"closed" curve which was initially the midline in the rectangle [ABCD]
(see Fig.8). Let us continuously and increasingly move a normal versor
M
n (M ) M (US) is not continuous. Hence this surface
cannot be orientable, i.e. it has only one face (one cannot separates
two distinct faces of it!).
A natural question arises. Is it possible to find a "special" parametrization for this Mbius surface such that it be orientable? It can be
proved that this last possibility cannot appear. To be or not to be orientable does not depend on a particular parameterization of a surface
S. But, it is possible to change the direct face of (S) with the inverse
one, if we change the initial parametrization of (S) with another one.
For instance, let us consider the same plane (P ) : ax + by + cz + d = 0,
a > 0, as in example 98 with the following parametrization:
x = bu+cv+d
a
, (u, v) R2 .
y = u
z=v
324
8. SURFACE INTEGRALS
F 8
j +c k
g : D (S) and
g : D (S). Then there exists a diffeomorphism
: D D such that
g =
g . It is easy to prove that
g and
g defines one and the same face if and only if the Jacobian of is a
positive number.
In general, if a surface (S) has an explicit parametrization, say
w.r.t. z,
x=x
y=y
(S) :
, (x, y) D xOy,
z = z(x, y)
z
z
then A = x
, B = y
and C = 1 (see formula (1.9)). Since
(3.2)
=
i+
2
2
2
A(u, v) + B(u, v) + C(u, v)
B(u, v)
+
j+
A(u, v)2 + B(u, v)2 + C(u, v)2
+
C(u, v)
k,
A(u, v)2 + B(u, v)2 + C(u, v)2
1
then cos = A2 +B
[0, 2 ). Many times, this last
2 +1 > 0 i.e.
information is sufficient to determine the direct face (which corresponds
to the direct orientation) of the surface (S).
x=x
y= y
E 99. Let (S) :
, x2 + y 2 R2 be the
2
2
z = x +y
conic surface of Fig.9.
F 9
We are interested to find the mathematical description of the normal
versors
n which define the exterior side of this conic surface (see
n
expression of
n (see (3.2)). Therefore, in our case, for any M (x, y, z)
(S),
x
y
1
,
,
.
n (M ) =
2
2 x2 + y 2
2 x2 + y 2
1
of class C , injective and r u r v = 0 on D), then (S) is orientable.
Let now D be a closed, bounded and connected subset of the uovplane with its boundary D a piecewise directed oriented curve in uov.
Let D = ni=1 Di be a division of D with nonoverlaping (Di Dj has a
326
8. SURFACE INTEGRALS
zero area for i = j) oriented subdomains of the same type like D (see
Fig.10). We see in this figure that the intersection curve Di Dj (if it
exist like a curve!) is always double oriented. Moreover, the orientation
of each Di (i.e. the orientation of Di ) is completely determined by
the orientation of D (i.e. of D).
F 10
Let
r (u, v) = x(u, v) i + y(u, v) j + z(u, v) k ,
r :D
g (D) =
(S) be a piecewise smooth deformation and let Pi (ui , vi ) Di , i =
1, 2, ..., n be a set of marking points of the division {Di } of D. Then
{Si =
g (Di )}, i = 1, 2, ..., n is a division of (S). If
{Di } = max{diam(Di ) : i = 1, 2, ..., n}
becomes smaller and smaller, then {Si } becomes smaller and smaller,
r u (ui , vi )
r v (ui , vi )
n (Mi ) =
=
r (u , v ) r (u , v )
u
(3.3)
=
A(ui , vi
)2
A(ui , vi )
i+
2
2
+ B(ui , vi ) + C(ui , vi )
B(ui , vi )
j+
+
2
2
2
A(ui , vi ) + B(ui , vi ) + C(ui , vi )
+
A(ui , vi
)2
C(ui , vi )
k,
2
2
+ B(ui , vi ) + C(ui , vi )
(S), i.e. the subset of (S) on which F is not of class C 1 has zero
area. The impact of the force F (M ) with the surface (S) at the point
normal versor
n (M ), i.e. F (M )
n (M ) (dot product). This quantity
is called the flux of the vector F (M ) through the surface (S), at the
point M. If the diameter of (Si ) is small enough, we can approximate
it with a plane surface, which can be viewed as a part of the tangent
with the constant vector F (Mi ) for any point M (Si ). Thus, the flux
n (Mi )
F (M )
n (M) at M can be approximated with the flux F (Mi )
Mi . Therefore,
- the total flux on (Si ) can be approximated with
,at
F (Mi ) n (Mi ) area(Si ) (here the first means the dot product
but the second means the usual multiplication between two real
numbers). This last number is the volume of a right cylinder with the
of the field F through the oriented (S) can be well approximated with
the following Riemann sum:
(3.4)
n ,
S
({Si }, {Mi }) =
F (Mi ) n (Mi ) area(Si ).
F ,(S)
i=1
then I S
({Si }, {Mi }) < for any set of marking points {Pi },
F ,(S)
the oriented surface (S). It is denoted by
F
n d. The sign "+"
(S)+
328
8. SURFACE INTEGRALS
ever we write
F
n d, we must understand that the matter is
(S)
the field F through the oriented surface (S), considered with its direct
face (or with its direct orientation "from u to v"). The surface integral
of the second type is the analogous notion in the 2-dimensional case of
the line integral of the second type for oriented curves (this last line
integral is an 1-dimentional object).
Using only this definition, we can easily prove (do it!) the following
basic properties
of the surface
/ /
/ / integrals of the second type.
1)
F n d =
F
n d, where (S) means the surface
(S)+
(S)
(S) with its inverse orientation ("from v to u"). To see this one can
change
n (Mi ) with
n (M
/ i )/in the above Riemann sums.
2) The mapping F
F
n d is a linear mapping, i.e.
(S)
/ /
/ /
/ /
F + G n d =
F n d +
G
n d.
(S)
3)
(S)
/ /
F
n d =
(S)(T )
/ /
(S)
F
n d +
(S)
/ /
F
n d,
(T )
integral of the second type
F
n d. For this we approximate the
(S)
We can also prove such a formula by the use of formula (2.9) and the
mean theorem for double integrals:
area(Si ) =
d =
A(u, v)2 + B(u, v)2 + C(u, v)2 dudv =
Di
(Si )
= A(u , v )2 + B(u , v )2 + C(u , v )2
dudv
Di
A(ui , vi )2 + B(ui , vi )2 + C(ui , vi )2 area(Di ),
because both points Pi (ui , vi ) and Pi (u , v ) are in the same small
domain Di . Let us come back in formula (3.4) with this expression of
F (Mi )
n (Mi ) area(Si )
i=1
n
i=1
F
n d, can be well approximated by the same Riemann
(S)
F
n d =
(S)
(3.6)
=
[P (x(u, v), y(u, v), z(u, v))A(u, v)+Q(x(u, v), y(u, v), z(u, v))B(u, v)+
D
330
8. SURFACE INTEGRALS
Thus we just reduced the computation of a surface integral of the second type to the calculation of a double integral. If we want to change
the face of (S), we must put a minus sign in front of the above double
integral. We can also express (prove it!) the surface integral of the
second type as a surface integral of the first type:
(3.7)
/ /
F n d =
[P (x, y, z) cos + Q(x, y, z) cos + R(x, y, z) cos ] d,
(S)
(S)
where cos , cos and cos are the coordinates of the normal versor
F
n d. If we look at Fig.11
(S)
F 11
we see that the area-projection prxOy d of an orientated small element d (for instance the area of an (Si ))of the surface (S) on the xOyplane is a direct oriented area in this plane, usually denoted by dxdy. It
is clear enough that the order dx then dy in the symbol dxdy is essential,
because it reflects the direct orientation "from x to y" in the xOy-plane.
Hence dxdy = dydx (dxdy is the "up" area and dydx is the "down"
F n d =
(3.8)
P dydz + Qdzdx + Rdxdy,
(S)
(S)
this last being a formal expression, not used in practice. The expression
= P dydz + Qdzdx + Rdxdy is said to be a differential form of order
2 in three variables. Do not forget the order: dzdx and not dxdz!
/ /
E 100. Let us compute I =
xdydz + ydzdx, where (S)
(S)
F 12
In this case P (x, y, z) = x, Q(x, y, z) = y and R(x, y, z) = 0, i.e.
x=x
y=y
, x2 + y 2 4,
z = x2 + y 2
332
8. SURFACE INTEGRALS
z
z
we can use formula (3.2) and find A = x
= 2x, B = y
= 2y,
C = 1, [0, 2 ],
2x
2y
1
.
n (x, y, z) =
,
,
1 + 4x2 + 4y 2
1 + 4x2 + 4y 2
1 + 4x2 + 4y 2
D:x2 +y2 4
(S)
= 2
(x2 + y 2 )dxdy =
2
3
d d = 4
2
0
3 d = 16.
F 13
E 101. Let us compute the flux of the field F = (0, 0, z)
on the exterior faces of the tetrahedron [OABC] of Fig.14. Since the
surface is a union of 4 distinct surfaces with different parametrizations,
we successively compute:
I4 =
/ /
(0, 0, z)
n4 d.
[ABC]
Since
F 14
[ABC] :
x=x
y=y
, x + y 1,
z =1xy
A = 1, , B = 1, C = 1, so
1
I0 =
(1 x y)dxdy =
0
x+y1
Now
1x
(1 x y)dy dx =
1x
1 2
y 2
x
1
1
dx =
x+
dx = .
y xy
2 0
2
2
6
0
I1 =
/ /
(0, 0, z)
n1 d = 0,
[OAB]
because
n1 = k and z = 0 on [OAB].
I2 =
/ /
[OCA]
(0, 0, z)
n2 d =
/ /
[OCA]
(0, 0, z) ( j )d = 0.
334
8. SURFACE INTEGRALS
I3 =
/ /
(0, 0, z) ( i )d = 0.
[OBC]
r v (M ) (see Fig.7). The projection of this parallelogram on the xOyplane is in general a quadrilateral in this plane. Let us divide our
parallelogram into two equal triangles. It is enough to prove that the
area of the projection of a triangle on the xOy-plane is equal to the area
of the initial triangle multiplied by cos , where is the angle between
F 15
Let D = CB (xOy-plane). Moreover, it is sufficient to consider
the initial triangle to have a entire edge, say [AD], in the xOy-plane
(area(ACB) = area(ADC) area(ABD)).
Hence, let us take again a triangle [XY Z] with [XY ] xOyplane (see Fig.16). Let Z be the projection of Z on the xOy-plane
and let Z be the projection of Z on [XY ]. Since [XY ][ZZ ] and
335
F 16
[XY ][Z Z ], we see that [XY ] is perpendicular on the entire plane
336
8. SURFACE INTEGRALS
F 17
3. Compute
parametrization: x = u, y = v, z = uv and u2 + v 2 1.
4. Find the moment of inertia of the cone y 2 + z 2 = 4x2 , x [2, 2]
with respect to the Oz-axis.
5. Find the centre of mass for the 3D-lamina (S, f ), where S is the
surface x2 + z 2 = 4y, y 4 and f (x, y, z) = y.
(x + y + z)d, where S is the union of all the
6. Compute I =
S
z 2 = a2 , z 0.
8. Find the mass of the 3D-plate (S, f), where S is the surface
x2 + y 2 + z 2 = 1, x 0, y 0, z 0 and the density function is
1
f(x, y, z) = [x2 + y 2 + (z 1)2 ] 2 .
9. Find the area of the part of the sphere x2 + y 2 + z 2 = a2 , which
2
is inside the cylinder x/2 +
/ y = ax.
xydydz + xzdzdx + 2x2 ydxdy, where (S) is
10. Compute I =
(S)
11. Compute the flux of the field F (x2 , y 2 , z 2 ) through the interior
side of the surface x2 + y 2 = z, z 1.
337
12. Compute the flux of the field F (x3 , y 3 , z 3 ) through the total
exterior sides of the surface x2 + y 2 = z 2 , 0 z 4.
14. Find the flux of the field F (x2 , y 2 , z 2 ) through the total exterior
sides of tetrahedron [OABC], where A(1,0, 2), B(0,
2, 0) and C(0, 0, 3).
1 1 1
15. Compute the flux of the field F x , y , z through the exterior
16. Find the flux of the field F (yz, xz, xy) through the total exterior face of the cylinder x2 + y 2 = a2 , 0 z h.
CHAPTER 9
F
n d can be very long and not so easy. A famous formula of
(S)
340
(1.1)
F n d =
div F dxdydz,
(S)=
divergence of F .
P
(x, y, z) + Q
(x, y, z) + R
(x, y, z)
x
y
z
is called the
F 1
Before to prove this basic result, let us make some commentaries
on it.
The philosophical importance of Gauss formula (1.1) is the following. On the left side of this formula we have an "oriented" object, in
general very complicated, but only a 2D-object. On the right side one
has a triple integral, a simpler object (because it has no "orientation" at
all), but a 3D-object. Hence this formula connects a 2D-computation
with a 3D-computation. On the left side of this formula we have in
fact the flux S ( F ) of the field F through the surface S, "from inside
to outside", i.e. the normal versor at a point M S is "above" the
tangent plane at M to S (see Fig.1). On the right side of the formula
one has "the global productivity" of the volume w.r.t. the field F .
Let us explain in the following the word "productivity". Let us apply
the mean formula (see theorem 87, e)) to the triple integral from the
right side:
341
S= ( F )
div F (P0 ) =
,
vol()
q0
E (x, y, z) =
3,
40 r
1
q0
(1.2)
E
n d = .
0
S
Gauss succeeded to express this last law as a "local law" (at a point
P0 = O!):
(P0 )
(1.3)
div E (P0 ) =
,
0
where (P0 ) is the charge density at P0 produced by q0 . It appears that
from here we can deduce our Gauss formula (1.1) in this particular case.
There is a mathematical problem! The electric field is not defined at
the origin O! Thus, our Gauss formula (1.1) cannot be applied in this
342
(1.4)
div E dxdydz,
E n d =
(S)=
i.e. Gauss formula for the electric field E . But, what is the meaning
of the triple integral on the right, because the electric field E is not
defined at O? This is a big mathematical problem which forced scientists to create new concepts and notions like distributions, potential
theory, etc. We shall only compute the surface integral of the second
type of formula (1.4), i.e. the flux of E through the surface of a sphere
of radius R > 0 :
/ /
/ /
q0
r
n d =
E n d =
40
r3
(S): x2 +y 2 +z 2 =R2
q0
40
/ /
1
q0
n
n d = ,
2
R
0
because
r
r
=
n and
/ /
q0
E
n d = .
0
(S): x2 +y2 +z2 =R2
Gauss observed that the flux of E does not depend on the radius of
the sphere, so that he tried to prove that the sphere can be substituted
with an arbitrary closed surface S, which contains O as an interior
point of it. The reader can find a proof of this last statement in any
advanced course on Electricity, for instance in [BPC].
Now we prove the main theorem 95.
P. (for Gauss formula) We assume that our domain can
be decomposed into a finite number of simple subdomains i of the
same type like such that for i = j, i j is at most a surface of
343
F 2
The triple integral can be naturally decomposed into three triple
integrals and so we can apply Gauss formula for the three simple domains:
div F dxdydz =
div F dxdydz +
div F dxdydz +
/ /
div F dxdydz =
F
n1 d +
(S)
(2 )
(3 )
/ /
(2 )
(S1 )
/ /
F n1 d +
(S1 )
F
n2 d +
/ /
(S2 )
/ /
(S1 )
F n1 d +
F n2 d +
344
F
n3 d +
(3 )
(S2 )
/ /
/ /
/ /
(S2 )
F
n1 d +
(S)
(2 )
(3 )
/ /
F n3 d =
F
n2 d +
(2 )
(S1 )
/ /
F
n3 d +
(3 )
(S2 )
/ /
/ /
/ /
/ /
+
F n1 d
F n1 d +
F n1 d
F n1 d =
(S1 )
(S1 )
/ /
(S2 )
(S2 )
F
n d.
(S)
We see that it is sufficient to separately prove the following three equalities (then add them!):
/ /
P
(1.5)
a)
P (x, y, z)dydz =
dxdydz,
x
(1.6)
(1.7)
b)
c)
(S)
/ /
Q
dxdydz,
y
(S)
/ /
R
dxdydz.
z
Q(x, y, z)dzdx =
R(x, y, z)dxdy =
(S)
Since the proofs for all these formulae a), b) or c) are similar, we shall
prove only formula c). For this, after dividing the domain into a finite
union of nonoverlaping subdomains (see what we did above!) which are
simple w.r.t. Oz-axis, we suppose that is a simple domain w.r.t. Ozaxis like in Fig.3. This means that
= {(x, y, z) : (x, y) z (x, y), (x, y) xy = prxOy } ,
(x,y)
R
R
dxdydz =
dz dxdy =
z
z
xy
(x,y)
345
F 3
R(x, y, z)dxdy+
(S2 )
/ /
/ /
/ /
R(x, y, z)dxdy,
xy
xy
/ /
because
/ /
(S3 )
R(x, y, z)dxdy +
(S1 )
R(x, y, z)dxdy =
(S)
(S3 )
E 102. Let us use Gauss formula to compute the flux S ( F )
of the field F = x2 i + y 2 j + z 2 k through the total exterior sides surface S of the cube = [0, 1] [0, 1] [0, 1] (see Fig.4).
346
F 4
Use then this result to compute the flux 1 of the same field F
through the exterior surface of the cube, except the hatched face [O A B C ].
/ /
Gauss
(2x + 2y + 2z)dxdydz =
S ( F ) =
F n d =
1 1 1
= 2 (x + y + z)dx dy dz =
0
1
1 1 2
x
=2
+ xy + xz dy dz =
2
0
0
0
1
1 1
1
2
1
y
y
+ y + z dy dz = 2
+
+ yz dz =
=2
2
2
2
0
0
=2
1
0
1
z 2
(1 + z) dz = 2 z +
= 3.
2 0
(S1 ) ( F ) =
dxdy = 1.
[0,1][0,1]
347
Hence 1 = S ( F ) (S1 ) ( F ) = 2.
E 103. Compute the flux of the vector field F = (x2 , y 2 , z)
through the sphere x2 +y 2 +z 2 = 1, from exterior to interior (see Fig.5).
F 5
We simply apply Gauss formula (95):
(S) ( F ) =
(2x + 2y + 1)dxdydz.
x2 +y2 +z 2 1
(2x + 2y + 1)dxdydz =
x2 +y2 +z 2 1
2
1
= 2 (2 cos sin + 2 sin sin + 1) sin d d d =
0
= 2
1
0
2
3 (cos + sin ) sin2 d d d
0
2
1
3 1
2
sin d d d = 0 2 2 = 4 .
3 0
3
0
348
(2.1)
v = K grad u,
(S) ( v ) =
v
n d.
(S)
div(grad u)dxdydz = K
u dxdydz,
v n d = K
(S)
where u =
2u
x2
2u
y2
2u
.
z 2
dxdydz.
t
t
Since this last one must equal the amount of heat leaving , one has:
u
dxdydz = K
u dxdydz,
t
or
u
Ku dxdydz = 0.
t
3. STOKES THEOREM
349
see that u
Ku is identical to zero on (prove this in general like
t
in the case of a simple integral!). Finally we get the famous parabolic
PDE (partial differential equation) of the heat flow:
u
= c2 u,
t
K
where c2 =
. If for a small interval of time the heat flow does not
depend on time, we get u = 0, which is called the Laplace equation.
It is fundamental in many branches of Applied Mathematics. More
discussions on this subject can be find in any course of PDE.
3. Stokes Theorem
This fundamental result is a generalization of the Green theorem
(in plane), for the 3-dimensional case. This theorem says that in some
conditions a surface integral of the second type can be transformed into
a line integral and conversely.
A surface (S) R3 has the curve as its boundary or border
if (S), is a piecewise smooth, connected and "closed" curve
(
r (a) =
r (b),
r : [a, b] R3 ) and, for any point M0 of , there
exists a small > 0 such that the intersection B(M0 ; r)(S), 0 < r ,
between any ball (in R3 ) with centre at M0 and radius r, at most
, has the property that B(M0 ; r)
[B(M0 ; r) (S)] is a connected
/ , then there exists at least
set. Moreover, if M0 (S) but M0
one ball B(M0 ; r), r > 0 such that B(M0 ; r)
[B(M0 ; r) (S)] is the
disjoint union of two connected subsets of B(M0 ; r) (their intersections
is empty!).
A sphere S is not a surface with a border. But a semisphere is a
surface with a border , the unique "big" circle on the sphere. Other
examples of surfaces with a border one can see in Fig.6, Fig.7 or Fig.8.
We must be careful! For instance, the cylinder x2 + y 2 = R2 , 0 z h
has not a (unique) border in our acceptance because its candidate for a
"border" is the nonconnected union between the following two circles:
x2 + y 2 = R2 , z = 0 and x2 + y 2 = R2 , z = h,where h = 0. If we add to
this last cylinder the "above" disc x2 + y 2 R2 , z = h, the obtained
surface has a unique (connected) border: x2 + y 2 = R2 , z = 0, thus it
is a surface with a border in our previous acceptance.
Let
g : D R3 ,
g (u, v) = x(u, v) i + y(u, v) j + z(u, v) k , be a
350
oriented closed piecewise smooth curve and let = (S) be the border
F 6
Let us recall that curl F is a new vector field associated to the field
F as follows:
i
j
k
(3.1)
curl F = det
x
y
z
P Q R
3. STOKES THEOREM
351
P
R
Q P
R Q
i +
j +
k.
y
z
z
x
x
y
Recall that the normal versor can be computed by the formula
A
B
C
n =
,
,
A2 + B 2 + C 2
A2 + B 2 + C 2
A2 + B 2 + C 2
A
B
C
, ny =
, nz =
.
nx =
A2 + B 2 + C 2
A2 + B 2 + C 2
A2 + B 2 + C 2
T
96. (Stokes formula) Let D, (S),
g , = (S), etc. be
(3.2)
(curl F ) n d = P dx + Qdy + Rdz.
(S)
The first surface integral is the flux of the curl F through the surface
(S). The last line integral is the circulation (or the work) of F on the
oriented border of (S). Stokes formula says that this flux of curl F
/ /
/ /
R Q
P
R
(curl F ) n d =
[
nx +
ny +
y
z
z
x
(S)
(S)
Q P
x
y
nz ]d =
/ /
(S)
P
P
ny
nz d+
z
y
/ /
/ /
Q
R
Q
R
+
nz
nx d +
nx
ny d.
x
z
y
x
(S)
(S)
352
b)
/ /
(S)
c)
/ /
Q
n
z x
nz
R
n
y x
R
n
x y
(S)
d =
Qdy,
d =
Rdz.
Since the proof of each of these equalities are similar, we shall prove
only a). Now we can suppose that (S) is simple w.r.t. Oz-axis (otherwise we decompose it into a finite simple surfaces like in Fig.6). Hence,
one can find for (S) an explicit parametrization w.r.t. z :
x=x
y=y
(S) :
, (x, y) xy = prxOy (S)
z = z(x, y)
(see Fig.7). In this situation
z
z
x , y , 1
n =
z 2 z 2
+ y + 1
x
/ /
P
P
ny
nz d =
z
y
(S)
P
z P
=
xy
Green
P (x, y, z)dx,
i.e. the right side of a). Here we just applied Green formula for the
domain xy with its boundary (see Fig.7).
If (S) is not simple with respect to Oz-axis we reduce everything to
simple components of (S). Let us apply this last idea for the surface
3. STOKES THEOREM
353
F 7
of Fig.6.
/ /
(S)
/ /
/ /
(curl F )
n d =
(curl F )
n d +
(curl F )
n d =
(S1 )
[AEB]
[BCA]
P dx + Qdy + Rdz +
P dx + Qdy + Rdz =
/ /
+
P dx + Qdy + Rdz .
P dx + Qdy + Rdz,
[ACB]
(curl F )
n d =
(S)
P dx + Qdy + Rdz +
[ACB]
[BCA]
so that
P dx + Qdy + Rdz +
[BF A]
But
(S2 )
[BF A]
P dx + Qdy + Rdz+
[AEB]
P dx + Qdy + Rdz =
P dx + Qdy + Rdz.
354
E 104. Let us compute the line integral I =
x2 ydx +
x=x
y = y , (x, y) [0, 1] [0, 1],
(S) :
z=1
which has as its (unique) border the connected curve . Since
i
j
k
= x2 k ,
curl F = det
x
y
z
x2 y y 2 z 2
2
2
2
x ydx + y dy + z dz =
(curl F ) n d =
x2 dxdy =
[0,1][0,1]
(S)
1
1
1
2
= x
dy dx = x2 dx = .
3
1
0
The same curve with the inverse orientation is also the border of
the surface S obtained by the union of the five other sides of the cube,
except the "above" side, situated on the plane z = 1. This surface is
oriented by /the/ exterior normal vectors like in Fig.8.
Hence,
(curl F )
n d = 13 . Let us now directly compute the
S
line integral I.
/
I = x2 ydx+y 2 dy +z 2 dz =
x2 ydx+y 2 dy +z 2 dz+
[O A ]:x=x,y=0,z=1,x[0,1]
x2 ydx + y 2 dy + z 2 dz+
x2 ydx + y 2 dy + z 2 dz+
[A B ]:x=1,y=y,z=1,y[0,1]
[B C ]:x=x,y=1,z=1,x[0,1]
3. STOKES THEOREM
355
F 8
/
x2 ydx + y 2 dy + z 2 dz =
[C O ]:x=0,y=y,z=1,y[0,1]
=0+
1
0
y dy
1
0
x dx
1
0
1
y 2 dy = .
3
We just obtained the same result like that one obtained by using Stokes
formula. Hence, these last computation can also be viewed as a simple
verification.
We know that if F
: D R3 if a conservative field of class C 1 on
tive, it is enough to prove that the line integral F d
r = 0 on any
the type: U (x, y, z) =
F d
r ). Now, for any "closed" piecewise
(a,b,c)
smooth curve D, it is intuitively clear (at least for the usual balls,
cylindrical domains, conical domains, paraboloidal domains, etc.) that
there exists a bounded, connected piecewise smooth surface T D
356
with the unique border (try to explain this existence at least for a
starred domain D, i.e. if there exists a point P0 D such that if P is
another point in D, then the whole segment [P0 P ] is included in D).
Then we can apply Stokes formula for the surface T with its border :
/ /
/
ative.
Sometimes Stokes formula cannot be easily applied, but this last
result can work easily.
/
E 105. Let us compute the line integral I = x2 dx+y 2 dy+
F 9
on the integration path which connects the points A and D. The simplest
path which connect A and D is the oriented segment [AD] : x = 0,
357
y = y, z = 0. Thus,
/
R
2
2
2
2
x dx + y dy + z dz = y 2 dy = R3 .
3
x
+ yb2 + zc2 = 1.
y 2 zdxdy, where S is the exterior side of the ellipsoid
a2
/ /
5. Use Gauss formula to compute I =
x2 dydz + y 2 dzdx +
S
x2 dydz + y 2 dzdx +
358
CHAPTER 10
360
361
(1.1)
(1.3)
f (z) =
R=
1
1
.
=
n
lim sup |cn |
lim sup cn+1
cn
Sf ( , { j }) =
n
j=1
f ( j )(zj zj1 )
362
F 1
D 33. We say that f : D C is integrable on the arc ab
def
if there exists a complex number I = f (z)dz such that for any small
ab
(1.5)
f (z)dz =
T
f (g(t))g (t)dt,
T0
ab
f ( j )(zj zj1 ) =
(1.6)
Lagrange
n
j=1
n
j=1
363
with
n
j=1
T
T0
n
j=1
f( j )(zj
f(z)dz =
ab
T
f (g(t))g (t)dt.
T0
1
dz
(zz0 )n
|zz0 |=r
2
0
2
1
ei(1n)
i
n+1
rie d = r
i
= 0,
rn ein
i(1 n) 0
2
if n = 1 and I1 = i d = 2i. Here we used the equality: e2mi =
0
ab
f (z)dz as a complex
364
f ( j )(zj zj1 ) =
j=1
n
=
u(j , j ) + iv( j , j ) [(x(tj ) x(tj1 )) + i(y(tj ) y(tj1 ))] =
j=1
n
j=1
+i
u( j , j )(x(tj ) x(tj1 )) v( j , j )(y(tj ) y(tj1 )) +
n
j=1
u( j , j )(y(tj ) y(tj1 )) + v( j , j )(x(tj ) x(tj1 )) .
Since the real part of this last sum is a Riemann sum for the line
/
integral udx vdy and since the imaginary part is a Riemann sum
ab
ab
(1.8)
f(z)dz =
ab
ab
Let us compute
/
udx vdy + i vdx + udy.
ab
[AB] with A(0, 0) and B(1, 2). Since u(x, y) = 3xy and v(x, y) = y 2
can be easily computed, we use formula (1.8). A parametrization for
[AB] is x = x, y = 2x, x [0, 1]. Hence,
ab
f (z)dz =
1
0
1
2
16
(6x 8x )dx + i (4x2 + 12x2 )dx = + i .
3
3
2
T
97. (Cauchy fundamental theorem) Let D be a simple
connected domain of C and let f : D C be a differentiable (analytic) complex function defined on D. Then, for any piecewise smooth
/
"closed" oriented curve D, one has that f (z)dz = 0.
365
v
P. Since f is differentiable one has that u
= v
, u = x
.
x
y y
We can apply Green formula (3.1), Ch.6, for the both line integrals on
the right side of the equality, which results from formula (1.8):
/
/
/
f(z)dz = udx vdy + i vdx + udy =
u v
y x
v u
+
dxdy + i
dxdy = 0,
y x
D
F 2
The simple connected property of D is necessarily. Indeed, for
instance
1
dz = 2i = 0
z z0
|zz0 |=r
366
tiable and F (z) = f(z) for any z D (see Fig.3). The proof of this
statement is almost similar to the proof of the analogous result for line
integrals of the second type (see also the remark 22). Indeed, let w0 be a
point in D and let a closed disc B[w0 , r] = {z C : |z w0 | r} with
centre at w0 and radius r > 0, sufficiently small such that B[w0 , r] D.
Since D is connected, there exists a polygonal line [z0 w0 ] D, which
connect z0 and w0 . For any w B[w0 , r], let us evaluate the quotient:
f ()d +
f()d
segm[w0 w]
[z0 w0 ]
w w0
f ()d
=
f()d
segm[w0 w]
w w0
F 3
367
F (w) F (w0 )
=
f
(w
)
0
w w0
F (w)F (w0 )
ww0
and f (z) :
f ()d
f (w0 )d
segm[w0 w]
segm[w0 w]
|w w0 |
segm[w0 w]
|w w0 |
sup
segm[w0 w]
|f() f (w0 )| .
Since f is continuous
on D, this last supremum goes to zero when w
F (w)F (w0 )
(w0 )
w0 . Hence, ww0 f (w0 ) 0, when w w0 , i.e. lim F (w)F
=
ww0
ww0
368
F 4
T
98. (n-connected Cauchy fundamental theorem) With
n1
these notation and hypotheses, let f : D
j=1
Dj C be a continuous function which is analytic on . Then,
(1.9)
f (z)dz = f (z)dz + f(z)dz + ... +
f (z)dz.
+
0
+
1
+
2
+
n1
+
0
j=1
j=1
j=1
+
j
369
F 5
or
f (z)dz =
j=1
+
0
def
n1
1
2i
f (z)dz.
+
j
|zzj |=rj
|zzj |=rj
well defined. The equality (1.10) is the particular case of the general
Cauchy formula (1.9), where we take the discs |z zj | < rj for the
domains Dj .
R 37. Let H be a complex domain, let D be a bounded domain included in H such that D = is a direct oriented, continuous
and piecewise smooth curve. Let f be an analytic function on H, except
a finite number of points z1 , z2 , ...zm inside D and a finite number of
points w1 , w2 , ..., ws which are on D = (see Fig.6). If in a small
neighborhood Vj of wj , which does not contain any other wt , the curve
is smooth, then we say that the angle in radians attached to wj is
j = . If wh is an angular point on and the angle in radians between
the two distinct tangent lines at wh to is h , we attach this h to wh
370
j=1
j=1
F 6
1
2i
|zz0 |=r
r, except the point z0 , its centre. Then, we shall apply the residues formula (1.10) in order to compute some complicated real or complex
integrals. But what about the point of C = C {}? (see the Riemann sphere in [Po], 6.5). To study the behavior of a function f in a
neighborhood V,R = {z C : |z| > R} of infinite means to study the
behavior of the functions g(w) = f(1/w) in the corresponding neighborhood V0,1/R = {w C : |w| < 1/R} and then to come back to
with the obtained informations. Let us assume that a complex function
f is analytic on C except a finite set of points z1 , z2 , ..., zk . Let R > 0
large enough such that |zj | < R for j = 1, 2, ..., k. We define
def 1
(1.12)
res(f, ) =
f (z)dz,
2i
371
res(f, ) +
k
res(f, zj ) = 0.
j=1
n=
an (z z0 )n .
1
1
1
+
+ ... +
+ ...
2
1!z 2!z
n!z n
r = 0, R = , but the series is not defined at z = 0. It is defined at
and its values is 1 at this point.
1
ez = 1 +
372
1
(1.16)
res(f, z0 ) =
an
(z z0 )n dz = a1 ,
2i n=
|zz0 |=
res(f, z0 ) = a1 =
(k1)
1
lim (z z0 )k f(z)
.
(k 1)! zz0
|zi|=r
1
dz,
z 2 (z 2 1)
[tuv]
poles
2
i 2) f (z) is analytic in a small neighborhood
of i 2 which does not
Thus,
res(f, z1 ) = lim
zi 2
sin 1z
(z + i 2)2
373
= lim
=
zi 2
(z + i 2)4
i 2 sin i2 cos i2
=
.
16
sin 1z
res(f, z2 ) = lim
=
zi 2 (z i 2)2
=
= lim
zi 2
(z i 2)4
i 2 sin i2 cos i2
.
=
16
We can now start the discussion. If r < 2 1, then inside the circle
|z i| = r there
exists no singular point for f. Thus, in this case
I(r) = 0. If r = 2 1, then z1 is on the circle |z i| = 2 1 and we
apply formula (1.11)
(we say that at z1 we have a semiresidue. Hence,
i 2 sin i cos i
2
2
I( 2 1) = i
.
If
2 1 < r < 1, then z1 is inside the
16
i 2 sin i cos i
2
2
circle 2 1, so that I(r) = 2i
. If
r = 1, then, besides
16
i 2 sin
cos
2
2
z1 , one has a semiresidue at z0 and I(1) = 2i
+ i.
16
i 2 sin i cos i
2
2
circle, so I(r) = 2i
+ 2i. If r = 1 + 2, then we
16
have residues at z0 and z1 inside the circle and a semiresidue
at z2 ,
i 2 sin i cos i
i 2 sin i cos i
2
2
2
2
so that I(1 + 2) = 2i
+ 2i + i
. If
16
16
r > 1 + 2, we have
all the three points as residues
inside the circle,
so that I(r) = 2i
i 2 sin
To compute J =
[tuv]
i cos i
2
2
16
+ 2i + 2i
1
dz,
z 2 (z 2 1)
i 2 sin
i cos i
2
2
16
374
and
1
1
=
.
z1 z 2 (z + 1)
2
res(h, 1) = lim
Hence, J = 2 i 0 + 4 i
1
2
i
.
8
(1.18)
f(z)
dz =
ak (z z0 )kn1 dz = an 2i,
(z z0 )n+1
k=0
r
kn1
because of formulas (1.7) ( (z z0 )
dz = 0 for k < n and (z
r
z0 )
kn1
dz = 0). Hence,
1
an =
2i
f (z)
dz.
(z z0 )n+1
Since an = n!1 f (n) (z0 ) (compute this n-th derivate in the Taylor expansion (1.18)), one obtains:
n!
f(z)
(n)
dz.
(1.20)
f (z0 ) =
2i (z z0 )n+1
375
|zz0 |=r
|zz0 |=r
|f (z) f (z0 )|
1
|dz|
2r sup |f (z) f (z0 )| 0,
|z z0 |
2r
|zz0 |=r
does not depend on r, we see that it must be zero, i.e. we just obtained
the basic Cauchy integral formula. Looking at the equality
1
f (z)
f (w) =
dz
2i
zw
|zz0 |=r
f (w) =
dz,
2i
(z w)2
|zz0 |=r
376
12
f (w) =
2i
|zz0 |=r
f (z)
n!
(n)
(w) =
3 dz, ..., f
2i
(z w)
|zz0 |=r
f (z)
dz,
(z w)n+1
i.e. we just proved formula (1.20) and the amazing fact that if f (z)
in differentiable "once" on a simple connected domain D, then it has
derivatives of an arbitrary order on D.
Now, let us come back to the Taylor expansion (1.18) of an analytic
function f (z) in a disc B(z0 , R) and let r < R. Let us evaluate the
f (z)
1
coefficient an = 2i
dz, n = 0, 1, 2, ... :
(zz0 )n+1
: |zz0 |=r
1
|an|
M
2
1
rn+1
|dz| =
1
M
1
M n+1 2r = n ,
2
r
r
: |zz0 |=r
377
T > 0 such that |f(z)| < 1 for any |z| > T. Let M be the greatest
value of f (z) on the closed disc B[0, T ]. Then |f (z)| < 1 + M for any
z C, i.e. f (z) is bounded and we can apply the above Liouville theorem and find that f (z) is a constant function, i.e. P (z) is constant, a
contradiction, because we assumed that it is nonconstant. Hence P (z)
must have at least one root in C. The other statements can be easily derived by using successively the Euclidean division algorithm for
polynomials.
2. Applications of residues formula
2
a) How do we evaluate real integrals of the form I = R(cos , sin )d
0
1
1
1
1
1
1
(2.1)
I=
R
z+
,
z
dz.
i
2
z
2i
z
z
|z|=1
P (z)
1
1
1
1
1
=R
z+
,
z
Q(z)
2
z
2i
z
z
1
P (z)
(2.2)
I = 2i
res
, zk .
i
Q(z)
Q(zk )=0
1
,
2+sin x
2
cos mx
dx
2+sin x
of
x [0, 2] (see
378
2
dz =
m
i
2
z
z + 4iz 1 z
|z|=1
|z|=1
1
dz +
z m (z 2 + 4iz 1)
|z|=1
zm
dz.
z 2 + 4iz 1
f(x)dx
CR
f (z)dz 0 when R
CR
Now we can prove the basic result which will help us to compute
improper integrals just announced.
T
102. Let f (x) be a real function of class C , defined
on the entire real axis and let f(z) be a unique (see [Po], section 11.8)
analytic prolongation of it to the upper half-plane Im z > 0. We assume
379
F 7
that the function f (z) satisfies the conditions of the above theorem 101.
Then our improper integral
f (x)dx is convergent and:
(2.4)
f (x)dx = 2i
n
res(f, zk ),
k=1
where z1 , z2 , ..., zn are all the singular points (at which f is not analytiP (z)
cal) of f in the upper half-plane Im z > 0. In particular, if f (z) = Q(z)
is a rational function which satisfies the supplementary conditions that
deg Q(z) deg P (z) + 2 and that the equation Q(z) = 0 has no real
root, then
(2.5)
P (x)
dx = 2i
Q(x)
res(f, zk )
P. Let us take R0 large enough such that |zk | < R0 for any
k = 1, 2, ..., n. Now we consider in the upper half-plane the closed
contour [R, R] CR (see Fig.7). We apply the residue formula and
find:
R
n
f (x)dx + f(z)dz = 2i
res(f, zk ).
R
CR
k=1
380
Since the conditions of theorem 101 are satisfied, taking limit when
R , we get exactly formula (2.4).
(x)
The last statement is true because, f (z) = PQ(x)
together with the
above restrictions on the polynomials P (z), Q(z), satisfies the same
conditions of theorem 101.
1
For instance, we know that the integral I = x4 +1 dx is convergent but its computation is not so easy. We see that z41+1 |z|13 , for
|z| large enough, i.e. R0 = 1, for instance, M = 1 and = 2 > 0 in
theorem 101. Thus we can apply the last theorem. For this we need to
find all the zeros of z 4 + 1 = 0 in the half-plane Im z > 0. The solutions
+2k
of the equation z 4 + 1 = 0 are z0,1,2,3 = ei 4 , k = 0, 1, 2, 3. But only
3
z0 = ei 4 and z1 = ei 4 are in the upper half-plane. Thus,
1
1
i 4
i 3
I = 2i res 4
+ res 4
.
,e
,e 4
z +1
z +1
1
1
1
i 4
res 4
,e
= lim (z z0 ) 4
=
.
zz
z +1
z +1
(z0 z1 )(z0 z2 )(z0 z3 )
0
To compute this last number is not so easy. But, let us look carefully
to the general formula 1.17 for the case of a simple pole z0 , i.e. for
P (z)
k = 1 and for f (z) = Q(z)
, a rational function:
(2.6)
res(f, z0 ) = lim (z z0 )
zz0
P (z)
P (z0 )
P (z0 )
=
=
.
Q(z)Q(z
)
0
Q(z)
Q (z0 )
lim zz0
zz0
1
1
1
, ei 4 = 3
res 4
= i .
z +1
4z z=ei 4
4e 4
Finally we obtain
1
1
2
i 4
i 3
I = 2i res 4
,e
+ res 4
,e 4
=
.
z +1
z +1
2
If the residues of f are in the lower half-plane and similar conditions
for f are satisfied, a similar result is true (do it!).
c) Integrals of the form
eiax f (x)dx
381
CR
(2.8)
= R(R)
eaR sin d,
because
iaz iaRei iaR(cos +i sin ) iaR cos aR sin )
e = e
= e
e
=
= e
= |cos(aR cos ) + i sin(aR cos )| eaR sin ) = eaR sin ) .
Let us evaluate the real simple integral
I=
eaR sin d =
2
eaR sin d +
eaR sin d.
0
2
2
eaR sin d = eaR sin d = eaR sin d = eaR sin d.
2
1
1
cos2
0, the function
sin
382
cos sin
2
tan
2 cos
0 if 0, 2 . Hence the function
2
.
]
2
is
sin
2
,
Therefore,
eaR sin e
and
2
I 2 e
0
2aR
d =
i.e.
sin
sin
2
is
or
2aR
2aR 2
aR
1 .
e =
e
aR
aR
0
Since
iaz
e f(z)dz R(R) eaR sin d (R) 1 eaR
a
C
0
R
when R .
R 38. a) If a < 0 and f (z) satisfies all the conditions which
appear in the statement of the theorem 103 for the lower half-plane
Im z 0, then the formula 2.7 is again true for any semicircular arc
CR in the lower half of the xOy-plane. b) Similar assertions hold for
a = i, > 0, when we integrate on the right (Re z 0, see Fig.8)
or on the left (Re z 0) half of the xOy-plane. We leave to the reader
to state and prove such similar Jordans lemmas. Such variations of
Jordans lemma are extensively used in operational calculus (Fourier
and Laplace transforms).
T
104. Let f (x) be a continuous real valued function defined on the entire real axis R and let f(z) be an extension of it into
the entire upper half-plane Im z 0. We assume that f (z) satisfies
the conditions of Jordans lemma and that it is analytic in this upper
half-plane with the exception of a finite number of points z1 , z2 , ..., zn
in
thisiaxhalf-plane, which are not on the real axis. Then the integral
e f (x)dx, a > 0 exists and it can be computed as follows:
n
iax
(2.9)
e f(x)dx = 2i
res eiaz f (z), zk .
k=1
383
F 8
P. Let R0 be large enough such that |zk | < R0 , k = 1, 2, ..., n,
i.e. all the singularities (the points at which f is not analytic) of f be
inside the circle |z| = R0 . Take now R > R0 and consider in the upper
half-plane the following "closed" contour = [R, R] CR , where CR
is the semicircle of the circle |z| = R, which are in the upper-half plane
of the xOy-plane (draw it!). By applying the residues formula (1.10)
we get:
R
n
iaz
iax
e f(z)dz =
e f (x)dx+ eiaz f (z)dz = 2i
res eiaz f(z), zk .
R
k=1
CR
and try
formula (2.9) to it. For instance, let us compute
tocosapply
nx
I1 = x2 +h2 dx, where h > 0 is a real parameter and n = 0, 1, 2, ... .
Thus,
inz
einx
e
I=
dx = 2i res 2
, ih =
2
2
z + h2
x + h
384
einz
enh
=
2i
2i lim (z ih) 2
= enh .
2
zih
z +h
2ih
h
sin nx
nh
Thus I1 = h e
and I2 = x2 +h2 dx = 0 (this was obvious from the
beginning because the function under the integration sign is odd and the
interval is symmetric w.r.t. the origin).
E 109. (Computing Fresnels
In example
integrals)
50 we
2
proved that the Fresnels integrals I1 = 0 cos x dx and I2 = 0 sin x2 dx
are convergent. Let us compute them here. For this we naturally
intro
iz2
duce the auxiliary complex function f (z) = e . Let A(r, 0), B r2 , r2
and let r be the arc of the circle |z| = r, between A and B. Let
= [OA] r [BO] with its direct orientation (draw it!). Applying
2
Cauchy fundamental theorem 97 to the analytic function f (z) = eiz ,
we get:
2
iz 2
ix2
iz2
(2.10)
0 = e dz =
e dx + e dz +
eiz dz.
+
[OA]
lim
r
r
[BO]
eiz dz = 0.
, where
Indeed, putting z 2 = w, we obtain dz = 2dw
w is the first
w
branch (k = 0) of the square root multivalued function w = |w| ei arg w
arg w+2k
|w|ei 2 , k = 0, 1. Here = arg w is the unique angle in [0, 2)
which satisfies the relations: Re w = |w| cos and Im w = |w| sin .
Hence, if we denote r2 the quarter of the circle |w| = r2 situated in
the first quadrant, one has:
iz 2
e dz =
iw
e
dw = ir2
2 w
2
0
r 2
eir
2 (cos +i sin )
i
2re 2
ei d.
Since ei = 1 for any angle , we get:
2
2
iz2 r
r
r2 sin
r2 2
e dz
e
d
e
d =
2
2
r
r 2 r2 2 2
1
r2
e
=
1
e
0,
2 r2
r
0
385
[OA]
iz2
e dz
z=ei 4
i 4
r
e d.
[BO]
1
1
2
2
i 4
cos x dx+i sin x dx = e
= + i
= +i .
2
2
2 2
2 2 2 2
0
Hence
0
cos x dx =
0
sin x dx = .
2 2
2
APPENDIX A
Exam samples
1. June, 2010
1. Find the area of the planedomain bounded by the curves: y =
3
1
x2 , y = 4+x
3.
2 , x = 2 and x = 2
at
2. Prove that the integral I(a) = 0 e tet1 dt is convergent for any
a > 0 and compute it. What about its uniform convergence?
3. Compute
x2 + y 2 dxdy.
x2 +y 2 9
x2 + y 2 8z
.
0z2
2. June, 2010
1. The graphic of y = x 4 x2 + 1, x [0, 1] rotates around Oxaxis. Find the volume of the resulting
solid.
1
2. Prove that the integral 0 (x2 +1)(x
2 +4) dx is convergent and then
compute it.
3. Find 2the area of the plane surface bounded by the curves: y =
10x and y = 10x.
4. Compute
zdxdydz. Draw this domain and supx2 +y2 +z 2 9, z0
388
A. EXAM SAMPLES
4. Find the
of the centre of mass for the total surface
coordinates
x2 + y 2 = 4z 2
of the cone:
.
0z2
4. June, 2010
3
5. September, 2010
1. Let A(2, 2), B(1, 0) and C(2, 2). Let be the arc of the
parabola y 2 = x which connect A and C. Let [ABC] the polygonal line
which passes through A, B and C. Compute the area bounded by
and [ABC].
it.
6. September, 2010
1. Prove that I = 0 1 3 dx is convergent and then compute
( x+1)
APPENDIX B
Basic antiderivatives
Prove all the following formulas (here
of f(x)):
(0.1)
(0.2)
(0.3)
(0.4)
(0.5)
(0.6)
x dx =
1
x+1 ,
+1
if = 1.
ln x, if = 1 and x > 0 .
ax
, if a > 0, a = 1.
ln a
x a
1
1
, a = 0, x = a.
ln
=
x2 a2
2a x + a
1
1
x
dx = tan1 , a = 0.
2
2
x +a
a
a
1
2 + a2 , a = 0.
dx
=
ln
x
+
x
x2 + a2
1
x
dx = sin1 , a = 0, a2 x2 > 0.
2
2
a
a x
ax dx =
x 2
a2
x
(0.7)
a2 x2 dx =
a x2 + sin1 , a = 0, a2 x2 > 0.
2
2
a
x 2
a2
(0.8)
x2 a2 dx =
x a2 ln(x + x2 a2 ), a = 0.
2
2
(0.9)
(0.10)
390
B. BASIC ANTIDERIVATIVES
(0.11)
(0.12)
(0.13)
(0.14)
(0.15)
(0.16)
(0.17)
1
dx = tan x, x = (2k + 1) .
2
cos x
2
1
dx = cot x, x = k.
sin2 x
1
x
dx = ln tan , x = k.
sin x
2
x
1
dx = ln tan
, x = (2k + 1) .
cos x
4
2
2
sinh xdx = cosh x.
(0.18)
(0.19)
(0.20)
cosh dx = sinh x.
1
sinh x
.
2 dx = tanh x =
cosh x
cosh x
1
cosh x
.
2 dx = coth x =
sinh x
sinh x
Index
divergence, 343
general domain, 273
abelian integral, 27
absolutely convergent, 119, 129
abstract curve, 186
algebraic function of one variable, 26
almost everywhere, 61
analytic, 362
analytic function , 367
analytic prolongation, 381
annulus, 370
approximation, 93
area, 73
area of a plane figure, 227
automorphism, 14
Bezouts theorem, 13
binomial differential form, 32
border, 351
boundary, 351
boundary of a subset, 70
bounded domain, 362
bounded function, 125
bounded subset, 70
Cauchy criterion, 155
Cauchy criterion for improper
integrals I, 118
Cauchy criterion for improper
integrals II, 128
Cauchy criterion for limits, 112
391
392
INDEX
INDEX
393
mass of a bar, 51
mass of a wire, 188
mean formula, 278
mean formula for line integrals, 190
mean theorem, 317
mean theorems
mean formulas, 65
measurable, 71
measure, 71
394
polynomial function, 10
position vector, 183
potential energy, 204
potential field, 204
potential function, 204
potential theory, 344
primitive
antiderivative, 3
primitive function, 204
principal value, 114, 127
proper integral with one parameter,
140
rate of flow, 350
rational function of two variables, 26
real function with complex values,
362
real part, 362
rectangles formula, 92
rectifiable, 89
reduction formula, 171
reduction theorem, 301
regular point, 376
regular transformation, 288
residue, 374
residues formula, 370
Riemann criterion, 57
Riemann double sum, 148
Riemann integrable, 52, 228, 237,
269, 274
Riemann sphere, 372
Riemann sum, 52, 188, 197, 237,
315, 329, 363
right limit, 107
segment (oriented), 70
series test, 118
series test 1, 136
side limits, 107
simple connected, 209, 366
simple convergent, 154
simple fractions, 19
simple limit along a set of
parameters, 149
simple subdomain, 345
simple w.r.t. Ox-axis, 213, 241
simple w.r.t. Oy-axis, 214
simple w.r.t. Oz-axis, 281
Simpson formula, 101
INDEX
INDEX
395
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