Natalie Sng

Year 12 Physics From Quanta to Quarks

Gather, process, analyze and present information and use available evidence to assess the
contributions made by Heisenberg and Pauli to the development of atomic theory.
The Atomic Theory is a scientific theory of the nature in matter that defines an atoms discrete
characteristics and structure. Many scientists, starting with Dalton, have built upon this theory
as more evidence was collated with the advancements in technology. Heisenberg and Pauli
were two distinct individuals who studied the nature and the behaviors of electrons in atoms
postulating two concepts that challenged and revolutionized quantum physics as a whole.
Werner Heisenberg was studying under Max Born in Copenhagen in 1924 and was in fact
discontented with the mixture of quantum and classical physics in Bohrs model of the atom.
He was convinced that the quantum theory needed to be replaced with a more comprehensive
idea of quantum mechanics in which could explain the limitations of Bohrs model including the
relative intensities of spectral lines as well as the Zeeman Effect. Based solely on quantum
mechanics, he developed a complex theory that was purely mathematical called matrices. This
model fitted the experimental data without having to make the use of classical physics. Later,
Schrdinger exemplified Heisenbergs quantum mechanical model with his own wave theory
based on de Broglies matter wave concept which helped explain spectra more clearly and
illustrated the probability of finding an electron in a particular region.
The Uncertainty Principle by Heisenberg clarified the roles of both wave mechanics and matrix
mechanics and is essentially the modern formulation of quantum mechanics. He postulated
that The more precisely the position is determined, the less precisely the momentum is known
in this instant, and vice versa1. Thus, the more precisely the position is known, the less
precisely the momentum is determined and vice versa.

px h/4

Where:
p = Uncertainty in the momentum
x = Uncertainty in the position
h = Planck s constant
h/4 = Quantum Multiple

Thus, this shows that as p increases, x decreases. Heisenberg used a thought experiment to
demonstrate the principle of uncertainty, believing that all concepts in science require a
definition based on actual, or possible, experimental observations. Imagine using a photon to
determine the position of a particle. Because an electrons size is small, a photon of a high
frequency (small wavelength) must be used as large wavelengths bend around objects as if
they are not there. However, in quantum mechanics, each photon has momentum and thus as
it strikes the electron, it will impart some energy into the electron, changing its momentum in a
non determined manner. Conversely, if the photons energy is lowered so that its momentum
can be determined more easily, the longer wavelength used would be unable to determine the
electrons position accurately. Thus, the uncertainty principle demonstrated that we cannot
speak about events with any degree of certainty on the atomic scale and must rather speak in
terms of probability.
Wolfgang Pauli, a rather close friend of Heisenberg proposed the exclusion principle whereby no
two electrons in any atom can have the same set of quantum numbers. Two electrons only can
occupy the same energy level within an atom, each having an opposite spin and every electron
within an atom can be assigned a set of four quantum numbers which defines the energy of an
electron in terms of its orientation of the axis of the orbit, distance from the nucleus, the orbits
shape, and the electrons spin on its own axis.
By introducing the fourth quantum number, the spin magnetic quantum number, he was able
to explain the hyperactive spectral lines (Zeeman Effect) another limitation to Bohrs model.
This principle of exclusion allowed Chemists to explain and understand the electronic structure
of various atoms, enabling chemical properties, bonding as wells as the regularity of the
periodic table. He was also able to derive Balmers equation and Rydbergs Constant using
Heisenbergs quantum mechanics and applying it to the hydrogen atom. It was subsequently
discovered that this principle was a consequence of the solution to Schrodingers wave
equation and furthermore explained why electrons do not fall into the, making the atom
1

Heisenberg, Uncertainty Paper, 1927

Natalie Sng
Year 12 Physics From Quanta to Quarks

unstable, a big limitation to Bohrs model. This principle also explained why conduction
electrons in metallic crystals are in high energy states and mobile as it accounts for the large
size of heavier atoms due to more orbitals needing more space. Pauli also proposed the
existence of the neutrino, which explained why beta particles were emitted with a range of
energies.