SOIL CONSOLIDATION

Unsuitable ground

1.0 What Is Consolidation

What Is Consolidation

unlike

1.1 Consolidation Theory

Effect of on
START

Soil Particle
may be taken up by soil particles if they are
allowed to move and rearrange. However,
was not taken up by soil particle as movement of
solid particles are restraint by water in the pores
(water is incompressible); hence pore water is the one
that picking up the
Pore water
is taken up by pore water
ue = us +
where ue = excess pore water pressure
us = static pore water pressure (before P
is applied)(atmospheric pressure)

Consolidation Theory
AT TIME Soil Particles
t
Rearranging while pore water dissipating (flowing out)
is being transferred gradually to soil particle.
Pore Water
Pore water draining out due to existence of pressure
difference (ue and us). This process is known as
dissipation of pore water pressure and will continue until
pore water pressure ue reduces to uss (steady state pore
water pressure)
The soil at this state is said in drained condition. Before
dissipation of pore water, the soil is said to be in
undrained condition. The time required for pore water to
dissipate depends on permeability of the soil.

Consolidation Theory
COMPLETE

Soil Particles
New particle arrangement established.
All is taken up by soil particles
Pore water
All been completely transferred to soil particle 0
+
Dissipation of pore water pressure is completed
where ue has reached uss
Soil is said to be in drained condition

Consolidation Theory

Consolidation Analogy State of the System Spring

1-Dimensional

Pore Water

Equilibrium

u0

Applied Load P () ;
closed valve

u0 +

Applied Load P () ;
opened valve
( = a + b)

0 + a

u0 + b

Complete

0 +

u0

water pore water

valve flow control (soil permeability)
Load P pressure/external load
spring soil solid particle

Spring and
piston system

For clay soil only

Consolidation Theory
Consolidation Analogy -

1-Dimensional

Consolidation process stages of , and u

So.. Consolidation
Definition:
Gradual reduction in volume of fully saturated soil of low permeability
due to drainage of some of the pore water, the process continuing until
the excess pore eater pressure set up by an increase in total stress has
completely dissipated.
End results:
Consolidation settlement which can be measured by recording levels at
reference points on the ground surface
Consolidation progress measurement:
Through measuring changes in pore water pressure using piezometer.

1-D Consolidation Test Oedometer Test

BS 1377-Part5: 1990

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ByER2wnnei4
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3bvevFBNYw0&list=PLiD_qZ1L2hL4vdbNFbRLLgIb06Wzn8VNd
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bZTN8z0EIrM

At the end of the test , draw curves of

Consolidation settlement against time
Void ratio against stress

1.2 Oedometer Test

Calculation Formulae
Water content measured at the end of the test = w1
Void ratio at the end of the test = e1 = w1 Gs (assuming Sr = 1)
Thickness of the specimen at start of test = H0
Change in the thickness during the test = H
Void ratio at start of test = e0 = e1 + e
where
e 1 e

H0

1.2.1 Compressibility Characteristics

Initial compression

Expansion

recompression

During compression, changes in soil structure continuously take place and

the clay does not revert to the original structure during expansion.

Compressibility of Clay
Compressibility of Clay can be represented by

Coefficient of volume compressibility (mv)

Compression Index (Cc)

Coefficient of compressibility (av)

Coefficient of compressibility = change in void ratio
change in effective stress

e0 e1
e
av

1 ' ' 0 '

Compressibility of Clay
Coefficient of volume compressibility (mv)
Definition :
the volume change per unit volume per unit increase in effective
stress (m2/MN)
volume change per unit volume
(volume strain)

therefore m e
v
1 e
0

1
or
.
'

V
e

V0 1 e0

av
mv
1 e0

Compressibility of Clay
Compressibility Index (Cc )
Compressibility index is the slope of the linear portion of the plot

e -log

eo e1
Cc
'
log 1
0'
The slope on the expansion part is known as Expansion index Ce.
The value of Cc for normally consolidated soil can be related to liquid limit
(wL) where
Cc 0.0009(wL 10%)

For low plasticity soil or porous rock , Cc is given by

Cc 0.75(e a)

Where e = void ratio of undisturbed sample

a = constant depending on soil type

Example 1
Reading from oedometer test on saturated clay sample are as
below
Presure (kN/m2)

50

100

200

400

Layer thickness (mm)

18.5

18.02 17.86 17.35 17.22 17.75

At the end of the loading, load has been removed and the sample
has been allowed to expand for 24 hours and the thickness of the
sample at the end is 17.75mm. Moisture content and specific gravity
are 28.5% and 2.65 respectively.
Plot e - curve
Tfind the coefficient of volume compressibility, mv for the stress

range between 90 kN/m2 an d260 kN/m2

Overconsolidated Clay

Overconsolidated Soil
Soil that has experienced vertical effective stress es greater than its
existing vertical effective stress
Overconsolidated soil may occur in a situation such as after melting
of ice cap, erosion of overburden and an increase in water table.

The ratio by which the current vertical effective stress in the soil was
exceeded in the past is called overconsolidation ratio,

OCR 0' / 1'

1.2.2 Preconsolidated Pressure

Preconsolidated Pressure (c) is the maximum vertical effective
stress that a soil was subjected to in the past
It can be measured through e log curve for oversonsolidated
clay

Determination of Preconsolidated Pressure

Procedure of Determination
1. Determine and lable points A, B and C. Point B being the meeting
point between the straight and the curve part of the whole curve.
2. Extend back the straight line BC of the curve.
3. Determine the point D on curve AB; where point D is the
maximum point on curve AB.
4. Draw the tangent through D.
5. Draw horizontal line through D.
6. Draw a line that divide the angle between horizontal line and
tangent into two equal parts (the bisector line).
7. Find the intersection point between the bisector line and the
extended line BC.
8. Read the pressure as an approximation of preconsolidated
pressure c .
Usage c In construction, intended applied pressure on
overconsolidated clay must be less than c in order to avoid
large settlement.

In- situ e log curve

The slope of virgin compression line for in-situ soil is slightly

greater than the slope of virgin compression line obtained from
the lab test due to the fact that the soil has been disturbed during
sample preparation.
However, the void ratio at the beginning of the lab test (e0) is the
same for both in-situ and lab samples .

Lab virgin line may be expected to intersect the in-situ virgin line
at ~0.42 e0

Construction of In-situ consolidation line

In-situ virgin consolidation line

Draw horizontal line

representing e0 and 0.42e0
Draw vertical line c until it
crosses the horizontal line e0
(lable this intersection point
as E)
Extend downwards the
straight line of the lab curve
until it crosses the horizontal
line 0.42e0 (lable this
intersection point as F)
Connect EF which represent
the straight part of the in-situ
curve (in-situ virgin
consolidation line)

Construction of In-situ consolidation line

In-situ overconsolidated line
Lable 0 as current effective
stress
Draw vertical line 0 until it
crosses horzontal line e0 (lable
this intersection point as G)
Draw a parallel line with the
average slope of the lab curve
part (GH) from G

Example 2
The following compression readings were obtained in an
oedometer test on a specimen of saturate clay (Gs = 2.73)
Pressure (kN/m3)

54

107

214

429

858

1716

3432

Dial gauge after

24 hrs (mm)

5.000

4.747

4.493

4.108

3.449

2.608

1.676

0.737 1.480

The thickness of the specimen was 19.0 mm and at the end of the
test the water content was 19.8%.

Plot e - log curve

Determine the preconsolidation pressure
Determine the values of mv for stresses increment 100-200
kN/m2 and 1000-1500 kN/m2.
What is the value of Cc for the latter increment?

1.3 Consolidation Settlement

1-Dimensional
The term consolidation settlement can be derived from mv or Cc
For overconsolidated clay

Given

1 e
mv
1 e0 '

or

e
H
mv '
1 e0
H0

H mv ' H 0

or

sc mv ' H

e0

H0
1

Consolidation Settlement
1-Dimensional

For overconsolidated clay

If mv and do not change with depth so Sc can be written as

e0 e1
sc
H
1 e0

If changed linearly, therefore the the

change in Sc can be written as

e0

H0
1

ds c mv ' dz
0

Where dz = thickness of one element of soil

Consolidation Settlement
For normally consolidated clay
Given

e0 e1
e
Cc

'
'
log 1
log 1
0'
0'

1-Dimensional
0'
e C c log
0'

Insert in e into Sc

e0 e1
sc
H
1 e0
Cc
sc
1 e0

'

log 1
'

Consolidation Settlement
For normally consolidated soil

1-Dimensional

If the change in mv and Sc with depth need to be considered ,

Sc can be calculated using graphical procedure as shown below

Example 3
A building is supported on a raft 45m x 30m, the net foundation
pressure (assumed to be uniformly distributed) being 125
kN/m2. the soil profile is as shown below. The value of mv for
clay is 0.35 m2/MN. Determine the final settlement under the
centre of the raft due to consolidation of the clay.

Example 4
A large embankment will be constructed on a site with the soil
profile and characteristics as shown in diagram below. Water table
is static and at the ground level. Embankment cosntruction will
induce change in stress uniformly at 150 kN/m2. based on the
given data, calculate the final settlement of the embankment.
Given unit weight of water w is 9.81 kN/m3. Assume the changes

occur instantaneously.

1.4 Degree of Consolidation

The progress of consolidation process can be known from the
following expression:
Uz

e0 e
e0 e1

where

Uz = degree of consolidation at a perticular instant of time at depth z

e0 = void ratio before consolidation started
e1 = void ratio at the end of consolidation
e = void ratio at the time in question ; during consolidation

How to measure e in-situ?

Degree of Consolidation
If e - curve is assumed to be linear,
therefore, degree of consolidation can be
written as
Uz

' 0'
1' 0'

During consolidation = -u and

relationship between and u can be
written as

1' 0' u i ' u

therefore

ui u
u
Uz
1
ui
ui

Linear relationship e-

1.5 Terzaghi 1-D Consolidation Theory

The theory relates three quantities:

u excess pore water pressure

z depth below the top of the clay layer

t time from the instantaneous application of a a total stress
increment

Assumptions:
The soil is homogeous and fully saturated
Soil particles and water are incompressible
Compression and flow are one-dimensional (vertical)
Strains are small
Darcys law is valid at all hydraulic gradients
The value of k and mv remains constant through out the process
There is a unique relationship, independent of time, between e and .*

Terzaghi 1-D Consolidation Theory

The differential consolidation equation can be mathematically
written as :

u
k 2u
mv

t w z 2

or

u
2u
cv 2
t
z

where

cv

and

k
mv w

k (1 e)

w av

(coefficient of consolidation;
m2/year)

k = coeff. of permeability
w = unit weight of water

e = void ratio

1.5.1 Solution of Consolidation Equation

Excess pore water pressure at depth z and time t is given by

2u i
Mz
2
sin
exp M Tv
M
d
m 1

where

Tv

M.

cv t
d

n
2

(time factor)

and

n is odd
d half of clay layer thickness

ui is the pore water pressure at t=0

Isochrones

2u i
M
m 1

Mz

2
sin
exp M Tv
d

Plot u at any time t garisan semasa

The shape is determine by
Initial distribution of u

Drainage conditions at the

boundaries of the clay layer (open
or half closed)

Degree of consolidation
Degree of consolidation at depth z and time t is given by
m

U z 1

2u i
Mz
2
sin
exp M Tv
M
d
m 1

In practical problems, the average degree of consolidation (U) over the

depth of the layer for constant ui is
m

U 1

m 0

2
2

exp M 2Tv

The above equation can be represented almost exactly by the following

empirical equation
For U < 0.60 or 60%,
For U > 0.60 or 60%,

Tv

2
U
4

Tv 0.9333 log(1 U ) 0.085

Relationship between U and Tv

Example 5
In an oedometer test on clay sample of 20mm thick, 90%
consolidation been achieved in 30 minutes. Based on this test
data, calculate the coefficient of consolidation of the clay tested.
On-site, the thickness of the clay layer is 3.5 m. Calculate the
time required for the clay layer to consolidate to 50% and 90%
if the stratum of the clay layer free to allow the flow of water
through:
Top and bottom layers
Bottom layers only.

1.5 Determination of Coefficient of Consolidation

Void ratio - stress
e
mv
1 e0

1
.
'

Cc

eo e1
'
log 1
0'

Dial gauge reading - time

Oedometer
Test

cv

0.196d 2
t 50

cv

0.848d 2
t 90

1.5.1The Log Time Method (Casagrande)

Curve Fitting

The figure shown

curves obtained from
oedometer test and
from theory.
Theoretical curve
consist parabolic part
(1) followed by a
linear part (2) and a
final curve which the
horizontal axis is an
asymtote (3) at U =
1.0 (100%)
cv

0.196d 2
t 50

The Log Time Method (Casagrande)

Curve Fitting
Procedures to find cv from
experimental curve:
Lable initial dial gauge reading as a0
Select two points A and B which the
t ratio is 4:1.
Measure vertical distance between A
and B .
Extend same vertical distance from
point A upwards.
Lable dail gauge reading from this
extension as as.
Draw tangent on the linear part (2)
and another tangent on the
asymptote curve part (3)
Lable dial gauge reading on the
intersection as a100
Take the midpoint between as and
a100 as a50.
Determine the corresponding t value
for a50 as t50.

The Log Time Method (Casagrande)

Curve Fitting
If U = 50% then

Tv

0.52 0.196
4

Therefore

0.196d 2
cv
t 50
Where d = average thickness of the sample for a particular stress increment

1.5.2 The Root Time Method (Taylor)

Curve Fitting

Theoretical curve is linear for

almost 60% of consolidation
and at 90% consolidation.
Straight line AC=1.15AB.
This characteristic is used for
determination of point on
experimental curve
corresponding to U=90%.

1.5.2 The Root Time Method (Taylor)

Curve Fitting
Procedures for determining cv from
experimental curve:
Draw tangent on the linear part
of the curve and extend the
tangent line until it crosses the
vertical axis.
Mark the intersection point
between the tangent and
vertical axis as D.
Draw line DE where E crosses
the experimental curve and the
horizontal distance from this
point to the vertical axis is
1.15xFG
Label point E as a90 and the
corresponding value for t90

1.5.2 The Root Time Method (Taylor)

Curve Fitting
If U = 90% therefore

Tv 0.933 log(1 0.9) 0.085 0.848

Hence

0.848d 2
cv
t 90

Where d = average thickness of the sample for a particular stress increment

Example 6
Data in the table below is obtained from an oedometer test on fully saturated clay
when the pressure is doubled from 800 to 1600 kN/m2.
Time (t)

Dial gauge reading (mm)

Time (t)

Dial gauge reading (mm)

0.00

2.000

9.00

2.501

0.25

2.132

16.00

2.632

0.50

2.162

25.00

2.740

0.75

2.185

36.00

2.812

1.00

2.206

49.00

2.860

1.50

2.240

64.00

2.891

2.25

2.281

81.00

2.913

3.00

2.310

100.00

2.930

4.00

2.355

144.00

2.951

5.00

2.392

256.00

2.978

6.25

2.430

1100.00

3.017

7.50

2.461

1440.00

3.024

After 1440 minutes (24 jam) passed, the final thickness of the speciment is 22.15 mm.
Specific gravity is 2.72. calculate
Coeff. consolidation (cv) using Root Time and Log time methods.
Coeff. of volume compressibility mv
Coeff. Of permeability k

1.6 Hydraulic Oedometer

The settlement rate for full scale

structure often bigger than those
estimated using cv obtained from
oedometer test where the sample
size is smaller.
This is due to effects of soil fabric
for example existence of root and
layers of silt and fine sand.

Hydraulic Oedometer
Soil sample with diameter 250mm with
thickness 100mm is considered adequate
to give constant value of cv .

Secondary Compression

Compression does not cease when the excess pore pore eater pressure
has dissipated to zero but continues at a gradually decreasing rate under
constant effective stress
This compression is known as secondary compression and is due to thye
gradual readjustment of the clay particles into a more stable configuration
caused by decrease in void ratio.
The rate of secondary compression is determined by the viscosity of the
adsorp water around clay mineral particles.
During secondary compression, the flow of adsorp water is very slow.
The viscosity of the adsorp water increases when clay particles move
closer together resulting in the secondary compression reduces further.
Normally, secondary compression is assumed to had occued concurrently
with the main compression.

Secondary Compression

S cs C d log(t s / t p )
Where d = initial thickness of the clay layer, ts = time when compression
is to be determined, tp = time to complete the premier compression.

Example 7
The following compression readings are taken while oedometer test being
carried out on fully saturated clay sample (Gs = 2.73) when the applied
pressure was increases from 214 to 429 kN/m2.
Time (min)

0.25

0.5

2.25

16

25

Dial
gauge 5.00
reading (mm)

4.67

4.62

4.53

4.41

4.28

4.01

3.75

3.49

Time (min)

49

64

81

100

200

400

1440

3.15

3.06

3.00

2.96

2.84

2.76

2.61

36

Dial
gauge 3.28
reading (mm)

After 1440 min. the thickness of the sample became 13.60mm and water
content 35.9%.
Determine the coeff. Of consolidation from log time and root time
methods.
Determine the coeff. of permeability.

1.7 Correction for Construction Period

During construction total load are not applied instantaneously
Foundation- excavation there is a reduction in the net pressure

Structure structural load applied exceed the weight of soil

excavated consolidation settlement

To take into account changes in the applied load during construction

period, correction method on time-settlement curve need to be
carried out.

Correction for Construction Period

Correction procedures

1. Mark the construction period tc; a point on time axis when net load P is
initially applied on the on soil layer experiencing consolidation.
2. Mark a point tc /2 on instantaneous curve and lable this point as A.
3. From point A, draw horizontal line and lable it as B where B is the
corresponding point on tc.
4. Select time t where t< tc on instantaneous curve .
5. Mark point C on instantaneous curve where t at that time is t/2
6. Draw horizontal line from C till it crosses vertical line tc and lable it as
point D.
7. Connect point D to O and lable the intersection between OD and
vertical line at time t as point E.
8. Repeat procedure 4,5,6 and 7 to obtained corrected curve before time

tc

9. The corrected curve after tc (beyond point B), can be constructed

through projecting points on instantaneous curve horizontally as much
as tc /2

Correction for Construction Period

Example 8
An 8m depth of sand overlies a 6m layer of clay, below which is an
impermeable stratum. (as shown in the diagram). The water table is 2m
below the surface of the sand. Over a period of 1 year a 3m depth of fill
(unit weight 20 kN/m3) is to be dumped on the surface over an extensive
area. The saturated unit weight of the sand is 19 kN/m3 and that of the
clay is 20 kN/m3. Above the water table the unit weight of the sand is 17
kN/m3 . Given that Cc is 0.32. For the clay, the relationship between void
ratio and effective stress (units kN/m2) can be represented by the following
equation

e 0.88 0.32 log

'
100

and the coefficient of consolidation is 1.26m2/year

Calculate the final settlement of the area due to consolidation of the clay
and the settlement after a period of 3 years from the start of dumping.
If a very thin layer of sand, freely draining, existed 1.5m above the bottom
of the clay layer, what would be the values of the final and 3 year
settlement.

Example 8

1.7 Vertical Drain

Method to speed up the flow of water from the soil mass so that
maximum settlement can be accelerated for highly compressible soil
(increase the rate of settlement).
Involved provision of bore holes filled with sand (traditional method)
Requires position of boreholes to be designed to ensure high flow rate
normally square or triangle arrangement.

The flow distance must be smaller than the thickness of the clay layer
If the clay layer is thin, the use of vertical drain is uneconomical

Vertical Drain Design

requires Ch and Cv,values, horizontal and vertical and coefficient of
consolidation
Normally Ch/Cv ~ 1 and 2 or the higher the better.

Disadvanta
ges : act as
weak piles

It has been shown that the vertical drains is not successful / effective if
the soil is having high ratio of secondary settlement for example high
plasticity clay or peat; where the secondary settlement cannot be
controlled with vertical drains.

Vertical Drain Design

Equations for degree of consolidation can be written as follows

U v f (Tv )

and

U r f (Tr )

with Uv is the average of degree of consolidation due to vertical

drainage only and Ur is the average of degree of consolidation due to
horizontal drainage (radial) only.

Vertical Drain Design

Therefore , the time factor is

Tv

cv t

Th

ch t

(time factor due to vertical drainage)

d2

4R

(time factor due to horizontal drainage)

Vertical Drain Design

The expression for Tr confirms the fact that the closer he spacing of the
drains the quicker the consolidation process due to radial drainage
proceeds. The solution for radial, due to Barron, is given in the next, the
Ur / Tr relationship depending on the ratio n=R / rd, where R is the radius of
the equivalent cylindrical block and rd iis the radius of the drain. It can be
shown that

1 U (1 U v )(1 U r )
where U is the average degree of consolidation under combined
vertical and radial drainage..

Vertical Drain Design

Solution for radial consolidation

Vertical Drain

Vertical Drain

Vertical Drain

Vertical Drain