Engineering

Mechanics
Course Notes
Robert Tyas

Introduction to Module
This module is designed to give the student a broad range of competences in applied
mechanics. Emphasis will be placed on the application of formulae and not on their
derivation.
Mechanics is the study of the static and dynamic behaviour of particles rigid bodies
under the influence of an applied force or forces. It is a fundamental theory of physics
ever since the formulation of the Laws by Newton and therefore these laws are central
to the study of Mechanics.
In this module the student will learn through worked examples enabling them to
become familiar with and to grasp the important concepts and principles in mechanics
through examples such as pin-jointed frames and simply supported beams with various
loads acting upon them. The module will also explore Frictional motion on dry plain and
inclined surfaces as well as shear force and bending moment diagrams. The
mathematical approach to this module will have been covered through the module
Basic Engineering Mathematics.
Outline Content.
Pin jointed frame structures and the analytical and graphical solutions of simply
supported and cantilever beams.
Dry friction motion on horizontal and inclined planes
Shear force and bending moment diagrams
Simply supported and cantilever beams with uniform and concentrated loading
regimes
Direct and shear stress in simple and compound bars
Dynamics of Rigid bodies
Newton's Second Law applied to translating and rotating bodies.
Second moment of mass and radius of gyration.
Connected systems comprising of rotating drums and overhanging masses
Balancing of coplanar masses
Mechanisms i.e. velocity diagrams, four bar chains and reciprocating
mechanisms.
Static and Dynamics of fluids, concepts of head. Bernoulli equation, liquid flow
through pipes and venture meters.
Assessment
This module will be assessed through a 2 hour examination. The pass mark is 40%.
Key Texts.
Hannah.J, AND Hillier.M.J.Applied Mechanics. Longman (1995).
Benham. P.P., Crawford. R.J., and Armstrong. C.G., Mechanics of Engineering
Materials 2nd Ed. Longman.

Pin Jointed Frame Structures (Frameworks)

A pin-jointed frame is a structure constructed from a number of straight members
connected together at their ends by frictionless pinned joints. Since the joints are free to
rotate they cannot transmit torque from one to another, they are therefore only
subjected to axial loading, which may be tensile or compressive. A member in tension is
called a tie, while one in compression is a strut.

Tie in Tension

Strut in Compression

The arrow head within the members, represent the equal and opposite forces acting in
the member.
A example of a typical framework is given below:

Typical framework with

loading and supports

Such a frame is said to be statically determinate, that is, capable of being solved using
equations of equilibrium. When this is not the case it would be referred to as statically
indeterminate. We shall only be considering the former.
Problem of this type can be solved either graphically or analytically. We will consider
both methods.
Graphical Method
Using this method of solution we make use of Bows notation which is use to describe
the framework and the forces within each member. We first place capital letter between
all of the external forces and then internally between the member which make up the
framework. You need to work around the frame in a clockwise direction and from left to
right across it, similar to that shown below. Where you start is unimportant.
A
F

D
E

B
G

The load on the top right-hand corner of the framework would be referred to as force
AB and its sense which is downwards would be ab as we go clockwise from A to B.
Commencing at a joint at which there are no more than two unknown forces, we
construct a force polygon for all internal and external forces acting at that joint. Proceed
systematically though the frame, constructing a force polygon at each joint, to produce
one composite force diagram. The magnitude and direction of each unknown force can
then be scaled of the diagram.
This method has largely been superseded by modern computer methods but is still
useful with complex frames. (See later for a worked example.)
Analytical Methods
We will consider two analytical methods, namely; Method of Resolution at Joint and
Method of Section.
Method of Resolution at Joint
This method is best suited when forces in all members are required. At any joint in a
plane frame at which there are no more than two unknown forces, write down two
equations of equilibrium by resolving forces at the joint in two mutually perpendicular
directions. Solve these equations for the two unknown forces. Proceed systematically
through the frame until all forces are known. External support reactions are usually
determined first by the use of moment equilibrium. (See worked example later.)
Method of Section
This method is useful if you only need to determine the forces in one or a few members
of the framework. Cut the frame, as shown in the example below by a section through
the member under consideration and no more than two other members in which the
member forces are unknown. Both parts of the structure can then be treated as
structures in equilibrium and either part can then be solved by resolving forces or by
taking moments of force about a suitable point. The choice as to whether to resolve or to
take moments will depend upon the geometry of the frame and will be illustrated in a
worked example that follows shortly.

Frame cut for solution using Method of Section

Lets use the following example to illustrate all of the above three method. Note that
Bows notation has been used to label the frame.
50kN

30 kN
F

All angles are 60o

and sides are 3m

C
R1

R2

Graphical Solution
1. Calculate the support reactions
Taking moments about R1 and assuming clockwise moments to be positive
M = 0 = (50 x 1.5) + (30 x 4.5) 6R2
This gives R2 = 35 kN
Equating vertical forces will give R1 (assume forces up to be positive)
FV = 0 = R1 +35 - 50 30
This gives R1 = 45 kN
2. Draw the force diagram to scale. Start with the external forces which should all
be in a straight line.
d

g
f

c
a

Force Diagram (NTS)

b

3. Scale off the magnitude of all unknown forces.

GB = -40
Accuracy of answers depends
FG = +5.7
upon scale of diagram and how
EF = -5.7
well you draw it. Note the + and
DE = -52
signs have come from the next
CE = +26
stage.
CG = +20
AF = -23
4. Determine whether forces are compressive or tensile using Bows notation will
be explained in class.
50kN

30 kN
F

D
E

Diagram shows nature of forces

in each member.

C
R1

R2

Method of Resolution at Joint

We already have values for the support reactions otherwise calculate them at this point.
Next consider each joint in turn starting with one where at least one force is known.
We will begin by considering joint BCG
BG
CG
R2

Notice that we are assuming that

all internal forces are tensile.
Actual values are then substituted.
A negative result implies a force is
compressive.

Resolving vertical forces

FV = 0 = R2 + BGCos30

(We are assuming forces up are positive)

Therefore 0 = 35 +BGCos30
This gives BG = -40.41 kN
Resolving Horizontal forces (We are assuming that forces left to right are positive)
FH = 0 = -CG BGSin30
6

Therefore 0 = -CG (-40.41Sin30)

Hence CG = 40.41Sin30 = 20.21 kN
Consider next joint ABGF
AB

AF
FG
BG

Resolving vertical forces

FV = 0 = -AB BGCos30 FGSin60

0 = -30 (-40.41Cos30) FGSin60
This gives FG = 5.77 kN
Resolving horizontal forces
FH = 0 = -AF FGCos60 + BGSin30
0 = -AF 5.77Cos60 + (-40.41Sin30)
This gives AF = -23.09 kN
The remainder of the problem is carried out in a similar fashion. You can complete the
rest as a tutorial problem.
Method of Section
1. Calculate the support reactions already done.
2. Lets assume we require the forces in members AF, FG, and CG. We therefore cut
the frame as shown below.
A
D

F
E

3. Draw the FBD

A

30 kN

F
B
G

Again the cut members are

assumed to be in tension.

4. Calculate the forces

35 kN

It should be obvious from the free body diagram that we can determine FG by
equating vertical forces.
FV = 0 = -30 + 35 FGSin60

(taking forces up as positive)

This gives FG = 5.77 kN

Again by careful examination of the FBD we see that by taking moments about AB
we should be able to determine CG.
MAB = 0 = (-35 x 1.5) + CG x 3Cos30 (taking clockwise moments as positive)
This gives CG = 20.21 kN
Next by equating horizontal forces we should be able to determine AF
FH = 0 = -AF FGCos60 CG
0 = -AF 5.77Cos60 20.21
This gives AF = - 23.09 kN
Summary of the Procedure of Method of Section
1. Calculate the reactions of the frame using a FBD of the whole frame
2. Isolate a portion of the frame by passing a cutting plane through the frame,
cutting no more than three members in which the forces are unknown (unless all
but one of the lines of action of the cut member intersect at a point).
3. Apply the three equations of equilibrium (M = 0, F H = 0, and FV = 0) to the
isolated portion of the frame and solve for the unknowns.

Tutorial Problems
1. Figure below shows a roof truss. A wind load normal to the longer sloping side is
assumed to be equivalent to 10 kN at each pin-joint. The reaction at the righthand joint may be taken as vertical. Using graphical methods determine the
magnitude and nature of the forces in each member.
8

(AE = -10; BE = 0; DE = -5 kN; reactions: CD = 8.66; DA = 13.25 kN at 41o to the

horizontal)
2. In the symmetrical truss shown below a load of 40 kN at the vertex acts normal
to one sloping side. The reaction at the right-hand support may be assumed
vertical. Determine the magnitude of the support reactions, and the magnitude
and nature of the forces in each member. Use a graphical method.

(Reactions: BC = 23.1; CA = 23.1 kN; members: AD = 23.1; AE = 23.1; DE = 0; DC =

40; EF = 0; BF = -46.2; GC = 40 kN)
3. The Warren truss shown below is composed of similar members all of which are
3 m long. Determine the forces in all members due to a vertical load of 90 kN at
G. Use the method of resolution at joints to solve this problem.

(Reactions: RE = 30; RA = 60 kN; members: DE = -34.64; FE = 17.32; DF = 34.64;

CD = -34.64; CF = -34.64; FG = 51.96; CG = 34.64; BC = -69.28; BG = 69.28; AG =
34.64; AB = -69.28 kN)
4. Figure below shows a pin-jointed structure supporting a vertical and horizontal
load. Determine the three reactive components needed to maintain overall
equilibrium and the magnitude of the forces in members FD, FE, FG, and CE
stating whether the forces are tensile or compressive. Use method of section.
(Hint: there are two reactive forces at A; one vertical and one horizontal.)

(VG = 8; VA = 13; HA = -6 kN; CE = 18; DF = -8.25; EF = 8.48; FG = -11.31 kN)

5. Using the method of section, or otherwise, determine the forces in the members
GF and HF for the truss shown below. Hence determine the magnitude of the
forces in the members meeting at joint G..

(VA = VE = 70 kN; GF = 14.14; HF = 70; GH = 20; GJ = -14.14; BG = 28.28 kN)

10

Dry Friction
Whenever a body slides on another and the surfaces are pressed together, a friction
force tangential to the surface has to be overcome before relative motion can take place
between the bodies.
There are four possible friction conditions:
dry and clean;
greasy or boundary;
fluid or viscous;
pure rolling.
We shall be concentrating on the first of these, in doing this consider the following
diagram:
Weight W
Applied force P
Frictional resistance
F
Normal reaction N

The following experimental facts are known to be true:

(1) As P is increased, F increases (and is equal to P) until the block eventually slips. F
is then called the Limiting Friction.
(2) F N and independent of area of contact. In other words
Coefficient of Static or Limiting friction.

constant = =

(3) Once sliding begins is still constant = = Coefficient of Sliding or Kinetic

friction.
(4) Kinetic is slightly less than Limiting.
(5) If P = N the block moves with steady speed. If P > N the block will accelerate.

11

Typical Values of Coefficients of Friction for Dry Surfaces

Material
Steel on steel
Steel on brass
Aluminium on steel
Wood on steel
Teflon on steel
Wood on wood

Static
0.4 0.7
0.3 0.6
0.4 0.6
0.3 0.5
0.03 0.05
0.3 0.6

Kinetic
0.3 0.5
0.2 0.4
0.3 0.5
0.2 0.4
0.03 0.05
0.2 0.5

Motion on an Inclined Plane

Case 1 Force P parallel to the plane P up the incline

To pull block up the incline at steady

speed

WCos

But

WSin

Hence

Therefore

Case 2 Force P parallel to the plane P down the plane

To lower block down incline at steady speed

WCos

WSin

But

or

Therefore
Or

12

Angle of Friction and Total Reaction

Before we look at a further three cases we need to introduce the angle of friction and
total reaction.
N
As soon as P is applied the reaction of the
R

plane, R, take up the position shown in

the diagram and is clearly the equilibrant
of P and W. As P increases from zero the
angle between R and the normal to the
F
P
plane increases, the maximum value
being attained at the instant motion
begins. That is when F =N. This angle is
W
called the angle of friction and is denoted
. It follows that Tan =
.
Case 3 P not parallel to plane P horizontal and motion up the plane
F
R

Uniform motion

P
W

We know that Tan

R
+

In the triangle we see that Tan (

Therefore P = WTan (

Case 4 P not parallel to plane P horizontal and motion down the plane
F

P
P

Uniform
motion

r m the tr a gle we ee that Ta ( ) =

13

Theref re

Ta ( )

Case 5 P at angle to plane

F

90 (
P

90

P
-

W
R

Applying Sine Rule to triangle

(

Therefore P =

)
(
(

)
)

Note
If motion down the incline bec me
Tutorial Problems
1. A 200 kg mass is supported on a horizontal floor. The coefficient of static friction
between block and floor is assumed to be 0.40. Calculate the force P required to
cause motion to impend. The force is applied to the block (a) horizontally and (b)
downwards at an angle of 30o to the horizontal.
(784.8 N; 1178.4 N)
2. A block of mass 68 kg rests on a horizontal floor. The coefficient of friction
between the block and floor is 0.30. A pull of 180 N acting upwards at an angle of
30o to the horizontal, is applied to the block. Determine whether or not the block
will slide.
(No since 155.88 N < 197.424 N)
3. A block of 90 kg rests on a horizontal surface. The coefficient of static friction
between the block and the supporting surface is 0.50. Calculate the force P
required to cause motion to impend if the force applied to the block is (a)
horizontal and (b) upward at an angle of 20o with horizontal.
(441.45 N; 344.6 N)
The problems that follow are taken from Applied Mechanics by Hannah & Hillier
4. A load of mass 1350 kg lies on a gradient inclined at 60 o to the horizontal. For
static friction = 0.5, for kinetic friction 0.4. Calculate: (a) the pull parallel to
the gradient required to prevent the load sliding down; (b) the pull required to
pull the load up the gradient at constant speed.
14

(8.15 kN; 14.1 kN)

5. The force required to haul a load of 500 kg along a horizontal surface is 1.2 kN.
Find (a) the force parallel to a track of slope 20o required to haul the load up the
incline; (b) the force required to lower it down the incline at steady speed.
Assume the coefficient of friction to be the same in all cases.
(2.8 kN; 548 N)
6. A 1500 kg boat is winched steadily up a slip inclined at 25 o to the horizontal. If
= 0.5 for the surface contact of the boat and slip, find the force in the winch cable,
which is parallel to the slip.
(12.9 kN)
7. A body of mass m on a rough plane inclined at 20 o to the horizontal is moved
steadily up the plane by a force of 200 N applied upward and parallel to the
plane. When the force is reduced to 75 N, the body slides steadily downwards.
Determine the values of m and .
(41 kg; 0.17)

15

Shear Force & Bending Moments

Loaded beam are subjected to shear forces and bending moments and it is usual to draw
the loaded beam followed by diagrams that depict the way the shear force and bending
moment vary along the length of the beam. We shall now consider each separately.
Shear Force
Beam Rigidly Supported at One End with Concentrated Load at Other
This is usually referred to as a cantilever. Consider any section XX of the cantilever
beam shown below, the concentrated load W tends to force the piece of length x
downwards relative to the remainder of the beam. i.e. to shear it off as shown in the
second part of the diagram. The net transverse force on XX is called the Shear Force
and denoted F.
W
L
x

Sign Convention

+ve

X
W

-ve

From one end of the beam to the other there is no change in the load therefore the shear
force F is constant over the entire length of the beam and is equal to W according to the
sign convention. This is shown in the diagram which follows:
0

x
-W

Shear Force Diagram

Cantilever Beam with several Concentrated Loads
W1

W2

W3

At O, F = - W1
Between 0 and A, F = W1
16

At A the shear force increases to F = - (W1 + W2)

Therefore between A and B, F = - (W1 + W2)
Again at B there is a further increase such that between B and C, F = - (W1 + W2 + W3)
The shear force diagram is therefore a series of steps as shown below:
0

W1
W2
W3

Simply Supported Beam with Central Load

y
W
x
X
Y
0
X

A
Y

By observation the two reactions are

From 0 to A, the net transverse force for any section XX, is F x = +
From A to B the net transverse force for any section YY, is Fy =
The shear force diagram therefore is:

17

Simply Supported Beam Concentrated Load Off-Centre

W
a

R1

R2

Taking moments we find that R

Therefore Fx = +

and R

and Fy = -

Simply Supported with Several Concentrated Loads

W1

W2

W3

R1

D
R2

+R1

-R2
It should be fairly obvious now that
Between O and A, FOA = + R1
Between A and B, FAB = +R1 W1

18

Between B and C, FBC = + R1 W1 W2

Between C and D, FCD = + R1 W1 W2 W3 = R1 (W1 + W2 +W3) = - R2
Simply Supported Beam which Overhangs the Supports General Case
W1

W2

R1

W3

R2

A typical shear force diagram has been drawn. The actual shape will depend on the relative
values of the loads and their position.
Try the following examples:
Example 1 Draw the Shear Force diagram of the beam system shown below.
60 kN 80 kN

100 kN

0.7m
R1

R2

1.4m
3m

5m

19

Example 2 - Draw the Shear Force diagram of the beam system shown below.
20 kN

40 kN
2.5m

60 kN
2.5m

2.5m
C

1.25
m R1

20 kN

1.25
R2 m

Cantilever with Uniformly Distributed Load (UDL)

UDL = w/unit length
L
X

0
-wL

Fx = - w
Since w is constant it follows that F x and the graph of F is a straight line as shown above.
FMax = - wL and occurs at the support.
Simply Supported Beam with UDL
UDL = w/ unit length
x

X
L

20

Fx

By observation the support reactions are

Fx =

At the left-hand support where x = 0, F =

As we move from the left-hand side towards the other end F is clearly reduced as x increases by
an amount proportional to x, so that the graph is a straight line. At the centre when x = , F = 0.
We will see later that at this point, where F = 0, this is the point of maximum bending moment.
At the right-hand support when x = L, F =

Combined UDL and Concentrated Load

Lets try an example with some actual figures.

x
10 kN

20 kN

1.5
O

2m
R1

C
2m

D
0.5 m

R2

For R2 take moments about R1 (CWM = ACWM)

(15 x 2)x1 + (10 x 1.5) + (20 x 4.5) = R2 x 4
This gives R2 = 33.75 kN
Equating vertical forces
(15 x 2) + 10 +20 = R1 + 33.75

21

UDL = 15 kN/m

This gives R1 = 26.25 kN

At O, F = + 26.25 kN.

26.25
20

Between O and A, F reduces by 15 x

1.5 kN.
At A, F reduces by 10 kN.
Between A and B, F reduces by 15 x
0.5 kN.

3.75
-6.25
-13.75

Between B and C, F remains constant.

At C, F increases by 33.75 kN.

SF Diagram (NTS)

Between C and D, F remains constant.

22

Bending Moment
The moment of a force about a point is the product of the force and the perpendicular
distance of the point from its line of action. Such a moment, when applied to a
component (shaft, beam or strut) in such a way as to result in bending, is referred to as
a Bending Moment and is usually denoted by M. The units are Nm ( kNm or MNm). If
you study Mechanics beyond this level you will see that knowledge of bending moments
are important when calculating bending stresses.
Sign convention
We need to agree a sign convention for our bending moments and we shall adopt the
one shown below:

Beam Rigidly Supported at One End (Cantilever) with Concentrated Load at Other
W
x

X
x

Mx

MMax = -WL

For any section XX

Bending moment Mx = Moment of W = -Wx
We see therefore that M is a function of x, i.e. it is proportional to x, the distance from
the origin. The graph of the bending moment or the bending moment diagram is a
straight line as shown.
At the support when x = L, Mx = -WL
23

It should be noted that the bending moment causes tensile stress (and therefore an
increase in length) in the upper section of the beam, and compressive stress in the
lower section. At some point in between there will be a plane of zero stress. It can be
demonstrated that the stress (tensile or compressive) is proportional to the distance
from this neutral plane.
Cantilever with Several Concentrated Loads
The value of M at any section will be the sum of the moments of all the forces to the left
of the section. Therefore, using the sign convention shown above (anticlockwise
moments as negative to the left of the section);
MA = -W1(L1 L2)
MB = -W1(L1 L3) W2(L2 L3)
MC = -W1L1 W2L2 W3L3 (This is clearly the maximum value. )
And the diagram is a series of straight lines.

W1

W2

W3

L1

L2

C
L3

W1L1
W2L2
W3L3

24

Try the following:

Draw the bending moment diagram for the system shown.
5 kN

10 kN

20 kN

1.5 m

0.6 m

3m

Simply Supported Beam with Concentrated Load at Centre

y
x

A
X

W/2

W/2

M
P

MMax =
Mx

My

By observation we see that the support reactions are . The bending moment at any
section is the net effect of all forces acting on that part of the beam to the left of the
section, clockwise direction being positive according to our sign convention.
At any section XX to the left of the load
where
Thus for the left hand half of the beam M is proportional to the distance from the left
hand support and its graph is a straight line OP.
At the centre when x =
=

which is clearly the maximum value.

25

For any section YY to the right of the load:

At the right hand support when y = L, M = 0

Thus for the right hand half of beam M is proportional to the distance from the right
hand support and its graph is a straight line PQ.

Simply supported Beam with Several Concentrated Loads

W1

L1

R1

W2

W3

L2

D
R2

L3
L
M

We must first determine the reactions by taking moments about O

About O CWM = ACWM
W1L1 + W2L2 + W3L3 = R2L
26

Hence R
R1 can now be found by equating vertical forces.
R1 + R2 = W1 + W2 + W3
Therefore R1= W1 + W2 + W3 - R2
For the moments
R
R

MD = 0
Try the following:
Draw the bending moment diagram for the system shown.
60 kN

80 kN

100 kN

0.6 m
1.2 m
4m
5.2 m

27

Beam with Loaded Overhanging Supports

y
W

-Wx
-Wa

Mx

By observation the support reactions are W

For any section XX
where
Hence M is proportional to x, i.e. zero at the end and Wa at the support.
For any section YY
(

a)

Since a is constant it follows that M is constant between the two supports and is shown
as a horizontal line.
Since the beam loads and overhangs are equal it follows that the RH overhang will have
a M as shown.
If the loads are unequal and/or the supports are not symmetrical the bending moment
diagram would have to be modified as shown below.

28

W1
a

R1

W2

R2

-Wa
-Wc

General Case for System with Load between Supports

W1

W2

A
a

W3

R1

R2

If W2 is made sufficiently large, the

bending moment between the
supports may become positive.

(a

R (

a)

b)

R b

Or alternatively

(e

c)

29

Ty the following:
Draw the bending moment diagram for the system shown below.
20 kN

40 kN
4m

60 kN

4m

20 kN
4m

2m

2m

Cantilever with Uniformly Distributed Load (UDL)

UDL = w/unit length
L
x

x/2
wx
0
Mx

MMax =

The only force acting to the left of XX is the weight of the portion x (= wx) which acts at
a distance .
Therefore Mx = w
The graph of M against x is therefore a parabola as shown above.
w
But wL = W (total load)
Hence

30

Simply Supported Beam with UDL

UDL = w/unit length
x

X
wL/2

wL/2

Mx

MMax =

By observation the support reactions are

For any section XX
w

The graph of M is therefore a parabola.

MMax can be found by differentiating the above and equating to 0.
w

0 f r ma

Therefore wx =
Hence x =
Therefore MMax =
But total load = W =wL
Therefore MMax =

31

Uniformly Loaded Beam with Simple Supports Not at the Ends

UDL = w/unit length
a+

c=a

R1

R2

wa

w a

R1

wc

Note
There will be instances when the bending moment between the supports may become
zero or even positive.
Beam with Concentrated Load and UDL
Lets try an example with some actual figures.
x
10 kN

20 kN

UDL = 15 kN/m

1.5
A

R1

2m

2m

0.5 m

R2

We have already seen this beam in the Shear Force section and have calculated the
reactions which are given below.
32

R1 = 26.25 kN and R2 = 33.75 kN

Consider the bending moment between A and B
R

When x = 0

M=0

When x = 0.5 M = 26.25 x 0.5 7.5 x 0.52 = 11.25 kNm

When x = 1.0 M = 26.25 x 1 7.1 x 12 = 18.75 kNm
When x = 1.5 M = 26.25 x 1.5 7.5 x 1.52 = 22.50 kNm
Consider the bending moment between B an C
0(

R
When x = 1.75
When x = 2

0(

M = 26.25 x 1.75 7.5 x 1.752 10(1.75 1.5) = 20.47 kNm

M = 26.25 x 2 7.5 x 22 10(2 1.5) = 17.5 kNm

Working now from the other end of beam

M at E = 0
M at D = -20 x 0.5 = -10 kNm
As a check:
M at C = (-20 x 2.5) + (33.75 x 2) = 17.5 kNm which agrees.
Plotting the bending moment diagram with this information gives:
22.5 kNm
17.5 kNm

0
-10 kNm

Bending Moment Diagram (NTS)

33

Point of Contraflexure
In the above example we see that the BM changes sign through a zero value and this is
called a point of contraflexure. In real situations these points are important to the
designer because, for example, supports placed at such points will not be subjected to
bending moments.
Condition for Maximum Bending Moment
UDL = w/unit length
x
dx

F +dF
M

Small portion cut from beam of

length dx showing all loads.

M + dM
F

wdx (through G)
SF

BM

Since the small element is equilibrium we are able to write:

1. F = F
Therefore F + dF = F + wdx
Hence

dF = wdx

Or

From the SF diagram we see that the slope is ve, therefore we should write
w
2. ACWM = CWM (about G)
(

34

Therefore
Or

Fdx = dM (ignoring products of small terms)

Therefore
Thus we see that the slope of the bending moment diagram is equal to the shear
force F. For max (or min) bending moment,
0. Therefore we can conclude
that when F = 0 the bending moment is a maximum.
Tutorial Problems
Draw shear force and bending moment diagram for the beams shown below. State the
maximum values of BM and SF and where they occur.
(a) UDL = 5 kN/m

10 kN

600 mm

600 mm
1000 mm

(b) UDL = 10 kN/m

1.4 m

1m

40 kN

1m

(c) UDL = 1 Mg/m

20 kN

2m

1m

0.5m

35

(d) UDL = 15 kN/m

10 kN

1m

2.5 m

2.5 m

(e) UDL = 8 kN/m

20 kN

1m

10 kN

2.5 m

2.5 m

1.5 m

36

Direct & Shear Stress

When a body is pulled by a tensile force or crushed by a compressive force, the loading
is said to be direct. Direct stresses are also found to arise when bodies are heated or
cooled under constraints and in vessels under pressure.

Tension

Compression

Rigid Constraint
Applied Heat
Induced Compression
Stress ()
Direct stress is defined as the ratio of the applied load (F) to the cross-sectional area
(A), normal to the load. Hence we have the familiar equation:
tre

or

Force has units of newtons (N) and area has units of m 2, hence stress has units of N/m2.
Since stresses are often large values we often quote them in terms of:
kN/m2 = 103 N/m2
MN/m2 = 106 N/m2
GN/m2 = 109 N/m2
Note
Some textbooks still use the name pascal (Pa) in place of N/m 2.
Strain ()
Whenever a body is subjected to stress, whether tensile or compressive, it will
experience a change in size. Bodies subjected to tension will extend; bodies subjected to
compression will shorten.
F

L = original length
x = extension

Body subjected to
tension
x

The ratio of the extension to the original length is called strain. Thus we have:
37

tra

or

Since x and L have the same units it follows that strain is unitless.
Youngs Modulus of Elasticity or the Relationship between Stress and Strain
If we are lucky, when we remove loading on a body it will return to its original size. This
is because most materials exhibit a degree of elasticity. However, if we load beyond the
materials elastic limit, permanent set or extension will occur. Youngs Modulus of
Elasticity helps to define the point at which this elastic limit is exceeded.
Hookes Law
This states that within the elastic limit that strain is directly proportional to stress.
A constant E = Youngs Modulus
Since strain is unitless it follows that E has the same units as . E may be found in tables
and has quite large values. For example E for steel is in the range 196 210 GN/m2.
E is also related to the stiffness or rigidity of a material since the higher its value, the
greater the load required to produce a given stiffness.
Bars of Varying Cross-Section

The load in each section will be

the same however the stress
will be different because of the
difference in area

and
Provided section A and section B are made of the same material then:
and

Worked Examples
1. A rod of length 325 mm is subjected to a tensile load of 60 kN and found to extend
0.160 mm. If E = 200 GN/m2 determine the diameter of the rod.
9

Therefore

= 200 4.923

= 0.09846 GN/m2 = 98460 kN/m2

38

Therefore

09

Therefore

2.

m2

00

27.85 mm

A vertical steel hanger ABC is 2 m long and carries a load of 135 kN at the lower
end, as shown in the diagram below. The upper length is 50 mm diameter and the
lower length is 35 mm diameter. If E = 200 GN/m 2 calculate:
(a) The total extension;
(b) The vertical movement of B.
A
1m

50 mm dia (a)

( )

( )

( )

35 mm dia (b)
B
135 kN

rea (
rea (

m2

kN/m2

( )

( )

kN/m2
0

( )

( )

( )
( )

m2

Therefore x

0
0

( )

( )

F is the same in both sections

C
1m

( )

m = 0.3438 mm

m
0

0
39

0 m = 1.0454 mm

( )

( )

Tutorial Problems From Applied Mechanics by Hannah & Hillier

1. A bar of 25 mm diameter is subjected to a tensile load of 50 kN. Calculate the
extension on a 300 mm length. E = 200 GN/m 2.
(0.153 mm)
2. A steel strut, 40 mm diameter, is turned down to 20 mm diameter for one-half its
length. Calculate the ratio of the extensions in the two parts due to axial loading.
(4:1)
3. When a bolt is in tension, the load on the nut is transmitted though the root area
of the bolt which is smaller than the shank area. A bolt 24 mm in diameter (root
area = 353 mm2) carries a tensile load. Find the percentage error in the
calculated value of the stress if the shank area is used instead of the root area.
(21.7%)
4. A light alloy bar is observed to increase in length by 0.35% when subjected to a
tensile stress of 280 MN/m2. Calculate Youngs modulus for the material.
(80 GN/m2)
5. A duralumin tie, 600 mm long, 40 mm diameter, has a hole drilled out along its
length. The hole is 30 mm diameter and 100 mm long. Calculate the total
extension of the tie due to a load of 180 kN/m2. Take E as 84 GN/m2.
(1.24 mm)
6. A steel strut of rectangular section is made up of two lengths. The first, 150 mm
long, has breadth 40 mm and depth 50 mm; the second, 100 mm long, is 25 mm
square. If E = 220 GN/m2, calculate the compression of the strut under a load of
100 kN.
(0.107 mm)
7. A solid cylindrical bar, of 20 mm diameter and 180 mm long, is welded to a
hollow tube of 20 mm internal diameter, 120 mm long, to make a bar of total
length 300 mm. Determine the external diameter of the tube if, when loaded
axially by a 40 kN load, the stress in the solid bar and that of the tube are to be
the same. Hence calculate the total change in length of the bar. E = 210 GN/m 2.
(28.3 mm; 0.184 mm)

40

Compound Bars
When two or more members are rigidly fixed together
so they share the same load and extend the same
amount, the members are said to be compound. Stresses
in such members are calculated as follows:
(1) Total load is the sum of loads taken by each
member.
(2) Load taken by each member is given by the
product of its stress and its area.
(3) Extension or contraction is the same for each
member
Hence we are able to write:
F=
Reinforced Bar

AAA

BAB

or
Tutorial Problems From Applied Mechanics by Hannah & Hillier
1. A rectangular timber tie, 180 mm by 80 mm, is reinforced by a bar of aluminium of 25
mm diameter. Calculate the stresses in the timber and reinforcement when the tie
carries an axial load of 300 kN. E for timber = 15 GN /m2; E for aluminium = 90 GN/m2.
(17.8 MN/m2; 106.8 MN/m2)
2. A concrete column having modulus of elasticity 20 GN/m2 is reinforced by two steel bars
of 25 mm diameter having a modulus of 200 GN/m2. Calculate the diameter of square
section strut if the stress in the concrete is not to exceed 7 MN/m2 and the load is to be
400 kN.
(220 mm square)
3. A cast iron pipe is filled with concrete and used as a column to support a load W. If the
outside diameter of the pipe is 200 mm diameter and the inside diameter is 150 mm,
what is the maximum permissible value of W if the compressive stress in the concrete is
limited to 5 MN/m2. Take E for concrete as 0ne tenth that of cast iron.
(97 t)
4. A concrete column is reinforced with steel bars and carries a load of 20 t. The overall
cross-sectional area of the column is 0.1 m2 and the steel reinforcement accounts for 3%
of this area. Find the stress taken by the concrete. If the length of the column is 4 m, how
much does it shorten? Take e for steel as 200 GN/m2 and for concrete, 20 GN/m2.
(1.54 MN/m2; 0.31 mm)

41

5. A cylindrical mild steel bar of 40 mm diameter and 150 mm long, is enclosed by a bronze
tube of the same length having an outside diameter 60 mm and an inside diameter of 40
mm. The compound strut is subjected to an axial compressive load of 200 kN. Find; (a)
the stress in the steel rod; (b) the stress in the bronze tube; (c) the shortening of the
strut. For steel E = 200 kN/mm2, For bronze E = 100 kN/mm2.
(Steel 98 MN/m2; Bronze 49 MN/m2; 0.0735 mm)
6. A compound assembly is formed by brazing a brass sleeve on to a solid steel bar of 50
mm diameter. The assembly is to carry a tensile axial load of 250 kN. Find the crosssectional area of the brass sleeve so that the sleeve carries 30% of the load. Find, for this
composite bar, the stresses in the brass and the steel. E for brass = 84 GN/m 2; E for steel
= 210 GN/m2.
(2110 mm2; steel 89.1 MN/m2; brass 35.6 MN/m2)

42

Thermal Strain
A change in temperature of material gives rise to a thermal expansion such that
x = Lt where L = original length; = coefficient of expansion; t = change in
temperature. Hence thermal strain is given by
=

There will be no stress associated with this unless the bar is restricted see below.

Induced Stress in Constrained Bar

Rigid Support
When a material is heated and not allowed to expand freely, stresses are induced which
are known as temperature stresses. Their value will depend upon the temperature
change and the restraint, the extreme case being when the expansion is fully restrained.
If the above bar is heated such that temperature increases by t o the resulting stress may
be found by considering the process to take place in two stages.
(1) The bar is allowed to expand freely such that x = Lt.
(2) A corresponding force is then applied so as to restore the bar to its original
length. The previous expansion x now becomes the compression of the bar under
load. Thus
Compressive strain =

And compressive stress = E = Et

Worked Example
A steel bar 280 mm long, 25 mm diameter is machined down to 20 mm diameter for 90
mm of its length. It is then heated 35o above room temperature, clamped at its ends and
allowed to cool back to room temperature. If the distance between the clamps is held
rigid, determine the maximum stress in the bar. Assume = 12.5 x 10-6/oC and E = 210
GN/m2.

43

280 mm
90 mm

25 mm dia (A)

Max

since area is smallest

20 mm dia (B)

If allowed to contract freely the contraction would be

x = Lt = 12.5 x 10-6 x 0.280 x 35 = 1.225 x 10-4 m
This contraction is in essence an expansion.
Now total expansion = extensionA + extensionB
Or

x = xA + xB = Lt

But

Equation (1)

and E =

Therefore

x= L=

Therefore

and

So from (1) we have

Lt = 1.225 x 10-4 =

We need an expression for

F=

AAA

Equation (2)
A

in terms of

BAB

Therefore

Substituting this into (2) gives

1.225 x 10-4 =
Or 1.225 x 10-4 =
This gives

= 121.57 MN/m2 =

Max

44

Tutorial Problems From Applied Mechanics by Hannah & Hillier

1. A brittle steel rod is heated to 150 oC and then suddenly clamped at both ends. It is then
allowed to cool and breaks at a temperature of 90 oC. Calculate the breaking stress of the
steel. E = 210 GN/m2; =12 x 10-6/oC.
(151 MN/m2)
2. A steel bar of 100 mm diameter is rigidly clamped at both ends so that all axial extension
is prevented. A hole of 40 mm diameter is drilled out for one-third of the length. If the
bar is raised in temperature by 30 oC above that of the clamp, calculate the maximum
axial stress in the bar. E = 210 GN/m2; = 0.000012/oC.
(84.7 MN/m2)
3. A metal sleeve is to be shrunk fit on a shaft of 250 mm diameter. The sleeve is bored to a
diameter of 249.5 mm at 16 oC and then heated until the bore exceeds the shaft diameter
by 0.625 mm, to allow it to pass over the shaft. It is then placed onto the shaft and
allowed to cool. Calculate the temperature at which the sleeve must be raised. Take =
12 x 10-6/oC.
(391 oC)
4. A tie-bar connects two supports in a machine assembly. The supports may be
considered rigid and are 400 mm apart. A brass alloy tube is used as a spacer and sleeve
over the tie-bar so that there is 4 mm clearance between the ends of the spacer and the
supports. Find the compressive force in the spacer at the working temperature of 600
oC. For the alloy take E = 85 GN/m2 and = 18 x 10-6 /oC.
(17.1 kN)
There are further examples in the textbook if you want further practice.

45

Newtons Laws
There are three laws which bear Newtons name and they are the fundamentals laws
upon which the study of dynamics is based. The laws are a set of statements that we
believe to be true in most circumstances, since they are in very exact agreement with
the results obtained from experimentation.
Newton 1
This states that every body continues in its state of rest or of uniform motion in a
straight line, unless acted upon by some external forces to change this state.
The law really defines a force as something which changes the state of rest or uniform
motion of a body. This force may make contact with the body and therefore be in the
form of a push or pull or, it may have no direct contact as in the case of gravitational,
electrical and magnetic forces.
Newtons first law also suggests that matter has a built-in resistance to motion. This
resistance is called inertia and it is the mass of a body which defines its inertia. To
illustrate this consider first a tennis ball which will require only a small force to change
its state of rest. On the other hand a large articulated lorry will require considerably
more force to change its state.
Newton 2
This law is concerned with how force is measured. It states that the rate of change of
momentum is proportional to the impressed force, and takes place in the direction of
the straight line in which the force acts.
The momentum of a body of constant mass m moving with velocity u is, by definition,
equal to the product of mass and velocity, that is
Momentum = mass (m) x Velocity (u)
If a force acts on the body for a period of time t and changes its velocity from u to v, then
the change in momentum is given by
Change in momentum = mv mu
It follows that the rate of change of momentum =
Hence by the second law:
Force (F) = m
units is unity.
Also

where k = constant of proportionality which in the SI system of

= acceleration of the body a

Therefore we end up with the familiar equation F = ma

46

This equation is another form of Newton 2 which enables us to measure a force by

finding the acceleration it produces on a known mass.
An alternative form of this equation may be used when considering the effect of gravity
on a known mass and this defines the weight of a body. That is
Weight (W) = mass (m) x acceleration due to gravity (g)
Or W = mg
Close to the earth g is normally taken as 9.81 or 9.8 m/s2.
Newton 3
Newtons third law states that to every action there is an equal and opposite reaction.
What this is really stating is that forces can never occur singularly, but always in pairs.
This is something that we considered in an earlier course and will not be pursued
further here.
Inertia Force
The methods used in statics (e.g. equilibrium of forces) could be applied in dynamics if
we could reshape the problem to avoid accelerations, i.e. such that the body is at rest or
in uniform motion.
We can do this by substituting imaginary inertia forces for accelerations using Newton
2, so that the body or system is in apparent equilibrium. This principle is known as
DAlemberts Principle.
When we adopt this principle
a

This

ma

Becomes this

The inertia force corresponding to acceleration a is ma (by Newton 2) acting opposite

to a to give apparent equilibrium (inertia force drawn as a hollow arrow because its
imaginary).
Inertia force may be considered as a resistance to acceleration. Similarly a frictional
force may be considered as a resistance to steady motion. Such a force acts in the
opposite direction to velocity.
If R = resistance to steady motion the body diagram becomes:
47

a
P

ma

For static balance in accelerated motion we may equate forces, thus:

P = ma + R
While the accelerating force is
F = P R = ma
Tutorial Problems From Applied Mechanics by Hannah & Hillier
1. A mass of 1 kg is hung from a spring balance in a lift. What is the spring balance
reading when the lift is (a) at rest; (b) accelerating upwards at 3 m/s 2: (c)
accelerating downwards at 3 m/s2; (d) moving downwards and retarding at
3m/s2?
(9.8 N; 12.8 N; 6.8 N; 12.8 N)
2. A planning machine table of mass 450 kg attains a speed of 0.6 m/s at a distance
of 600 mm from rest. The coefficient of friction between table and bed is 0.1.
Calculate the friction force and effort required during this period.
If during the cutting stroke the force of the tool is 950 N and the speed is held
constant at the maximum value attained, calculate the effort required to maintain
the cutting stroke.
(441 N; 576 N; 1390 N)
3. The tool force on a shaping machine during the cutting stroke is 180 N and the
reciprocating parts are equivalent to a moving mass of 45 kg. If power is
suddenly shut off what would be the furthest distance cut by the tool if the
cutting speed were initially 1.2 m/s? Assume the cutting force is independent of
the speed.
(180 mm)

48

Application to Connected Bodies

Consider the example shown below where mass m 2 is being used to move mass m1
along a horizontal surface.
v
a
P1
m1

P2

m2

m2a

Drawing the FBD

m1g

P2

m1a

P1

F = N
N

m2g

From the FBD

For m1

P1 = m1a + F

For m2

m2g = P2 + m2a

Provided the pulley is light and frictionless P1 = P2

If pulley has inertia and/or friction P2 > P1
Let consider a simple hoist
r

m2a

P1

P2

m1

m1

m2

m1g

m2g

m2
v

m1a
49

FBDs

a = r and v = r (see later)

For m1
P1 = m1g + m1a
For m2
m2g = P2 + m2a
Again if we assume pulley light and frictionless then P1 = P2.
Tutorial Problems From Applied Mechanics by Hannah & Hillier
1. Two loads, each of mass 2 kg are tied together by a light inextensible cord. They are
accelerated along the level by a pull of 18 N at one load. Find the acceleration of the
system and the tension in the cord. Resistance to motion may be neglected.
(4.5 m/s2; 9 N)
2. A locomotive of mass 80 t pulls a train of mass 200 t with an acceleration of 0.15 m/s 2
along the level. The resistance to motion of both locomotive and train is 45 N/t.
Calculate (a) the tractive effort required, (b) the pull in the coupling hook at the
locomotive.
(54.6 kN; 39 kN)
3. In an experiment, a load if 4.5 kg is pulled along a level track by a mass of 0.5 kg attached
to it by a light inextensible cord passing over a light frictionless pulley and hanging
vertically. Calculate the distance travelled from rest in 2 s.
(1.96 m)
4. A mine cage of mass 500 kg is returned to the surface by a wire cable passing over a
loose pulley at the pit head. The cable is fastened to a counterweight of mass 600 kg.
Find the acceleration of the empty cage if allowed to move freely.
(0.89 m/s2)
5. A motor car develops a tractive force of 1.8 kN on the level, when towing another exactly
similar car whose engine is out of action. Find the tension in the tow rope and the
acceleration. The resistance to motion is 650 N on each car. The mass of each car is 1 t.
(900 N; 0.25 m/s2)
6. A mass if 15 kg is supported by a light rope which passes over a light smooth pulley, and
carries at its other end a mass of 6 kg. The 6 kg mass is held fast by a pawl. If the pawl is
released find the tension in the rope and the time taken for the 15 kg mass to reach the
level of the pawl. The 15 kg mass is initially 2 m above the level of the pawl.
(84 N; 0.98 s)

50

Dynamic of Rotation
Angular velocity and acceleration are denoted and respectively and have units of
rad/s and rad/s2.
Relationship between Linear and Angular Motions
We can show that a = r and v = r. For proof of this you are referred to the
recommended text.
Equations of Motion
Using the known equations of motion for linear motion we can write those for angular
as follows:
Linear

v = u + at
s = ut + at
v2 = u2 + 2as

Angular

t
t

Dynamics of Rotating Particles

In the same way that a change in linear motion requires a force, a change in angular
motion requires a torque.
F
A
r
a

Diagram shows a concentrated mass m

attached to the end of a light arm OA.
Provided there is no friction it will rotate
freely when force F applied.

F = ma = mr
However the moment of F about O is a torque T, where T = Fr.
Therefore T = mr2
Where, mr2 is known as the second moment of mass or more commonly, moment of
inertia. This is denoted I and has units of kg m 2.

51

Dynamics of a Rotating Mass

Consider the body of mass m, accelerated about an axis O.
P

A
aA

To determine the torque required to produce this acceleration consider a small particle
of mass m, distance r from O.
Force required at A = P = maA perpendicular to OA.
Torque required to accelerate A = Pr = maAr
But aA = r
Therefore T = mr2
Total torque T = mr2
Or

T = I

As already stated I is the second moment of mass or moment of inertia.

It is useful to imagine the whole mass of the body to be concentrated at a particular
radius (k), such that the I of the concentrated mass is the same as that of the actual
body. This is called the radius of gyration and denoted the afore mentioned k. It is
defined as follows:
I = mk2
For a solid disc k2 =

where r is the radius of the disc.

For a hollow disc or cylinder k2 =

radius.

where r1 = inside radius and r2 = outside

52

Inertia Torque
Problems that involve angular acceleration may be reduced to a statics type problem by
the introduction of an imaginary inertia torque (this is analogous to what we did with
problems involving linear motion).

I
Consider a Hoist
T

Tf

ma

mg

There are four possible cases:

1.
2.
3.
4.

Load rising
Load falling
Load being accelerated
Load being retarded

In each case three equations may be written down:

(i)
(ii)
(iii)

Equation for balance of torque on drum

Equation for balance of force on load
Relationship between linear and angular acceleration of drum

53

In each case, friction torque at bearing opposes motion, inertia torque of drum opposes
angular acceleration.
Consider the case when an accelerated hoist raises a load.

r
I

T
Tf

T = Tf + I + Pr
P

Tf = Friction torque
I = Inertia torque
Pr = Torque due to tension P in
rope

P
m

P = mg + ma

a = r

mg
ma

Tutorial Problems From Applied Mechanics by Hannah & Hillier

Inertia Torque
1. A flywheel has a moment of inertia of 10 kgm2. Calculate the angular acceleration
of the wheel due to a torque of 8 Nm if the bearing friction is equivalent to a
couple of 3 Nm.
(0.5 rad/s2)
2. A light shaft carries a disc 400 mm in diameter, 50 mm thick, of steel (density
7800 kg/m3). Calculate its moment of inertia about an axis through the centre of
the disc and perpendicular to the plane of the disc.
What torque would be required to accelerate the disc from 60 to 120 rev/min in
1 second, neglecting friction?
If a friction torque of 1.5 Nm acts, what braking torque would be required to
bring the disc to rest from 60 rev/min in 1 second?
(0.98 km/m2; 6.16N; 4.66 N)
3. The rotor of an electric motor of mass 200 kg has a radius of gyration of 150 mm.
Calculate the torque required to accelerate it from rest to 1500 rev/min in 6
seconds. Frictional resistance may be ignored.
(118 Nm)
4. A light shaft carries a turbine rotor of mass 2 t and a radius of gyration of 600
mm. The rotor requires a uniform torque of 1.2 kNm to accelerate it from rest to
54

6000 rev/min in 10 min. Find (a) the frictional couple, (b) the time taken to come
to rest when steam is shut off.
(446 Nm; 16.9 min)
Coupled Systems
5. A load of 8 t is to be raised with a uniform acceleration of 1.1 m/s 2 by means of a
light cable passing over a hoist drum of 2 m diameter. The drum has a mass of 1
t and a radius of gyration of 750 mm. Find the torque required at the drum if
friction is neglected.
(87.8 kN)
6. A mine cage of mass 4 t is to be raised with an acceleration of 1.5 m/s 2 using a
hoist drum of 1.5 m diameter. The drums mass is 750 kg and its radius of
gyration is 600 mm. The effect of bearing friction is equivalent to a couple of 3
kN at the hoist drum. What is the torque required at the drum? If the driving
torque ceases when the load is moving upwards at 6 m/s, find the deceleration of
the load and how far it travels before coming to rest.
(37.44 kNm; 9.64 m/s2; 1.87 m)
7. A hoist drum has a mass of 360 kg and a radius of gyration of 600 mm. The drum
diameter is 750 mm. A mass of 1 t hangs from a light cable wrapped round the
drum and is allowed to fall freely. If the friction couple at the bearings is 2.7 kNm,
calculate the runaway speed of the load after falling for 2 s from rest.
(2.69 m/s)

55

Balancing of Rotating Masses

Consider first a single mass m moving in

a circular arc of radius r with an angular
velocity rad/s. The mass has a
centripetal (centre seeking) acceleration

Rotating Mass

given by a r 2 . By Newtons second

law the centripetal force acting on the
mass is F mr2 .

This force must be reacted at the centre

of rotation, i.e. at the bearing. This
reaction is called the centrifugal force
and is equal in magnitude and opposite
in sense to the centripetal force. The
centrifugal force acting on the bearing is
therefore given by F mr2 .

Centrifugal Force

This bearing force, for a given value of , is of constant magnitude but varying direction
as it sweeps around the bearing axis at angular velocity . The force is a source of
bearing load, vibration, noise, etc. and constitutes an unbalanced force which increases
with .

In order to eliminate or balance this

bearing force, a second mass M may be
added diametrically opposite the original
mass (via an extension of the rotating
arm, for example) at a radius R such that
MR2 = mr2 or MR = mr.

Balanced Rotating Masses

56

Static Balance
In the above case where the two masses
are diametrically opposed and MR = mr,
the balanced condition is both statically
and dynamically balanced.
Static balance is achieved because the
static moment of the masses about the
bearing axis, are equal. For the masses M
and m shown, the anti-clockwise
moment is MgRCos and the clockwise
moment is mgrCos.

Static Balance

Since MR = mr it follows that the above static moments balance. (A stationary shaft
carrying a system of masses that are statically balanced will have no tendency to rotate
in its bearings.)
Balancing of Co-Planar Masses
Diagram shows a system of co-planar masses rotating about a common centre with the
same angular velocity . The radii are r1, r2, etc and the masses are m1, m2, etc. Any out
of balance will have a detrimental effect on the bearings and will cause vibration, noise,
etc.
m1

m4
r4

r1

r2

r3
R
m3

m2

Each mass has a centripetal force mr2

acting on it. Reaction forces, acting at the
bearing, are centrifugal (equal and
opposite to the centripetal). Therefore in
general the system of co-planar concurrent
forces could be replaced by a resultant out
of balance force.

Since these forces are vectors, a graphical approach is often the most convenient for
determining the out of balance force.

57

m2r2
m1r1

MR
(Balancing
vector)

m3r3

m4r4

If we let the resultant be MR2, then the system could be balanced by adding mass M at
a radius R in the correct direction. This is found graphically by plotting an mr polygon as
shown above. Note that 2 can be ignored since it is common to all vectors.
Worked Example
Determine the resultant out of balance force at the centre of rotation O, when the
system shown below rotates at 10 rev/min and state its direction. What value of
balance weight would be required at 1 m radius and where should it be placed?
A

45kg

90kg

D
0.6m
0.6m

60o
30o
0.6m

System of co-planar concurrent

masses rotating at 10 rev/min.

45o
45o
0.3m
C

22.5kg

45kg

The information to draw the mr polygon is best tabulated.

A
B
C
D

m (kg)
90
22.5
45
45

r (m)
0.6
0.6
0.3
0.6

58

mr
54
13.5
13.5
27

The mr polygon is then draw to scale.

B
C
D

MR = 51
Required to balance
the system.

mr polygon
(NTS)

12o

The resultant out of balance

force is in the opposite direction
to that shown on the mr polygon.

Resultant out of
balance force
A
D

MR = 51 = M x 1
Therefore M = 51kg
B

Out of balance force = MR2

12o
C

210
= 51 x 1 x

60
=55.94N

1m

51kg

59

Tutorial Problems
1. Determine the size and position of the mass required at 150 mm radius to
balance the following co-planar system.
5 kg mass at 100 mm radius
10 kg mass at 75 mm radius, 90o clockwise from the 5 kg mass
15 kg mass at 100 mm radius, 240o anti-clockwise from 5 kg mass.
Find also the size of each of two balancing weights which could be substituted for
the single one already found if theses are to be at 75 mm radius and positioned at
30o and 150o anti-clockwise from 5 kg mass.
The remaining problems are from Applied Mechanics by Hannah and Hilliar.
2. Two masses revolve together in the same plane at an angular distance of 45 o
apart. The first is a 3 kg mass at a radius of 225 mm, the second 5 kg at 175 mm
radius. Calculate the out-of-balance force at 2 rev/s and the position of a 10 kg
balance mass required to reduce this force to zero.
(226 N; balance mass at 143 mm radius and 160 o33 to 5 kg mass)
3. A casing is bolted to the face plate of a lathe. It is equivalent to 2 kg at 50 mm
from the axis of rotation, another 1 kg at 75 mm radius and 4 kg at 25 mm radius.
The angular positions are respectively, 0 o, 30o, 75o. Find the balance mass
required at 150 mm radius to eliminate the out-of-balance force. State the
angular position of the balance mass.
(1.56 kg; 215o from 2 kg mass)
4. A turbine casing is placed on a rotating table mounted on a vertical axis. The
casing is symmetrical except for projecting lug of mass 15 kg at a radius of 1.2 m
and a cast pad of mass 25 kg at 0.9 m radius. The lug and the pad are positioned
at right angles to one another. The casting is bolted down symmetrically with
respect to the axis of rotation. Find the magnitude and position of the balancing
mass required at a radius of 1.5 m.
(19.2 kg at 141o 41 to pad)
5. Two equal holes are drilled in a uniform circular disc at a radius of 400 mm from
the axis. The mass of material removed is 187.5 g. Calculate the resultant out-ofbalance force if the holes are spaced at 90 o to each other and the speed of
rotation is 1000 rev/min.
Where should a mass be placed at a radius of 250 mm in order to balance the
disc, and what should be its magnitude?
(582 N; 0.211 kg at 45o to a drilled hole)
6. Three masses are bolted to a face plate as follows: 5 kg at 125 mm radius, 10 kg
at 75 mm radius, and 7.5 kg at 100 mm radius. The masses must be arranged so
that the face plate is in balance. Find the angular position of each the masses
relative to the 5 kg mass.
(Each at 114o36 to 5 kg mass)
60

7. Four masses A, B, C and D, rotate together in a plane about a common axis O. The
masses and radii of rotation are as follows: A, 2 kg, 0.6 m; B, 3 kg, 0.9 m; C, 4 kg,
1.2 m; D, 5 kg, 1.5 m. The angles between the masses are: angle AOB = 30o, angle
BOC = 60o, angle COD = 120o. Find the resultant out-of-balance force at 12 rev/s
and the radius of rotation and angular position of a 10 kg mass required for
balance.
(21.6 kN; 380 mm, 39o7 to OA)

61

Velocity Diagrams for Simple Mechanisms

Consider the following link, AO, rotating about O with an angular velocity rad/s.
Velocity of point A relative to O = .AO and this may be represented by a vector ao,
perpendicular to link, drawn to scale.
O
a
Rad/s

Vector
Representation

A
VAO = Velocity of A relative to O = ao
Configuration

Since ao = .AO it follows that =

ao
AO

Consider now point B on the link

Velocity of B relative to O = bo = .BO and therefore =

It therefore follows that

apparent later.

bo
BO

ao
bo
ao AO
=
and hence
- the use of this will become

AO
BO
bo BO

Four Bar Chain

We now apply the above to a four bar chain similar to that shown below.
C
B

BA
D (A)

AB, BC, CD are free to move, AD is fixed.

Velocity of B relative to A = ba = BA . BA
a

b
62

Velocity of C relative to B = cb (magnitude unknown)

Velocity of C relative to D(A) = cd (magnitude unknown)

The construction of the velocity diagram is as follows.

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Draw ba perpendicular to BA, proportional to BA . BA.

Add point (d).
Draw cd perpendicular to CD, magnitude unknown.
Draw cb perpendicular to CB.
Intersection of cd and cb fixes point c.

c
Velocity diagram to scale
a(d)
b

From the diagram

CB =

cd
cb
and CD =
CD
CB

Reciprocating Mechanisms

odc

idc

C (D)

63

This is a four bar chain in which the link CD is infinitely long

A = main bearing; AB = crank; B = crankpin; BC = con rod; C = piston.
Velocity of B relative to A = ba = .BA
a(d)
b

Velocity of B relative to C = bc (magnitude unknown)

Velocity of C relative to D = cd (magnitude unknown)

From this information the velocity diagram shown below can be drawn. Hence the
velocity of piston, ac, and angular velocity of connection-rod, BC, may be found.

a(d)
ac = velocity of piston

BC = bc/BC
b
Velocity diagram

64

Tutorial Problems
1. The crank and con rod of a pump are respectively 35mm and 150mm, determine
the plunger velocity when the crank is driven anticlockwise at 3rev/s and has
turned through;
a) 60o;
b) 130o from idc.
B

3 rev/s
A

C(D)

(0.64m/s; 0.44m/s)
2. For the four bar chain given below, determine the angular velocity of the link CD
and the linear velocity of G relative to A.
C
G
40 rad/s
45O
A

AB = 350; BC = 600; CD = 400; AD = 800; BG = 250mm

(19.5rad/s; 10.5m/s)
3. For the configuration shown below determine the linear velocity of pistons C and
E
AB = 75; BC = 300; BD = 120; DE = 140mm
E
120 mm
A
120O

2000
rev/min

B
65

(12m/s; 0.68m/s)

4. Determine the velocity of the piston at C and the centre of gravity G in the slidercrank mechanism shown in the figure below. (Use a scale of 1cm = 1m/s)

AB = 50 mm
BC = 200 mm

BG = 75 mm

G
25 mm

B
60O
A

2700
rev/min

(14.8m/s; 13.8m/s)
5. In the mechanism shown below, OA rotates clockwise about the fixed centre O at
10rad/s. If the angle AOB is 45o, draw the velocity diagram to scale and hence
determine the velocities of C and D relative to O and the angular velocity of the
link CD.

C
A

O
D

0.6 m

OA = 0.3; AB = 1.5; AC = 0.6; CD = 0.9 m

For further examples see pages 78 80 of Applied Mechanics by Hannah and Hillier.

66

Statics & Dynamics of Fluids

Hydrodynamics Fluids at Rest
A fluid may be a gas or a liquid however, they have some distinct differences as
described below.
Gases When held within a sealed container they expand to fill it completely; they are
also known to be compressible.
Liquids These do not expand to fill sealed containers and are considered to be
incompressible.
On this course we shall only be considering liquids.
Pressure (P)
If held within a cylinder, sealed by a piston a fluid may be subjected to pressure if force
is applied to the piston.
Pressure is defined as the applied force divided by area, in this example the area of the
piston. Therefore we have the equation:

It has units of N/m2 and bar where 1 bar is equal to 105 N/m2.
Since pressures may have high values we may also use kN/m2, MN/m2, and GN/m2.
It is important to remember that pressure at a point is the same in all direction while
pressure on a surface will always act at 90o to it.
Other Useful Properties
Density ()
Density is defined as mass per unit volume and therefore yields the familiar equation:
m
Units include; kg/m3, tonne/m3, kg/litre, and g/millilitre
Since we often work with water it is worth remembering it density which is 1000 kg/m3
= 1 Mg/m3 = 1 tonne/m3 = 1 kg/litre.
We also have relative density, where relative density =
Specific Weight
This is defined as weight per unit volume, therefore we have;
Specific weight = g
67

Where, g is the acceleration due to gravity.

Specific Gravity
The specific gravity of a substance is defined as

Since this is in effect the ratio of the masses it follows that Specific Gravity and Relative
Density are in fact the same.
Pressure in a Liquid Due to its Own Weight
P atmos
Surface
h

P
Mass dm, cross-sectional area da

dh

P + dP
dw = dmxg = volume x density x g

Balancing forces acting on element

PdA (P +dP)dA + dmg = 0
Or PdA (P + dP)dA +dAdh g = 0
Therefore P (P + dP) +dh g = 0
Or P P dP + dh g = 0
Therefore dP = gdh
Or

g h

Provided and g are constant this gives P = gh + C

When h = 0, P = Patmos, therefore P = gh + Patmos
This is called absolute pressure.

68

Usually in fluids we tend to work in terms of gauge pressure, i.e. gh (See diagram
below).
Pressure

P = gh (gauge pressure)
Patmos
Pabsolute

Pvacuum
Pabsolute

Measuring Pressure
Absolute pressure is usually measured using a barometer while gauge pressure is
measured by a manometer or pressure gauge such as a Bourdon gauge. Since we have
already stated that we are normally only interested in gauge pressure we will have a
brief look at some of these measuring devices.

Depending on the pressure of

the liquid in the pipe the value
of h will change.
Pressure in pipe = gh
Piezometer Tube
Height h is known as the pressure head and is normally expressed in mm, cm, or m of
water. As an example a 10 mm head of water would represent
P = gh = 1000 x 9.81 x 10 x 10-3 = 98 N/m2
If measuring small pressures a version with a sloping tube may be used.

69

Another devise is a U-Tube Manometer

Fluid F1 has density
Fluid F2 (usually mercury) has
density
Balancing pressures on a-a
P + gh2 = gh
Therefore P can be found

U-Tube Manometer
There are several other measuring devises and if you are interested you could search
the internet.
Tutorial Problems
1. Find the head of water corresponding to an intensity of pressure of 340,000 N/m 2. The
specific weight of water is 9.81 x 103 n/m3.
(34.66 m)
2. A diver is working at a depth of 18 m below the surface of the sea. How much greater is
the pressure intensity at this depth than at the surface? Specific weight of sea water is
10,000 N/m3.
(180,000 N/m2)
3. Determine the pressure in N/m2 at a depth of 6 m below the free surface of a body of
water and at a depth of 9 m below the free surface of a body of oil of specific gravity
0.75.
(58.9 kN/m2; 66.2 kN/m2)
4. What depth of oil, specific gravity 0.8 will produce a pressure of 120 kN/ 2? What depth
of water will produce the same pressure?
(15.3 m; 12.2 m)
5. At what depth below the free surface of oil having density of 600 kg/m3 is the pressure
equal to 1 bar?
(17 m)
6. What is the gauge and absolute pressure at a point in water 10 m below the free surface?
Assume atmospheric pressure to be 100 kN/m2 and the density of water 1000 kg/m3.
(98.1 kN/m2; 198 kN/m2)

70

7. Calculate the absolute pressure at a depth of 8 m in oil of specific gravity 0.8 if the
atmospheric pressure is 0.97 bar.
(159.8 kN/m2)
8. What is the pressure in kN/m2 absolute and gauge at a point 3 m below the free surface
of a liquid having specific weight of 15 x 103 N/m3 if the atmospheric pressure is 750
mm of mercury? Take the specific gravity of mercury as 13.6 and density of water as
1000 kg/m3.
(145 kN/m2; 45 kN/m2)

71

Hydrodynamics Fluid Dynamics

All real fluids are viscous, that is offer resistance to shear. They are compressible, have
surface tension and vaporise. An idea fluid does not exist and does not have any of the
above properties. We use the concept however to simplify calculations and any
discrepancies between predicted results and actual results are found by experiment.
Coefficients are then used to convert the ideal to the real.
Steady Flow
This occurs when conditions at a point in the moving fluid do not change with time.
Unsteady Flow
When this is the case, conditions do change with time.
Streamlines
If the path of the fluid particles in steady flow are traced the result is a series of smooth
curves called streamlines.
i.e.

Streamline flow
1. The tangent to a streamline gives the motion of the particle at that point.
2. There can be no flow across a streamline.
3. Converging streamlines indicate increasing velocity.
Laminar and Turbulent Flow
Laminar flow occurs when the fluid moves in layers which slide smoothly one over the
other. Turbulent flow occurs when small irregular motions of fluid particles are
superimposed on the main motion of the fluid.
Reynolds experiment using dye in water shows that at low velocities the dye flow has a
thin streamline down the centre (laminar flow). Increasing the flow velocity causes an
initial wavering (transition) and then diffusion (turbulent). He also found that the fluids
density ( ), the viscosity (), and the diameter of the pipe (d) also affected the point of
transition. By repeated experiments Reynolds found that laminar flow ended when the
dimensions group equaled 2300. This is known as the Critical Reynolds Number.

Laminar

Transition

72

Turbulent

Bernoulli Equation
In order to understand this better we need to consider all the types of energy that may
be involved. These include:

Pressure energy
Potential energy
Kinetic energy

Pressure Energy
Consider the tank shown below:

Pressure P, Area A
F = PA
x

In moving piston distance x, work is done.

Where WD = Fx = PAx
If we release the piston both piston and liquid would return to their original states and
we therefore see that this form of energy is recoverable. This represents pressure
energy.
When piston is forced in
Volume in = Ax
Mass in = Ax (since = )
Hence the amount of energy possessed by unit mass of liquid is given by

It will have units of

It follows that pressure energy/unit weight is

and this will have units of

m.

This is called pressure head.

So if a liquid is under pressure P such as that shown above, then h is equivalent to the
static head of liquid which produces the same pressure. In other words, the pressure at
depth h is equal to gh. (Something we have already seen.)
73

Potential Energy
We now know that pressures at some depth h is P = gh
It follows that gh =
Since

represents the pressure energy/ unit mass, it follows that gh must also

represent energy, i.e. the potential energy required to raise unit mass through a certain
distance h.
What we should be seeing now is that potential energy and pressure energy may be
converted one into the other.
1. As we force the piston in, pressure energy is converted into potential energy.
2. As piston is released and level of liquid falls, potential energy is converted back
into pressure energy.
We are therefore able to write
Potential energy per unit mass + Pressure energy per unit mass = a constant
That is gh + = a constant, per unit mass
However it is more usual to write this in terms of energy per unit weight
That is h +

ac

ta t, per unit weight

Kinetic Energy
B
h
A

In falling from B to A
Potential energy lost/unit mass = gh
KE gained/unit mass =
PE lost = KE gained
74

Therefore gh =
Or

h=

= KE/unit weight (Velocity head)

If we need exit velocity this is given by u =

gh

Relationship between Pressure and KE

It is not necessary for any particle to have actually fallen from B to A before flowing
from the orifice. If already at level A it will possess pressure energy and this in turn
may be converted into KE on escaping Therefore we are able to write pressure energy
lost = KE gained
Or

(per unit weight)

The Bernoulli equations is really a way of stating the principle of conservation of

energy as applied to a steady flowing fluid system. That is that the total energy in the
system at any two points is the same provided that energy is neither given to nor
extracted from the system. Thus we are able to write
Pressure energy + Kinetic energy + Potential energy = a constant
Or

= a constant

The equation is valid provided

There is no loss of energy due to friction

The flow is steady

Applying this to flow though a pipe (note the change from h to z)

P2, A2, u2

z2
z1
P1, A1, u1

Datum

75

Applying Bernoullis equation

For real fluids which include losses it becomes necessary to add a viscosity term

Where h is a head loss due to friction.

Bernoullis equation alone is usually insufficient for solving pipe flow problems and it
becomes necessary to make use of another equation known as the Continuity Equation.
Equation of Continuity

m1
A1

m2
A2

m = mass flow rate in kg/s

m

Q, where Q = volumetric flow rate in m3/s

Q = Au, where A = area and u = velocity

Assumption is that m
Therefore
Hence
If
Then

1Q1

2Q2

1u1A1

2u2A2

2,

which is the case with a flowing liquid

u1A1 = u2A2

this is the Continuity Equation

Note that u is the average velocity across the section because u varies as shown below.

76

Graph of Velocity across Section

Application of Bernoullis Equation

Orifice in a Tank
Applying Bernoullis equation between 1 and 2

P1 = P2 therefore pressure energy terms

disappear; u1 is negligible; z1 = h; z2 = 0

It follows therefore that h

or

gh

However the actual velocity in a real fluid is less than this where
ef c e t f el c t
So that we should write

gh

To calculate the volume flow rate Q where

Ao

The ratio
Actual flow rate

rea

el c t

Ao = Area of orifice
Av = Area of vena contractor

Av

ef c e t f c

tract

gh
77

Or

gh

Where Cd = Cc x Cv = Coefficient of discharge which is found by experiment to be

approximately 0.6.
Venturi Meter
Pressures at 1 and 2 measured by pressure gauge
Q = Area x Velocity
= A1u1 = A2u2

Z2

Diffuser
Throat

Z1

Applying Bernoullis equation between 1 and 2 and assuming an ideal fluid

Rearranging

But

from the continuity equation

Therefore

Where Cd = Coefficient of discharge which is found to be approximately 0.97.

78

Note:
If the venturi is horizontal then z1 z2 = 0
Next consider a venture meter when pressures 1 and 2 are measured using
manometers.

h
h1

h2
2

z1

Since P = gh it follows that h1 =

Therefore

z2

and h
h

But h1 = h + h2 +y
Therefore

Modifying our previous equation for Qactual we end up with

79

Tutorial Problems First 4 are from Applied Mechanics by Hannah & Hillier
1. A tank of oil, of relative density 0.8, discharges through a 12 mm diameter orifice.
The head of oil above the centre line of the orifice is kept constant at 1.2 m and
the measured discharge rate is 16 kg/min. Calculate the coefficient of discharge
for the orifice.
(0.61)
2. A large tank contains water to a depth of 0.9 m. Water issues from a sharp
edged orifice of 25 mm diameter and is collected in a circular tank of 0.9 m
diameter. The water level in the cylinder rises 600 mm in 5 min. Calculate the
discharge coefficient for the orifice.
(0.62)
3. A venturi meter has an inlet diameter of 100 mm and a throat diameter of 50
mm. What will be the difference of head in metres of water between inlet and
throat if the flow rate is 15 litres/s of water? If the flow rate is doubled, what
would then be the difference in head?
(2.78 m; 11.12m)
4. The measured discharge of water through a venturi meter is 78 Mg/h. The inlet
and throat diameters are 120 mm and 55 mm respectively. The pressure drop
between inlet and throat is 42 kN/m2. Find the discharge coefficient for the
meter.
(0.975)
5. A horizontal venturi meter measures the flow of oil of specific gravity 0.9 in a 75
mm diameter pipe line. If the difference of pressure between the full bore and
the throat tapping is 34.5 kN/m2 and the area ratio is 4, calculate the rate of flow,
assuming a coefficient of discharge of 0.97.
(0.0097 m3/s)
6. Crude oil of density 850 kg/m 3 flows upwards a a volume rate of 0.06 m 3/s
through a vertical venturi meter which has an inlet diameter of 200 mm and a
throat diameter of 100 mm. The venturi meter coefficient is 0.98. The vertical
distance between the tapping points is 300 mm, and they are connected to two
pressure gauges, calibrated in kN/m2 and positioned at the levels of their
respective tapping points.
Working from first principles (but assuming Bernoullis equation), determine the
difference of the readings of the two pressure gauges.
(26.7 kN/m2)

80