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Communication Foundations
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CHAPTER
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O B J E C T I V E S
4
Discuss how information
flows in an organization
6
Explain how diversity
challenges act as a
strategic force to influence
the process of business
communication.
7
Explain how changing
technology acts as a
strategic force to influence
the process of business
communication.
8
Explain how team
environment acts as a
strategic force to influence
the process of business
communication.
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ideas in practice, the computer industry has been characterized by flat organizations, speed, flexibility, and teams.
Companies such as Hewlett-Packard
and Microsoft provide an alternative
organizational model to the traditional,
hierarchical bureaucratic model.
Hewlett-Packards revolutionary ideas
extend far beyond its organizational
structure and into its practices. The HP
Way, the embodiment of company philosophy, as described by company cofounder David Packard, is built around
the concept of trust.
A t the inception of Hewlett-Packard
in 1938, William Hewlett and David
Packard initiated a set of business
practices, some of which had never
been tried before. Central to the HP
Way is the establishment of an open
communication environment that
allows workers to stroll into bosses
offices and offer ideas. Company
power is not concentrated in its executives; employees make decisions in
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http://www.hp.com
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P U R P O S E S O F C O M M U N I C AT I O N
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to accomplish tasks and achieve goals. Obviously, then, a major purpose of communication is to help people feel good about themselves and about their friends,
groups, and organizations. Generally people communicate for three basic purposes: to inform, to persuade, and to entertain.
What is communication? For our purposes, communication is the process
of exchanging information and meaning between or among individuals through
a common system of symbols, signs, and behavior. Other words often used to
describe the communication process are expressing feelings, conversing, speaking, corresponding, writing, listening, and exchanging. Studies indicate that
managers typically spend 60 to 80 percent of their time involved in communication. In your career activities, you may communicate in a wide variety of
ways, including
attending meetings and writing reports related to strategic plans and company policy.
presenting information to large and small groups.
explaining and clarifying management procedures and work assignments.
coordinating the work of various employees, departments, and other work
groups.
evaluating and counseling employees.
promoting the companys products/services and image.
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Define communication
and describe the main
purpose for communication in business.
T H E C O M M U N I C AT I O N P R O C E S S
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FIGURE 1-1
The communication process
model.
SELECTS CHANNEL
AND TRANSMITS
MESSAGE
SENDER
DECODES MESSAGE
DECODES MESSAGE
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ENCODES MESSAGE
RECEIVER
SELECTS CHANNEL
AND TRANSMITS
MESSAGE
ORIGINAL MESSAGE
ENCODES MESSAGE
FEEDBACK
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so on) that reinforce the verbal message. The process of selecting and organizing the message is referred to as encoding. The senders primary objective
is to encode the message in such a way that the message received is as close
as possible to the message sent. Knowledge of the receivers educational
level, experience, viewpoints, and other information aids the sender in encoding the message. If information about the receiver is unavailable, the sender
can put himself or herself in the receivers position to gain fairly accurate
insight for encoding the message. As you study Chapters 3 and 4, you will
learn to use words effectively; Chapter 2 will assist you in refining your nonverbal communication.
Various behaviors can cause breakdowns in the communication process at
the encoding stage, such as when the sender uses
Diversity
Challenges
To increase the likelihood that the receiver will understand the message, the
sender carefully selects an appropriate channel for transmitting the message.
Three typical communication channels are illustrated in Figure 1-2.
FIGURE 1-2
TWO-WAY, FACE-TO-FACE
Channels of communication.
! Instant feedback
! Nonverbal signals
! Instant feedback
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The manager can solicit immediate feedback from the receiver to clarify misunderstandings and inaccuracies in the message.
The manager can read equally important nonverbal cues (tone of voice,
body movements, etc.) in addition to hearing what the receiver is saying (the
verbal message).
The manager may feel comfortable with the verbal message, but the nonverbal message may indicate the receiver is overamplifying the problem or is
underestimating the importance of the warning. The managers discerning choice
of a channelmeeting with the employee face-to-face rather than calling or writing a disciplinary memomarks this manager as sensitive and empathetic, qualities that foster trust and open communication.
The infinite number of breakdowns possible at each stage of the communication process makes us marvel that mutually satisfying communication ever occurs.
The complexity of the communication process amplifies the importance of the
next stage in the communication processfeedback to clarify misunderstandings.
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The sender inadequately encodes the original message. For example, the
sender may use words not present in the receivers vocabulary; use ambiguous, nonspecific ideas that distort the message; or use nonverbal signals that
distract the receiver or contradict the verbal message.
The receiver is intimidated by the position or authority of the sender. This
tension may prevent the receiver from concentrating on the message effectively enough to understand it clearly. Furthermore, an intimidated receiver
may be afraid to ask for clarification because of the perceived fear that questions might be associated with incompetence.
The receiver is unwilling to attempt to understand the message because the
topic is perceived to be too difficult to understand. Regardless of the clarity
of a message communicating procedures for operating a computer software
program, a receiver terrified of computers may be incapable of decoding the
message correctly.
The receiver is unreceptive to new and different ideas; that is, stereotypical
visions and prejudices prevent the receiver from viewing the message with
an open mind.
Diversity
Challenges
The receiver is the destination of the message. The receivers task is to interpret
the senders message, both verbal and nonverbal, with as little distortion as possible. The process of interpreting the message is referred to as decoding.
Because words and nonverbal signals have different meanings to different people, countless problems can occur at this point in the communication process:
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Senders and receivers must learn to deal with the numerous factors that interfere
with the communication process. These factors are referred to as interferences
or barriers to effective communication. Previous examples have illustrated some
of the interferences that may occur at various stages of the communication
process. For example,
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Diversity
Challenges
Differences in educational level, experience, and culture and other characteristics of the sender and the receiver increase the complexity of encoding and
decoding a message.
Physical interferences occurring in the channel include loud talking near an
area where a supervisor is explaining a work assignment, distracting and
annoying static on a telephone line, or an overly warm room used for a
lengthy staff meeting. Many companies schedule officer retreats at hotels or
remote lodges to eliminate physical and mental interferences such as constant interruptions and other distractions present in workday surroundings.
A supervisor too rushed or too insecure to allow subordinates to ask questions or offer suggestions (feedback) creates a formidable barrier to effective
communication. This supervisor loses time and money from errors made
because unclear messages are not clarified and also generates negative feelings because employees perceive their opinions to be unwelcome.
Study carefully the barriers listed in Figure 1-3, and compile a list of other
barriers that affect your ability to communicate with friends, teachers, coworkers, supervisors, and others. By being aware of them, you can make concentrated efforts to remove these interferences whenever possible.
C O M M U N I C AT I N G W I T H I N O R G A N I Z AT I O N S
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Levels of Communication
Communication can involve sending messages to both large and small audiences. Some messages, internal messages, are intended for recipients within
the organization. Other messages, external messages, are directed to recipients
outside the organization. When considering the intended audience, communication can be described as taking place on five levels:
Intrapersonal communication occurs when an individual processes information based on his or her own experiences. It is, in a sense, communication
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FIGURE 1-3
Communication barriers.
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Board of Directors
Audit Committee
V.P. of
Information Technology
Networks
Communications
FIGURE 1-4
Organization chart of an Internet company.
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V.P. of Operations
Systems
Design
Human
Resources
Marketing
V.P. of Finance
Public
Relations
Accounting
Finance
Stockholder
Relations
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C O M M U N I C AT I O N F L O W I N O R G A N I Z AT I O N S
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of the organization. Within this system, people are required to behave in certain ways simply to get the work done.
Informal communication channel. This channel develops as people interact within the formal, external system, and certain behavior patterns emerge
patterns that accommodate social and psychological needs. Because the
informal channel undergoes continual changes, it cannot be depicted accurately by any graphic means.
Why do organizations tend to
become more bureaucratic as
they grow in size?
Legal
and Ethical
Constraints
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the informal system benefits people because it is efficient; and it affects the
overall communication of the group in important ways.
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The grapevine, often called the rumor mill, is perhaps the best-known informal
communication system. It is actually a component of the informal system. As
people talk casually during coffee breaks and lunch periods, the focus usually
shifts from topic to topic. One of the topics most certainly would be workjob,
company, supervisor, fellow employees. Even though the formal system has definite communication channels, the grapevine tends to develop and operate
within the organization.
As a communication channel, the grapevine has a reputation for being
speedy but inaccurate. In the absence of alarms, the grapevine may be the most
effective way to let occupants know that the building is on fire. It certainly beats
sending a written memorandum or an e-mail. While the grapevine often is
thought of as a channel for inaccurate communication, in reality, it is no more
or less accurate than other channels. Even formal communication may become
inaccurate as it passes from level to level in the organizational hierarchy. The
inaccuracy of the grapevine has more to do with the message input than with
the output. For example, the grapevine is noted as a carrier of rumor, primarily
because it carries informal messages. If the input is rumor, and nothing more,
the output obviously will be inaccurate. But the output may be an accurate
description of the original rumor.
For a college student, the grapevine carries much valuable information. Even
though the names of the choice instructors may not be published, students learn
those names through the grapevine. How best to prepare for certain examinations, instructor attitudes on attendance and homework, and even future faculty
personnel changes are messages that travel over the grapevine. In the business
office, news about promotions, personnel changes, company policy changes,
and annual salary adjustments often is communicated by the grapevine long
before being disseminated by formal channels.
A misconception about the grapevine is that the message passes from person
to person until it finally reaches a person who cant pass it onthe end of the
line. Actually, the grapevine works as a network channel. Typically, one person
tells two or three others, who each tell two or three others, who each tell two or
three others, and so on. Thus, the message may spread to a huge number of people in a short time. Additionally, the grapevine has no single, consistent source.
Messages may originate anywhere and follow various routes.
Due at least in part to widespread downsizing during the last few years,
employees in many organizations are demanding to be better informed. Some
companies have implemented new formal ways for disseminating information to
their internal constituents, such as newsletters and intranets. Company openness
with employees, including financial information, means more information in the
formal system rather than risking its miscommunication through informal channels. An employee of The Container Storenamed the best company to work
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Team
Environment
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The direction in which communication flows in an organization may be downward, upward, or horizontal, as shown in Figure 1-5. Because these three terms
are used frequently in communication literature, they deserve clarification.
Although the concept of flow seems simple, direction has meaning for those participating in the communication process.
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Downward Communication. Downward communication flows from supervisor to employee, from policy makers to operating personnel, or from top to
bottom on the organization chart. As messages move downward through successive levels of the organization, they seem to get larger. A simple policy statement from the top of the organization may grow into a formal plan for operation
at lower levels.
Teaching people how to perform their specific tasks is an element of downward communication. Another element is orientation to a companys rules, practices, procedures, history, and goals. Employees learn about the quality of their
job performance through downward communication.
Downward communication normally involves both written and oral methods
and makes use of the following guidelines:
People high in the organization usually have greater knowledge of the organization and its goals than do people at lower levels.
Both oral and written messages tend to become larger as they move downward through organizational levels. This expansion results from attempts to
prevent distortion and is more noticeable in written messages.
Oral messages are subject to greater changes in meaning than are written
messages.
When a supervisor sends a message to a lower-level employee who then asks
a question or nods assent, the question and the nod are signs of feedback. Feedback may flow both downward and upward in organizational communication.
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UPWARD COMMUNICATION
Ideas/suggestions
Feelings/attitudes
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DOWNWARD COMMUNICATION
UPWARD COMMUNICATION
HORIZONTAL OR
LATER AL COMMUNICATION
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FIGURE 1-5
in both oral and written form by group meetings, procedures or operations manuals, company news releases, and the grapevine.
Accurate upward communication keeps management informed about the
feelings of lower-level employees, taps the expertise of employees, helps management identify both difficult and potentially promotable employees, and paves
the way for even more effective downward communication. Employees reporting upward are aware that their communications carry the risk of putting them
on the spot or committing them to something they cannot handle.
Although employees typically appreciate and welcome genuine opportunities
to send information to management, they will likely resent any superficial attempt
to provide an open communication network with management. These factors,
then, are important to consider when upward communication flow is involved.
Upward communication is primarily feedback to requests and actions of
supervisors.
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Team
Environment
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S T R AT E G I C F O R C E S I N F L U E N C I N G
B U S I N E S S C O M M U N I C AT I O N
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ommunication is often a complicated process. Furthermore, communication does not take place in a vacuum, but rather is influenced by a number of forces at work in the environment. The effective communicator carefully
considers each of these influences and structures communication responsively.
Four critical forces influence the communication process and help to determine
and define the nature of the communication that occurs, as shown in Figure 1-6.
Part 1 | Communication Foundations
LEGAL
LEGAL AND
AND ETHICAL
ETHICAL
CONSTRAINTS
CONSTRAINTS
Trust
Team Roles
Shared Goals and
Expectations
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Cultural Differences
Language Barriers
Gender Issues
Stakeholder Interests
Ethical Frameworks
Personal Values
International Laws
Domestic Laws
Codes of Ethics
BUSINESS
TEAM
DIVERSITY
TEAM
COMMUNICATION
ENVIRONMENT
CHALLENGES
ENVIRONMENT
Synergy
Group Reward
Distributed Leadership
Education Levels
Age Factors
Nonverbal Differences
CHANGING
TECHNOLOGY
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Accuracy and
Security Issues
Telecommunication
Software Application Tools
High-touch
Issues
Telecommuting
Databases
FIGURE 1-6
Legal
and Ethical
Constraints
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Consider your personal value system. Only if you have definite beliefs on a
variety of issues and the courage to practice them will you be able to make
sound ethical judgments. Putting ethical business practices first will also benefit the company for whom you work as its reputation for fairness and good
judgment retains long-term clients or customers and brings in new ones.
Learn to analyze ethical dilemmas. Knowing how to analyze ethical
dilemmas and identify the consequences of your actions will help you make
decisions that conform to your own value system. Thus, unless you know what
you stand for and how to analyze the ethical issue, you become a puppet, controlled by the motives of others, too weak to make a decision on your own.
The Foundation for Legal and Ethical Behavior. Although ethics is a common
point of discussion, many find defining ethics challenging. Most people immediately associate ethics with standards and rules of conduct, morals, right and
wrong, values, and honesty. Dr. Albert Schweitzer defined ethics as the name
we give to our concern for good behavior. We feel an obligation to consider not
only our own personal well-being, but also that of others and of human society
as a whole.4 In other words, ethics refers to the principles of right and wrong
that guide you in making decisions that consider the impact of your actions on
others as well as yourself.
Although the recorded accounts of legal and ethical misconduct would seem
to indicate that businesses are dishonest and unscrupulous, keep in mind that
millions of business transactions are made daily on the basis of honesty and
concern for the welfare of others. Why should a business make ethical decisions? What difference will it make? James E. Perrella, executive vice president
of Ingersoll-Rand Company, gave a powerful reply to these questions:5
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Our question of today should be, whats the right thing to do, the right
way to behave, the right way to conduct business? Dont just ask, is it legal?
Have you ever considered what business would be like if we all did it? If
every businessman and businesswoman followed the Golden Rule? Many
people, including many business leaders, would argue that such an application of ethics to business would adversely affect bottom-line performance.
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I say nay . . . . Good ethics, simply, is good business. Good ethics will
attract investors. Good ethics will attract good employees.
You can do whats right. Not because of conduct codes. Not because of
rules or laws. But because you know whats right.
Identifying ethical issues in typical workplace situations may be difficult, and
coworkers and superiors may apply pressure for seemingly logical reasons. To
illustrate, examine each of the following workplace situations for a possible ethical dilemma:
Changing
Technology
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Your fundamental morals and values provide the foundation for making
ethical decisions. However, as the previous examples imply, even minor concessions in day-to-day decisions can gradually weaken an individuals ethical
foundation.
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Unethical tone set by top management. If top managers are not perceived
as highly ethical, lower-level managers may be less ethical as a result.
Employees have little incentive to act legally and ethically if their superiors
do not set an example and encourage and reward such behavior.
Uncertainty about whether an action is wrong. Many times, company
personnel are placed in situations in which the line between right and wrong
is not clearly defined. When caught in this gray area, the perplexed employee
asks, How far is too far?
Unwillingness to take a stand for what is right. Often employees know
what is right or wrong but are not willing to take the risk of challenging a
wrong action. They may lack the confidence or skill needed to confront others with sensitive legal or ethical issues. They may remain silent and then justify their unwillingness to act.
Framework for Analyzing Ethical Dilemmas. Determining whether an action is
ethical can be difficult. Learning to analyze an ethical dilemma from multiple
perspectives will help you find a solution that conforms to your own personal
values. The flow chart shown in Figure 1-7 represents a framework for making
an ethical decision and for supporting that decision in a written or oral message.
The framework instructs you (the decision maker) to complete the following
four-step process after you have identified a possible course of action:
1. Identify the legal implications of the alternative and determine whether
the alternative adheres to contractual agreements and company policy.
In other words, is the alternative legal? The law specifically outlines the black
areathose alternatives that are clearly wrong. Your employer will expect you
to become an expert in the laws that affect your particular area. When you
encounter an unfamiliar area, you must investigate any possible legal implications. Obviously obeying the law is in the best interest of all concerned: you
as an individual, your company, and society. In addition, contractual agreements between the organization and another group provide explicit guidance
in selecting an ethically responsible alternative. If the action is legal, then . . .
2. Determine whether the alternative violates any company or professional codes of ethics. If the alternative is legal and complies with relevant
contractual agreements and company policy, your next step is to consult your
companys or professions code of ethics. This written document summarizes
the companys or professions standards of ethical conduct. Some companies
refer to this document as a credo or standards of ethical conduct. If the
behavior does not violate the code of ethics, then . . .
3. Use ethical principles and theories to assess whether the alternative
judged to be legal (Step 1) and in compliance with codes of ethics (Step
2) is ethical. The finaland extremely importanttest your alternative must
satisfy is the test of integrity. Is it ethical? If, after careful analysis, you judge
the alternative to be unethical, you must evaluate another alternative beginning again with Step 1 of this framework. If you feel the alternative is ethical, then . . .
4. Implement the alternative and communicate ethical decisions to
appropriate individuals inside or outside the organization.
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FIGURE 1-7
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Note the three decision points in the framework shown in Figure 1-7. Any
one of the following criteria could cause the rejection of the alternative being
considered and selection of another one: (1) The alternative is illegal or does not
comply with relevant contractual agreements and company policy, (2) the alternative is not consistent with the companys and/or the professions code of
ethics, or (3) the alternative violates your personal code of ethics.
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Another framework for examining the correctness of an action is the utilitarian theory. Its basic premise is that in all situations one ought to do that which
provides the greatest balance of good over harm for all parties involved. Thus, an
ethical decision maker must estimate the impact of each alternative action on all
organization stakeholders (the persons or groups who will be affected by the
decision) and then select the one that optimizes the satisfaction of the greatest
number of people. Simply stated, the major stakeholders consist of five groups:
owners, employees, customers, local communities, and society at large.
Rosss doctrine of prima facie duties includes (1) not harming innocent
people, (2) keeping promises, (3) showing gratitude, (4) acting in a just way,
and (5) providing reparations to those who have been harmed by ones actions.7
While these duties are not moral absolutes, they are considered highly desirable
moral tenets that should be honored whenever possible. To apply this doctrine,
you must consider the organizations major stakeholders and determine which
of Rosss five duties are relevant to the decision under consideration, and of
those, which may be violated for any of the stakeholders.
As these assessments show, applying ethical theories is not an easy task.
Such analytical processes, however, enhance your critical thinking about the
consequences of any action.
Which of the ethical frameworks do you find most appropriate for you personally? Why?
Diversity
Challenges
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FIGURE 1-8
1995
2015
Over
60
12%
Over 60
40%
60 and under
88%
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60 and under
60%
Spotlight Communicator
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toughnessand
sometimes its hard
to tell the truth; but
in the end the truth
sets you free. In offering advice for
women aspiring to positions of power,
Fiorina says: All peopleincluding
womenneed to stay focused on possibilities. I faced lots of doubters in my
career, lots of hurdles and barriers;
there were many people who didnt
take me seriously, but there were also
enough people who did. I would say
believe in yourself, stay focused on the
possibilities, seek out the people who
will see what you are capable of,
because talentin whatever package it
comes inwill rise to the top.16
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Gender No Obstacle to
Business Success
Gender issues. The flood of women entering the job market has substantially
changed the American work force. Old social patterns of behavior that
defined the appropriate roles for men and women do not fit in a work environment free from discrimination. While civil rights laws prohibiting sex discrimination and pay equity requirements have been in place for more than 30
years, charges continue to be filed by individuals who feel that their rights
have been violated. The number of sexual harassment cases has increased in
recent years, resulting from a broader-based definition of what indeed constitutes sexual harassment. Although a charge of sexual harassment may certainly be based on actions with sexual overtones, it has also been interpreted
to include comments, visual images, or other conditions that create a hostile
working environment. One result of the increased focus on sexual harassment
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in the workplace is the reluctance of some to communicate with other workers for fear that their actions or words might be misconstrued. Both men and
women confront workplace communication challenges.
Workplace diversity can lead to misunderstandings and miscommunications;
but it also poses opportunities to improve both workers and organizations.
Managers must be prepared to communicate effectively with workers of different nationalities, genders, races, ages, abilities, and so forth.
Managing a diverse work force effectively will require you to communicate
with everyone and to help all employees reach their fullest potential and contribute
to the companys goals. When miscommunication occurs, both sides are frustrated
and often angry. To avoid such problems, increasing numbers of companies are
providing diversity training seminars to help workers understand and appreciate
gender and age differences and the cultures of coworkers. To prepare for these
communication challenges, commit the time and energy to enhance your diversity
skills while you are attending classes as well as after you enter the workplace.
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Culture and Communication. Managers with the desire and the skill to conduct
business in new international markets and to manage a diverse work force effectively will confront problems created by cultural differences. The way messages
are decoded and encoded is not just a function of the experiences, beliefs, and
assumptions of the person sending or receiving those messages but also are
shaped by the society in which he or she lives.
People learn patterns of behavior from their culture. The culture of a people is the product of their living experiences within their own society. Culture
could be described as the way of life of a people and includes a vast array of
behaviors and beliefs. These patterns affect how people perceive the world,
what they value, and how they act. Differing patterns can also create barriers to
communication. Culture has several key characteristics:
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Culture is learned by people over time. Individuals are not born knowing
their culture but acquire it through interactions with others. Social institutions
such as religious organizations, clubs, businesses; the family; schools; as well
as the media, all play a part in teaching each member of a society the expectations and norms of behavior.
Components of culture are interrelated. In the United States, for instance,
the high value placed on material goods is related to the use of economic
well-being as a measure of success and happiness. These values provide support for the approval placed on independence of mind and action, which in
turn is connected to the existence of a relatively fluid class structure.
Culture is shared. While the various aspects of culture are common to
many individuals, no country has one unified culture. Modern societies are
so large and diverse that many different cultures can exist within them; these
are called subcultures. Although each subculture differs from others, they
often share some traits that derive from the main or dominant culture.
Culture provides standards for behavior. In providing individuals with
standards for behavior, culture gives them a feeling of identification and
belonging; they feel a part of something larger than themselves. Customs are
the accepted way of interacting as dictated by ones culture. The North
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American practice of shaking hands reflects the value that is placed on the
individual. Indians greet each other with a slight bow to honor the divine
spark that they believe resides in each person.
Culture provides symbolic references. Each culture has certain objects,
gestures, sounds, or images that contain special meaning. The American flag
symbolizes the nations independence and strength; a red, white, and blue
package tries to associate itself with those meanings. Advertising, which in
some respects is the use of cultural symbols, requires sensitivity to the specific meanings of the symbols employed and recognizes that these meanings
differ by culture. For example, white, which stands for purity and cleanliness
in much of the Western culture, stands for death in China.17
Culture shapes communication. How people communicate in speaking
and writing as well as nonverbally is shaped by culture. Culture enables people to acquire a language that they may use in common with others of the
same culture and as a medium for passing culture from one generation to the
next. The language also reflects cultural values and norms. English is the language of Australia, Jamaica, and South Africa, as well as Great Britain,
Canada, and the United States. However, all of these cultures are very different; in fact, even their forms of English differ.
Barriers to Intercultural Communication. Because cultures give different definitions to such basics of interaction as values and norms, people raised in two
different cultures may clash. Some of the main areas in which cultures clash are
explored below:
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Ethnocentricism. Problems occur between people of different cultures primarily because people tend to assume that their own cultural norms are the
right way to do things. They wrongly believe that the specific patterns of
behavior desired in their own cultures are universally valued. This belief,
known as enthnocentrism, is certainly natural; but learning about other cultures and developing sensitivity will help minimize ethnocentric reactions
when dealing with other cultures.
Stereotypes. One group often forms a mental picture of the main characteristics of another group, creating preformed ideas of what people in this
group are like. These pictures, called stereotypes, influence the way members of the first group interact with members of the second. When members
of the first group observe a behavior that conforms to that stereotype, the
validity of the preconceived notion is reinforced. They view the other person
as a representative of a class of people rather than as an individual. All cultures have stereotypes about other cultures they have encountered. These
stereotypes can interfere with communication when people interact on the
basis of the imagined representative and not the real individual.
Interpretation of time. The study of how a culture perceives time and its
use is called chronemics. In the United States, we have a saying that time is
money. North Americans, like some northern Europeans who are also concerned about punctuality, make appointments, keep them, and do not waste
time completing them. In some other cultures, time is the cheapest commodity and an inexhaustible resource; time represents a persons span on earth,
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mentally cast the words into another language, then speak them. This process
is difficult and opens the possibility that the translator will fall victim to one
or more cultural barriers. The Internet Investigation following Chapter 3 provides additional opportunity for you to explore translation issues.
Lack of language training. The following is an anecdote that speaks to the
need for language training:
What do you call someone who speaks two languages? (Reply: bilingual)
What do you call someone who speaks three languages? (Reply: trilingual)
What do you call someone who speaks one language? (Reply: an American)
Electronic tools have not eliminated the need for basic communication skills; and
they can, in fact, create new obstacles or barriers to communication that must be
overcome. These tools, however, also create opportunities, which range from the
kinds of communications that are possible to the quality of the messages themselves. Electronic tools can help people in various ways, such as (1) collecting
and analyzing data, (2) shaping messages to be clearer and more effective, and
(3) communicating quickly and efficiently with others over long distances.
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Changing
Technology
Tools for Data Collection and Analysis. Knowing how to collect information and
communicate in a networked world is critical if you and your company are to be
competitive. The Internet has brought vast amounts of data into our homes and
businesses, and on-line information services provide a wide range of sources to
facilitate our research. Generally, electronic communication provides researchers
with two distinct advantages: (1) electronic searches of organizational databases
and electronic networks can be done in a fraction of the time required to conduct
manual searches of printed sources, and (2) the vast amount of information available allows researchers to develop better solutions to problems.
Internal databases enable decision makers to obtain information from their
own company records quickly and accurately. Databases offer these advantages:
Data organization, the ability to organize large amounts of data.
Data integrity, assurance that the data will be accurate and complete.
Data security, assurance that the data are secure because access to a database is controlled through several built-in data security features.
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someone you trust who understands that culture. You will have
a resource if you need help.
You will certainly work in a culturally diverse workplace, and perhaps
for a multinational firm. Your success
will likely depend on your ability to
communicate effectively across cultures, genders, ages, abilities, and
other differences. Language, values,
attitudes, and other cultural traits
change very slowly. Therefore, communicating interculturally requires you
to recognize the cultural elements that
cause people to view things differently
and thus create barriers to communication. Instead of ignoring cultural factors, workers and employers can
improve communication by recognizing them and by considering people
as individuals rather than as members
of stereotypical groups.
Viva la Difference!
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Application
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first intended to be used for academic and research purposes, the majority of the
networks worldwide are registered to corporations whose primary use is electronic mail.20
Many people as well as organizations subscribe to an on-line service to assist
them in using Internet resources effectively. Through membership with such an
on-line service, subscribers can
Tools for Shaping Messages to Be Clearer and More Effective. Another significant benefit to communication offered by technology is message clarification and
refinement. Documents that took days to produce during the b.c. (before computers) era can now be created in hours. Perhaps the greater benefit, however, is
the advent of whole new possibilities for document preparation and presentation.
Word processing software expedites the production of a document and
also improves the quality of the message. Other features that improve writing
are electronic spell check, thesaurus, and writing analysis software. Using word
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processing, you can draft a document, store it on magnetic medium, and retrieve
and revise it as many times as necessary to produce a clear, understandable document. Word processing software also allows you to format the document using
print features, graphic and layout features, and various typefaces, and then print
a highly professional copy.
Reports and longer documents become less tedious to produce because of
features that facilitate writing and editing. Most full-feature word processing software includes a feature that generates a contents page, index, and document references automatically. This feature saves time in the initial creation of these pages
and in their updating if pagination changes during editing. The mail-merge feature facilitates large-scale mailings of personalized form letters; guidelines for
using this feature to personalize form letters is presented in Chapter 5. See the
Strategic Force feature in Chapter 3 on Writing Effectively at the Computer.
Collaborative software assists groups in writing collaboratively. Each author
marks revisions and inserts document comments in much the same way as with
word processing software and then sends the computer file to the coauthor. Some
collaborative software programs allow multiple authors to work on documents at
the same time when they are placed on an electronic whiteboard. Drawings or
information written on its surface can be displayed simultaneously on the computer monitors of others in the work team. The Strategic Force feature in Chapter 4 explores the capabilities of groupware software in greater detail.
Graphics software helps managers and other workers surpass simple word
processing capabilities by using typography and design elements to create communications that are persuasive and professional looking. Using desktop publishing software and a high-quality printer, a person can create important
publications such as prospectuses, annual reports, and newsletters. When printed
on a laser printer, the result can be visually convincing. Presentation software
allows speakers to develop dynamic multimedia presentation visuals that combine text, graphics, animation, sound, and video.
Decision makers who do not have the time to wade through pages of written text searching for key information are among the primary beneficiaries of
graphic presentations. A salesperson might close a deal by incorporating into a
proposal five bar graphs illustrating the superiority of a product over the competitions version. A manager may win the day by supporting a case for expansion with a highly professional slide show depicting the resulting increase in
profits.
Quality graphics can be produced using a variety of software programs and
are available from several sources:
Use electronic spreadsheet and presentation graphics software to prepare
charts and drawing software to generate other images such as flowcharts,
pictograms, scaled drawings of products, and so on.
Integrate clip art (predrawn graphics stored on disk), photos, and sound
available with full-feature software and that can be purchased from commercial sources or imported from online sources.
Use scanners to convert images (graphics, photos, signatures, letterhead, and
text) to electronic files and digital cameras to capture photographs as electronic files.
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FIGURE 1-9
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Web publishing tools facilitate the creation of web pages for posting to the
Internet. Such applications allow for the integration of text and graphic elements
and eliminate the need for extensive knowledge of hypertext markup language,
or HTML. Hyperlinks to other documents and web sites can also be included in
the page design. The formatted web pages may then be viewed using a web
browser. Most organizations realize the importance of having a web presence
and have devised useful web pages to provide information to their various constituents. Figure 1-9 shows Hewlett-Packards corporate web site, which offers
eye-appealing access to various types of information.
Tools for Communicating Quickly and Efficiently Over Long Distances. Computer networks have placed the world at our fingertips. To exploit the possibilities,
whole new channels for communication have emerged. The businessperson is
no longer limited to paper-copy letters and memos, the telephone, and face-toface meetings; rather, exciting new methods for sending and receiving messages are available:
Electronic mail. Electronic mail, or e-mail, as it is often called can be used
to distribute memos, reports, and documents without sending them in a printed
(hard copy) form. E-mail helps solve the problem of telephone tag. Approximately 70 percent of business telephone callers do not reach the person they
called on the first try. The result is a game of tag, as the caller and the person
called keep trying to reach the other unsuccessfully. With electronic mail, the
caller simply keys a message and sends it to an electronic mailbox. Receivers
are notified that a message awaits them, and they respond to the caller as soon
as the message is read. When it is delivered and read quickly, electronic mail
can be almost as convenient and articulate as a personal conversation.
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meeting or work site to another, or work at sites with no access to a telephone. The increased productivity resulting from the more efficient use of
time justifies the cost of cellular service. Cellular telephones also help
managers stay in closer contact with coworkers and with current and
prospective clients and customers. Quick, courteous responses build strong
interpersonal relations, which in turn lead to increased customer commitment
and an edge over competitors.
Electronic conferencing. Electronic conferencing via teleconferencing and
videoconferencing are alternatives to face-to-face meetings that allow several
people at different locations to communicate electronically. Teleconferencing allows several persons in different geographic locations to be on the
same line at the same time. Videoconferencing takes advantage of all
mediaaudio, graphics, and video. Speakers provide the audio feedback,
facsimile devices send graphics, and cameras transmit the video portion of
the conference in a specially equipped room. Participants engage in group
discussions while observing one anothers facial expressions and gestures.
Using collaborative software with the desktop technology, users in remote
locations can see each other as they document conference,that is, share and
annotate computer files and images in real time.
Electronic conferences can eliminate or reduce the high costs of face-toface meetings: travel, hotels, food, and time lost in transit. Videoconferencing restores the nonverbal elements of interpersonal communication that are
lost over the telephone, and thus, is more personal than a disembodied
voice on the other end of a telephone line. The availability of less expensive
desktop videoconferencing systems that allows users to hold electronic
meetings across existing local area networks and telephone lines has made
electronic conferences more accessible to businesses of all sizes.
Legal
and Ethical
Constraints
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Despite the passage of federal legislation and additional state laws designed
to enhance and strengthen electronic
privacy, most Americans feel they have
less privacy today than ever. According
to a recent Harris poll, 76 percent of
Americans believe they have lost all
control over personal information, and
67 percent believe that computers
must be restricted in the future to preserve privacy.23 Workplace privacy has
also become an area of concern, as
computer monitoring and surveillance
capabilities expand.
George Orwell, in his classic novel
1984, described what many believe to
be the ultimate in privacy-shattering
totalitarianism as he offered a foreboding look at future society. In his
fictitious account . . . there was of
course no way of knowing whether
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Legal and
Ethical
Constraints
Application
Work Team Defined. The terms team, work team, group, work group, crossfunctional team and self-directed team are often used interchangeably.27 Whatever the title, a team is a small number of people with complementary skills
who work together for a common purpose. Team members set their own goals,
in cooperation with management, and plan how to achieve those goals and how
their work is to be accomplished. The central organizing element of a team is
that it has a common purpose and measurable goals for which the team can be
held accountable, independent of its individual members. Employees in a selfdirected work team handle a wide array of functions and work with a minimum
of direct supervision.28 Some major strengths of teams are as follows: 29
Teams make workers happier by causing them to feel that they are shaping
their own jobs.
Teams increase efficiency by eliminating layers of managers whose job was
once to pass orders downward.
Teams enable a company to draw on the skills and imagination of a whole
work force. A key element in team success is the concept of synergy. Synergy is defined as a situation in which the whole is greater than the sum of
the parts. Teams provide a depth of expertise that is unavailable at the individual level, as illustrated in the Ziggy cartoon. Teams open lines of communication that then lead to increased interaction among employees and
between employees and management. The result is that teams help companies reach their goals of delivering higher-quality products and services faster
and with more cost-effectiveness.
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ShowCASE
http://www.hp.com
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Diversity
Challenges
SUMMARY
process, feedback helps people resolve possible misunderstandings and thus improve communication effectiveness.
Feedback and the opportunity to observe nonverbal signs
are always present in face-to-face communication, the most
complete of the three communication levels.
3. Identify the five levels of communication. Communication takes place at five levels: intrapersonal (communication within one person), interpersonal
(communication between two people), group (communication among more than two people), organizational (communication among combinations of groups), and mass
(communication from one entity to the greater public).
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other factors. Such diversity offers challenges for the business communicator in interpretation of time, personal space
requirements, body language, language translation, and lack
of language training. Through diversity, the organization and
the individual are provided with tremendous opportunities to
maximize talent, ideas, and productivity.
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REFERENCES
1 The
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11 Miller,
W. H. (1991, May 6). A new perspective for tomorrows work force. Industry Week, 6.
12 Marshall-Mims, P. (1999, July 26). Aging work force creates
new challenges for restaurant industry. Nations Restaurant
News, 33 (30), 82.
13 Bisio J. (1999. February). The age boom. Risk Management, 46 (2), 2227.
14 Chellam, R. (1999, October 29). Fiorinas fun formula for
success. Business Times (Singapore), p. 30.
15 Zesiger, S. (1999, August 16). Fortune cover girls storm valley. Fortune, 29.
16 Chellam, R. (1999, October 29). Fiorinas fun formula for
success. Business Times (Singapore), p. 30.
17 Fitzgerald, N . (1996). Transcultural faux pas. World Trade,
9 (9), 9293.
18 Green, D. J., & Scott, J. C. (1996). The status of international business communication courses in schools accredited by
the American Assembly of Collegiate Schools of Business. The
Delta Pi Epsilon Journal, 39(1), 4362.
19 Marquardt, M. J., & Engel, D. W. (1993). HRD competencies
for a shrinking world. Training & Development, 47(5), 5964.
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CHAPTER REVIEW
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1. What are the three purposes for which people communicate? What percentage of a managers time is spent communicating? Give examples of the types of communication
managers use. (Obj. 1)
3. What types of differences between sender and receiver create barriers to communication? (Obj. 2)
4. What is the difference between intrapersonal and interpersonal communication? (Obj. 3)
5. How is the formal flow of communication different from the
informal flow of communication? (Obj. 4)
6. Discuss four strategic forces that influence business communication. (Objs. 5, 6, 7, 8)
9. What are some aspects of diversity that pose communication challenges? (Obj. 6)
ACTIVITIES
management procedures and work assignments; (4) coordinating the work of various employees, departments, and
other work groups; (5) evaluating and counseling employees; (6) promoting the companys products/services and
image; (7) other activities. Calculate the percentage of
time spent in each activity.
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_______________________
________________
_________
_______________________
________________
Stakeholder
Cost
Benefit
Golden Value
Stores
Proposal (restricting
compensation) could
encourage managers to
take risks or unethical
actions to achieve goals.
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Using an on-line index, locate a current newspaper or magazine article that describes an illegal or unethical act by a business organization or its employee(s). Choose an incident as
closely related as possible to your intended profession. Prepare a written summary of the article.
Legal/Ethical
Over the past two years, the salaries and bonuses of top
management at Golden Value Stores have increased over
50 percentan increase consistent with management compensation levels of similar companies. Much of this increase
resulted from managements achieving a variety of nonincome-related goals such as the number of retail outlets
opened during the year. During the same period, however,
Golden Value Stores stock and company earnings have
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Stakeholder
Obligation
Stockholders
Legal/Ethical
Read The Power of Ethical Management by Kenneth Blanchard and Norman Vincent Peale, a short, engaging story
about a sales managers attempt to make an ethical decision. Write a brief report summarizing the ethical principles
presented in the book.
Legal/Ethical
Diversity
Technology
Conduct an on-line search to locate examples of intercultural communication mistakes made by U.S. companies
doing business in another country. How can an organization
improve its diversity awareness to avoid such problems?
Share your results with the class.
9. Understanding Diversity Issues (Obj. 6)
Oral
Diversity
Teams
I N T E R N E T I N V E S T I G AT I O N
Internet sites
http://www.againtech.com/products/studies.html
http://www.tpcorp.com/fed/library/articles/scholtes.html
http://www.gainshare.com/define.html
You may link to these URLs or other updated sites from the
text web site.
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head in the sand. Thy stress the need for newly structured
incentive plans to reward group effort.
Visit the following Internet sites for information on the
issue and respond to one or more of the following activities
as directed by your instructor.
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Activities
1.
How would you respond to those with concerns about loss of individual incentive? Argue for or
against the increased emphasis on team reward, using
either personal examples or examples from business.
d.
e.
The shipping department has located the common carrier currently holding a customers shipment that should
have been delivered yesterday. Inform the customer that
the carrier has promised delivery by tomorrow morning.
An employee in another division office has requested
you send a spreadsheet you have prepared so he can
manipulate the data to produce a report.
Technology
Using the Internet, locate an article that covers how a company or organization is using teams in its operation. Write a
one-page abstract of the article.
13. Importance of Communication in Your Career Field
(Objs. 18)
Critical Thinking
Technology
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VIDEO CONNECTION
3. To what extent is courtesy a universal concept?
4. How does the salad bowl concept of culture differ from
the traditional melting pot idea?
5. Jan Birkelbach discusses the wide array of behavior within
cultural groups and cautions against generalizing that all
members of a specific group fit a certain stereotype. Give
examples of several such stereotypes.
Application
You must make a short presentation to your companys staff concerning the cultural diversity of your community and the importance of effective intercultural communication.
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Discussion Questions
1. Determine what cultural groups are present in your community and in what proportions. (Your chamber of commerce or city offices may be of help.)
2. Interview one or more persons from each of the major cultural groups in your community. Identify what is unique
about their language, nonverbal communication, perception
of time, customs, family life, and so on.
3. Prepare an outline for your talk, emphasizing the importance of intercultural communication and including several
suggestions for improving intercultural communication in
your community.
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2. What part do respect and trust play in intercultural communication? How are they related concepts?
Teams
Technology
1. What communication trends are revealed from the survey results? Are any of these surprising? Why?
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