SECTION ONE; Democracy and Theory:

DEMOCRACY:
J. Schumpeter: democracy is a political method, that is to say, a certain type of
institutional arrangement for arriving at political legislative and administrative
decisions
The democratic method is that institutional arrangement for arriving at political decisions
in which individuals acquire the power to decide by means of a competitive struggle for
the peoples vote.
`Democracy is abstract
Internally contradictory
The government to control the governed
Terrorism and civil liberty
Forcing people to go to school
Tolerance versus freedom of speech
Concept of sovereignty
People as sovereign
Bourgeoisie revolutions in Europe
Social contract (Rousseau, Locke, Hobbes) between state and citizen
Representation

Democratic peace:
Democratic peace The fact of democratic peace by Bruce Russett
Democracies do not fight against each other
Emanuel Kants perpetual peace
Voting franchise, free and fair contested periodic election

Culture/religion and democracy:

Protestantism Protestant ethics and the spirit of capitalism (Max Weber) Protestantism
said to have created modern democracy
Catholicism once held to be hostile to both capitalism and democracy
Confucianism ditto
Islam still thought so by many as an obstacle
C/r could change its attitude toward politics and could be deployed to make democracy
work

Democratic breakthrough:
The role of the elite in self-transformation
The role of opposition forces in overthrowing the old regime
Joint actions by the regime and the opposition transplacement
Problems of regime legitimacy
External influences, including foreign intervention
Demonstration, or snowballing effects

 Individual figures make a difference subjective and objective forces at work

simultaneously

Democratic consolidation:
a high level of economic development
a favourable international political environment, with outside assistance
early timing of the transition to democracy, relative to a worldwide wave, indicating that
the drive to democracy derived primarily from indigenous rather than outside influences

END OF HISTORY THESIS

Fukuyamas concept (IMPORTANT) Start of a single history

What we may be witnessing is not just the end of the Cold War, or the passing of a particular
period of post-war history, but the end of history as such: that is, the end point of mankind's
ideological evolution and the universalization of Western liberal democracy as the final form of
human government. Francis Fukuyama, The End of History and the Last Man (1992)

Francis Fukuyamas The End of History and the Last Man 1992
Liberalism contended with absolutism.
The triumph of the Western liberal democracy
Not the end of the cold war but the end of history as such.
Marx spoke about the end of history
Hegel mentioned about history ending with Germany.
Are there any fundamental contradictions in human life that cannot be resolved in the context of
modern liberalism.

DEVELOPMENT OF CAPITALISMAND VARIOUS WAYS TO DEMOCRACY

three different forms: Through revolution (US and Britain) had own specific culture, 2nd:
Communism imported from the top during 3rd: India and China, Promote in other countries
once you have centralised bureaucratic system always dispossession (despcidesam)?

THIRD WAVE OF DEMOCRATISATION

Japan, Taiwan etc. During decline of soviet union
The Third Wave: Democratization in the Late Twentieth Century (1991)
1. wave 19281936
2. wave 19431962
3. wave the 1970s and 1980s, and 5 patterns of regime change (cyclical, try pattern,
interrupted democracy, direct transition and decolonisation)
We may add the 4th wave post-Cold War
WHAT SHAPES ASIAN VALUE

 East and West are two discrete systems of social/ political and economic organisation
based on enduring cultural traditions and values that transcend social and economic
change (Richard Robinson, The Pacific Review, Vol.9 No. 3, 1996, p. 305-308)
This is a reversal to Orientalism of 19th century Europe.
The West is faltering in democratic excesses

Can talk about way Europe depicted the rest of the world

Seeing that Asia has a long historical tradition of being authoritarian and a strong belief in
Confucianism makes it a rigid claim that the citizens of Asia will accept the idea of
democratisation just because all cultures go through cultural change
Asias traditional values such as social dont support the Wests Human rights movement
and cultural change wont have a strong enough affect to break down the Asian Values
barriers to transform Asia towards democratisation, this is also seen by Park and Shins
study of South Korea
The Asian way is the paternalistic and benevolent structure of Asian governance
practices, which makes the rejection and force for Asian democratisation see farfetched
due to liberal democratic beliefs that reject such structures as oppressive and
anachronistic rule
Every country has their own appropriate balance of certain values that is needed for their
political, social and economic system to work effectively, it is idiotic to think that every
country in the world can have the same view and take on the views of others without
there being considerable conflict
Asia is faced by the challenge of cultural nationalism, as there is fear of accepting the
democratic values which may destroy the progress of their economies especially in China

The debate:
In the 1990s Malaysia and Singapore launched this debate
End of cold war/ Afghan War/ Collapse of the Soviet union and the Tiananmen Square
Massacre.
Asian societies would thrive not by adopting Western economic models, social norms,
and governing strategies but by preserving what he described as the five relationships that
are most important to Confucianism (Love between father and son, duty between ruler
and subject; distinction between husband and wife; precedence of the old over the young
and faith between friends)
What shapes Asian culture
Confucianism (The Analects of Confucius and the seven books of Mencius 371- 289 BC)
Five values that continue to shape the culture of Asian societies
1. hierarchical collectivism (loyalty to group leader)
2. paternalistic meritocracy (benevolent rule by a moral elite)
3. interpersonal reciprocity and accommodation( avoiding conflict with others)
4. communal interest and harmony (sacrificing personal interest)
5. Confucian famililism (placing family above self)
A moral community of datang (grand harmony or unity)
Source of this unity is social hierarchy that honors the authority

 Democracy is protection of individual liberty and participation (free and fair

election, operates under political institutions, leaders abide by constitution and
legal tradition that promotes transparency and accountability)
A key aspect of this is the unity of social hierarchy, which holds authority leaders
to be at the very top and their subjects at the bottom, this aims to strengthen the
greater community. The democratic system is conformed to the rules of law of
fair and free elections under formal political institutions where the chosen
Leaders have to abide by the constitution or authority
TYPOLOGY OF ASIAN STATES
Illiberal democracy, soft democracy, liberal democracy etc
Liberal democracies India, Japan, Taiwan, South Korea, the Philippines, Mongolia
Authoritarian regimes China, North Korea, Myanmar, Vietnam, Laos, Uzbekistan,
Turkmenistan, Tajikistan, Kyrgyzstan (hybrid regime?) and Kazakhstan
Unstable and flawed democracies Pakistan, Thailand, Indonesia, Cambodia and
Bangladesh
Young democracies East Timor, Papua New Guinea
A typology of Asian states
Soft authoritarianisms or illiberal democracies Singapore, Malaysia
Monarchical Nepal, Bhutan and Brunei
Violent nations where democracy is being imposed by an external power: Iraq and
Afghanistan?
Others Hong Kong and Macao (not states but liberal, free societies with limited
democracy)

VERTICAL ANDHORIZONTAL ACCOUNTABILITY

China well for horizontal not vertical

Horizontal accountability (state institutions overseeing the actions of one another)

Vertical accountability
citizens overseeing the actions of the state.
From people to elected representatives
Periodic elections, competition for power by political parties, free and fair a minimalist
definition of democracy; concerned with formal & procedural democracy
A distinction b/w democracy as procedure and as result; b/w majority rule via popular elections
and a society marked by equality and liberty. Majority/minority conundrum
Not concerned with issues of equal rights and widening political participation, and least of all
with social justice.
Absence of civil rights and economic liberty

Horizontal accountability:

Between government departments and institutions

Separation of power
Equality, social justice, public morality, the public good
The ability of citizens to enjoy and effectively exercise their rights
Ability to influence public opinion in the govts decions /policy-making process
Democratic values linked with other values
Without accountability, human rights will be denied, crime will flourish, and impunity for past
conflict-related crimes will persist, undermining legitimacy and prospects for reconciliation. The
concentration of power in any one branch, institution, or level of government often leads to abuse
of power and corruption that horizontal and vertical accountability mechanisms can help prevent.
Accountability also aims to mitigate against capture of justice institutions by political and
economic spoilers that enables impunity, favouritism, and unequal application of the law.

FORMS OF DEMOCRACY

Principals from it, coincidental democracy

Participatory democracy
Deliberative democracy, also sometimes called discursive democracy
James Fishkin
Information: Accurate and relevant data is made available to all participants.
Substantive balance: Different positions are compared based on their supporting
evidence.
Diversity: All major positions relevant to the matter at hand and held by the public are
considered.
Conscientiousness: Participants sincerely weigh all arguments
Equal consideration: Views are weighed based on evidence, not on who is advocating a
particular view.
Elitist democracy versus mass democracy
Socialist democracy as distinct from social democracy
Communist democracy democratic centralism
Illiberal democracy
Consensus democracy
Grassroots democracy
Village democracy

AUTHORITARIAN REGIME AND ORIENTAL DESPOTISM

Despotism, the arbitrary and capricious rule by fear of an all powerful autocrat over a
docile and servile populace is the normal and distinctive political institution of the East.
(Ronald Inden 2001, 52-53).
Root or connection to oriental?
Karl Marx on China and on the Asiatic mode of production characterised by a lack of
classes and class struggle.

 Geography, climate, land and deserts, agriculture, water, irrigation, canals and waterworks
the basis of Oriental agriculture and despotic govt
A non-progressive economic form marked by state intervention in the economy through
water control the importance of public works

TRANSITIONAL THEORY
Trying to move to democracy
Democratization tends to unfold in a set of sequences
1. Opening political liberalisation
2. Breakthrough collapse of the regime & emergence of a democratic system.
3. Consolidation democratic forms into democratic substance.
Election helps to broaden and deepen peoples participation.
In transition democracy economic level, political history, ethnic make-up will not be
major factor in the outcome of the process.
Some redesign of state institution is necessary (electoral institute/ parliamentary reform/
judicial reform necessary)
Transitional democracy either Feckless pluralism or Dominant power politics:
Feckless pluralism- There is election/ alternation of power but democracy is shallow
(corrupt, self interested and inefficient). Paralysing acrimony between alternating parties
Dominant power politics- one political grouping/ leader/ family dominates and no
alternation of power.
Both of them has some political stability/ has dysfunctional equilibrium.

PRECONDITIONS FOR DEMOCRACY

Preconditions for democracy to move to democracy, theories? Confucianism, religion
Astable (System which oscillates spontaneously between unstable states) society and civil
society
A certain level of education
A united nation that believes in political pluralism
A certain level of capitalist development
A middle class the bourgeoisie
Assertive and independent-minded individuals who are prepared to accept the majority
view
Rule of law plus a culture that accepts non-violent means of conflict resolution

DEMOCRATIC BREAKTHROUGH AND CONSOLIDATION

 Indonesia 32 years, how they made the breakthrough? President Habitis what is needed
for it to consolidate (theory)

HUMAN RIGHTS
Four basic premises:
HR a relatively modern invention
HR do not derive from nature law/right theory, and are not endowed by the Creator but
given by the state as the result of a protracted struggle over the centuries
HR are universal but every society is particular universalism alongside relativism rather
in opposition to each other; a lot in common
HR standards are not immutable values (unchanging over time). HR as a historical &
evolving process are best seen not in terms of being but in terms of becoming
History:
Hugo Grotius (1631) natural rights
Emmanuel Kant
American revolution (1776) /French Revolution
Declaration of the Rights of Man and the Citizen
Olympe de Gouges (1792).
Independence movement in Latin America
Campaign against slavery
Movements in USA and Britain was about freedom of speech and freedom of religion
A catholic could not sit in parliament in England until 1829
Burning of heretics/ blasphemy law
All known religions were tolerated
Then came property rights, the core of free society
A league of nations after the first World War
Defeat of the Germans and the Ottoman Empire (1919)
The Second World War and the Atlantic Charter(1941)
June 26 1945, 51 nations gather to form the United Nations charter
1948 Universal Declaration of Human Rights
The U Declaration of HR of 1948
...recognition of the inherent dignity and of the equal and inalienable rights of all
members of the human family is the foundation of freedom, justice and peace in the
world. Preamble to U. Decl.

All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with
reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood. U.
Decl.
The Vienna Declaration and Programme of Action (1993)

Evolution of Human Rights:

 1st generation fundamental freedoms, classical civil and political rights; negative rights
meaning freedom from ; requires state protection
2nd generation social and economic rights (perhaps also cultural rights); positive rights
meaning from to ; requires state provisions
3rd generation ethnic rights and right to self-detn.
Currently debated rights: environmental, and lesbian, gay, bisexual, transexual (LGBT)
rights; same-sex marriage; and others associated with social movements such as right to
die by euthanasia

Implementation
Implementation is the key
Cold war
National security
Terrorism and religious terrorism
Various NGO (Amnesty International)
Regional Organisations
International Criminal Law (Nuremburg trial)

Culture and Indigenous value:

Modern individualism (difference / uniqueness)
A false dichotomy but one needs to take into account ccultural traditions and indigenous
values
Also needs a balance b/w the two. The Bangkok Inter-Govt Declaration on HR (1993:
while HR are universal in nature, they must be considered in the context of a dynamic
and evolving process of i/nal norm setting, bearing in mind the significance of national
and regional particularities and various historical, cultural & religious backgrounds.

Modern religion:
Freedom of religion
Right to worship and right not to worship ( Jewish Sabbath/ pork)
Right to change religion is not there
Big messianic religions vs indigenous religions

Universal and particular:

Is human rights movement a form of imperialism?
Asians have traditions unlike the Western (opposed to individualism); hence primary
interest is not of individual but of collective hence not ready for democracy
there is a fixed cultural essence so that a change to the western style of thinking would
require an altering the basic personality structure of the entire population.)
Balancing between national and individual interests:
Often a matter of prioritisation, of balancing different interests, e.g. national interest &
rights of others
Conditioned by societal factors, esp. economic

 Progressive and resource-intensive rights

Divisive and ideologically driven rights
Rights vs broader societal needs for example, Chinas one-child family policy

Dimensions of tolerance:
Gender inequality/vote/pay/profession of ones own choice
Race discrimination
Civil rights and civil liberty (ideology
Privacy wiretapping/abortion
Media and privacy
Privacy and the right to know

Declaration of human rights 1948

Politics and human rights

Is it a real concern with human rights
A pretext for interference in internal affairs
A means of promoting the national interest vis--vis other states
A means of bringing about regime change
HR dialogues with authoritarian states often more productive than direct confrontations
(Myanmar)

CHURCHILLS COUNCIL OF EUROPE

Many forms of government have been tried, and will be tried in this world of sin and
woe. No one pretends that democracy is perfect or all-wise. Indeed, it has been said that
democracy is the worst form of government except all those other forms that have been
tried from time to time. Nov 1947
Solution to nationalism in Europe resided in a united Europe
European value
Statute of the Council of Europe
(political liberty, democracy, personal freedom, political liberty, rule of law)
The common inheritance of Europe in religious and moral guidance.
PHILOSOPHY BEHIND EXCEPTIONALIST CLAIM

Political values are relative to cultures in which they arise

Embeddedness of culture in language and as languages are different they are not mutually
intelligible
Untransilibility of culture
Tiger economy under quasi authoritarian one party rule (South Korea under military rule)
Confucian concern with education , more spending on education a work ethic allied with private
business with govt support, partnerships, soft loans, other forms of economic inducements
Colonial period marked by cultural ignominy
Crony capitalism collapsed in the Asian meltdown and the end of Asian value debate

SECTION TWO: Democracy in Asian Country

PEOPLES REPUBLIC OF CHINA

Authoritarian state
A post-totalitarian regime soft authoritarianism in everyday life; hard when it comes to political
issues that threaten the CCPs monopoly of power
Personal freedoms in the economic, social and cultural domains the consumer society
The imperatives of development & social stability
A hardline on the key issues of national sovereignty, integration and territorial integrity

Authoritarian rule in history:

Karl Marx on China and on the Asiatic mode of production characterised by a lack of classes
and class struggle.
Geography, climate, land and deserts, agriculture, water, irrigation, canals and waterworks the
basis of Oriental agriculture and despotic govt
A non-progressive economic form marked by state intervention in the economy through water
control the importance of public works

Confucian perspective on state

The unity of Heaven, earth and humans; the Mandate of Heaven and the emperor
Good governance and the primacy of the people (minben) benevolent and paternalistic rule
rule for the people Mencius
Authoritarianism to achieve order, stability and social harmony

Three phases in the Chinese struggle for democracy

Pre-revolutionary China (1898 1949)
Revolutionary period between 1949 1976
Period of Reform by Deng Ziao-peng (1976 - 2013)

First Phase (1898 1949)

1898 and Chinas defeat by Japan and the Boxer revolt in 1900
Radical modernization from 1905
The Qing dynasty recognises the need for reform
A group of imperial commissioners travelled to Japan, the United States, and Europe to study
models of modern constitutional government
Promise of constitutional reform (elected provincial representative assemblies and gradual
transition to self government
Nationalism against the Manchus

San Yat-Sen
Between Meiji Japanese model and liberal Anglo-American models
New Chinese nationalism against the Manchus
Dr Sun Yat Sen (1866-1925), Hawai, education in Hong Kong
Provincial Assemblies elected in all provinces
1910 Qing Dynasty convenes a National Assembly/ 200 members (100 appointed by the
court/100 from provinces; 1% had right to vote

The 1911 Revolution/ overthrow of the Qing dynasty

Pre 1949 conception of state

Liang Qichao citizens rights and duties, and the importance of the group, or community
Wuxu Reform or the Hundred Days' Reform
Sun Yat-sen a pool of loose sand, democracy linked with nationalism and peoples livelihood;
5-power govt. (Leg. Exec. Judi. Superv. Exam) and 3 direct rights (Recall, initiative, referendum);
elitism coupled with political tutelage
The notion of a party-state guided democracy
Others liberals with a socialist impulse

Parliamentary system in China

1912- 1913 - a parliament with a senate elected by the provincial assemblies and a House elected
directly by all male voters (10.5% of the population)
Parliament had power on paper
A presidential system with San Yat- Sen
Kuomingtang (KMT) in 1912 controlled the majority in both the Houses

Yuan Shi Kai

Personal dictatorship which ended in 1916
1918 A new parliament elected and lasted until 1923 (corruption)
1925 Chiang Kai Shek the leader of KMT
Suppression of the Communists
1932 Japan occupies Manchuria
1947 1948 National government held election for National Assembly

Democracy under Mao Zedong

The Mass Line, mass organisations and movements, broad political participation
Democratic centralism
Socialist democracy the dictatorship of the people
Who are the people?
Serve the people - social and economic rights being the top priority
The leadership of the CCP, guided by Marxism-Leninism-Mao Zedong Thought
Disaster during his ruleThe Great Leap forward (1958- 1961) The Cultural Revolution (1966
1976)

Peoples dictatorship that failed

The dictatorship of Mao Zedong and the emergence of the new class (Milovan Djilas)
Natural disasters and bad economic policies the Great Leap Forward (195861)
The totalitarian regime during the Cultural Revolution but not without some bright spots

Main trends during Dengs leadership

Economic reform without political reform
No glasnost but perestroika
Political rationalization not democratization
Setting up a pro-business authoritarian communist regime

Eroding the rigid official ideology and informal liberalization

A glass half empty or half full

A picture can be presented either way
A post-authoritarian regime that is resilient and committed to continuing development
No political pluralism still one-party rule
A weak rule of law where politics is concerned
Yet an expansion of civil society in selected realms of freedom, esp. in the economic domain
More tolerant of grass-roots protests and articulations of interests
A go-slow approach to political change reform within the existing institutional framework

Deng: The First period 1978-1982

Democracy on two levels
Economic (decentralisation); full freedom to every region, every factory and every production
team and dismantling peoples commune)
Political (emancipation of mind, every individual to work for Chinas modernisation; safeguard
workers basic democratic rights including elections, democratic management and democratic
supervision)
In 1980 reforming the party (improving the efficiency of the party and state and political
rationalisation)
Promote younger and better educated cadres to leading positions, abondon lifelong tenure for
veterans, delegate more decision making power to enterprises and lower level of state institutions;
overcome bureaucratisation
Abolition of partys chairman system and gave power to secretariat; disseminate partys power
into three organs. Political bureau became board of directors and two leaders became CEO.
Second period (1986-1987)
Elimination of political obstacles to economic decentralisation (organisational over lapping,
overstaffing, bureaucratism, sluggishness)
Shekou model of political reform (industrial zone in guangdong province, local government
elected through secret ballot every two year, candidates presented their policy, vigorous
questioning from voters, those elected were subject to annual vote of confidence)
A cleaner and more responsive government, greater political transparency, absence of a rigidly
stratified society. However shekou was a small town and mostly educated people)
An orderly reform in an environment of stability and unity.

The Third Period (1987-1992)

The role of the party to be mediator between state and different sectors of society.
Separation of function between the party, the state and enterprises
Extricate party from direct administration while retaining its political leadership over the country
and economy.
Economic development at the centre
Neo-authoritarianism (modernization of a backward country should come from a strongman
politics with authority and western style democracy should not be adopted)
Punishing corrupt party officials, internal party democracy

Village democracy
New forms of political expression peasants and urban workers through overt channels

Draft Organic Law on Village Committees 1987

A dual power structure at village level: the party secretary and a village head a two-ballot
system
A policy change pushed from the central state for pragmatic reasons to deal with the paralysed
villages more accountability, better performance of local cadres
Not perfect in implementation, but a step forward

Democracy wall 1978-79

Dissidents of the Cultural Revolution generation
Political activists on the fringes of society dissent from below
Questioning of the Leninist party structure
Critical of Mao and the Gang of Four, in support of Deng Xiaopings modernisation and opendoor policies

Struggle for political rights

Unofficial publications - newspapers and journals, notably April 5 Forum, Enlightenment and
Explorations
Political views Marxist in socialist democratic fashion
Conception of human rights in Western terms
Wei Jing shengs Fifth Modernization outside the existing political framework
Demand for reforms within the existing system
1980s
Marxist humanism the question of socialist alienation; A second kind of loyalty (Liu
Binyan)
Dissidents from the Establishment e.g. the astrophysicist Fang Lizhi, the Peoples Daily
journalist Wang Ruoshui, and the writer Wang Ruowang
Marxism called into question: socialism under siege
Student activism and the Tiananmen Incident 4/6/1989 elitist democracy
Political reform since Tiananman
At the national level: limited terms of office for party/government officials; more regularized
party procedures; an increase in younger party members, administrative reform; elections to some
party congresses
More power to the National Peoples Congress
Establishment of thousands of NGOs
Partial withdrawal of the party/state from society
Admission of capitalists and bourgeois elements into the CCP thus broadening the partys social
base

Growing rights consciousness

Responding to official corruption, esp. rent-seeking
The Rights Defence movement
Cyberspace democracy the role of the Internet and the bloggers
The Charter 2008, which proposes a free & democratic China as an alternative to the present
regime

ASIAN MODE OF PRODUCTION

AUTHORITARIAN DEMOCRACY

VARIOUS PHASES IN DEMOCRATIC TRANSITION

1911-1949 should China be democracy?

Semi-an-san leader
Intellectuals role
Develop in Asian countries
Maseden leader
Phases of democracy in countries

DEMOCRACY IN TAIWAN

Closely linked with China, mainlanders and local Indigenous people

Democracy and identity closely associated (J. Bruce Jacobs (2012) Democratising Taiwan
1. development under Japanese rule
2. High educational levels under the Japanese
3. Electoral experience under Japanese rule
4. Increasing economic prosperity with increasing equality
5. Liberals among top KMT leaders
6. A non violent democratic opposition
7. Link between government and opposition
8. popular associations and interest group
9. American political pressure
10. A presbyterian religion

History
7 December 1949 move to Taiwan
Formosa means beautiful by the Portugese
Three events saved him
1. North Korea invaded south 25 June 1950
2. Henry Truman sends 7th fleet to prevent Chinese communists to cross the strait
3. Chiang kai shek reduced corruption
The regime heavily repressive, implemented white terror.
In 1960 a group of 32 Taiwanese and mainlanders press for 15 demands
Democratic socialist party and youth party called as dangwai (outside the kumintoern)
In sept 28 1986 Democratic progressive party is formed
Provincial mayoral and county elections took place in april 24 1960
Democratic socialist party is formed in 1960 sept 1
Towards the end of Chiang kai Sheks rule the logic of one china policy began to crack. He died
in 1975 at the age of 87.
International pressure

The dispute over senkaku islands united the government and patriotic youth.
But beginning 1969 Chiang kai Shek was moving for reform
Trained his son Chiang Ching Kuo for the succession. He became vice Premier and was given key
roles in economics

Premier Chiang Ching Kuo and liberalisation

It was him who began a series of reform to gain legitimacy . Before becoming premier in May
1972 he began to involve Taiwanese in power.
Also reform in three areas of parliamentary organs: legislative, control branch and the national
assembly. There was no election to these bodies. He held election to these bodies in a limited way
in December 1969.
Presbyterian church played a big role in it. Every man has the right determine its own destiny.
Anti corruption efforts
To shorten the sentences of the criminals
1975 greater power at the lower levels
Also repression and the election of 1978 was cancelled. That election was held in December 6
1980
He abolished Martial law in July 1987.
In 1987 bill passed to allow Taiwanese to visit mainland China to meet relatives.
He ended restrictions on newspapers before he died in January 13 1988.

History cont up to 1988 -1996

Vice president Lee Teng-hui sworn in
Steps to move towards democracy
Feb 1988 mass social mvement, freeing of political prisoners
Presidential election in March 21 1990 (the national assembly elected the president/ old system)
National assembly election in in december 21 1991.
Kmt 67% vote where as dpp only 22% (supported Taiwans independence)
KMT breaks into two and a new party emerges (1993).
This new partys slogan was 1. to drive out Taiwan independence, overturn dictatorship, knock
down the power of wealth and equalise land wealth.
Free and fair presidential election in 1996 and Lee Teng-huy wins and 2000 presidential election
Establish national unification council
Special state to state relationship
In 2000 DPP wins the election

DEMOCRACY IN SOUTH KOREA

Long period of authoritarian lead, cold war, north and south, business generations

Korea have moved in a direction towards democratisation, they arent universally

classified as democracies
will always have their own unique form of democracy, due to theirs and Asias traditional
social values that impede for the support of democratic rule

 Korea Today
A successful third-wave democracy made possible by economic growth, a civil society, student
activism & elite negotiation during the previous decades;
Now nearly a Western-style lib democracy
President Lee Myung-bak since Feb. 2008
A businessman-turned-president, the first successful conservative politician-turned president
Lees performance to date: not without criticisms over his domestic and foreign policies
Problems in democratic consolidation

History
Korea liberated from Japan
4 power trusteeship led by the USA
Soviet troops August 9 1945
38 th parallel US Soviet zone demarcated

Problems in democratic consolidation

A consensually unified political elite slow to emerge
Popular commitment to democracy fragmented and not without cynicism
Insufficient mass engagement in civil life
Institutional reform presidential or parliamentary?
Persistent problems: clientelism, cronyism and personalism
The crucial factor of economic growth

History
Rhee Syng-man, the first president until April 1960, forced out by a student-led uprising
Followed by a short-lived parliamentary rule, with a president and a prime minister
A military coup on May 16, 1961, led by Park Chung-hee , who promoted himself to a Colonel
General, then to a General
A period of military rule, aided by the newly established Korean CIA

Park Chung-hee
Constitution making: the 1963 Constitution
Park and his Democratic Republican Party won narrowly under the new constitution, which
limited the president to two consecutive terms.
Economic reform industrialisation, developing an export-led economy
Authoritarian rule
Oct 1972 Parliament dissolved and the 1963 Constitution suspended
Dec 1972 a new constitution adopted

His unpopularity and assassination:

Economic downturn in the 1970s
Student activism and anti-govt violence
Three assassination attempts
Assassinated after a dinner party 26 october 1979

After his assassination a military coup led by chun doo hwan, declared martial law may 1980

Yusin constitution and dictatorial rule

Approved in a heavily rigged plebiscite
The new document dramatically increased Park's power. It transferred the election of the president
to an electoral college, the National Conference for Unification. The presidential term was
increased to seven years, with no limits on reelection.
In effect, the constitution converted Park's presidency into a legal dictatorship. Park was reelected in 1972 and 1978 with no opposition.

Continued military rule in the 80s

Chun Doo-hwan retired in 1987
1987 Constitution - limits the president to a 5-year term
1987 first democratic presidential election, a milestone in Koreas democratisation
Chuns handpicked successor Roh Tae-woo won over a divided opposition camp Kim Dae-jung
and Kim Sam-young
Economic growth and the 1988 Olympic Games

The presidency of Kim Sam Young (1993-1997)

Dec 1992 presidential election
The first civilian to become president since 1960
Political reform anti-corruption, release of political prisoners, and reform of chaebol
Had Chun and Roh arrested on corruption charges
Kim proved to be a political reformer with popular support
The crisis of 1997 econ crisis coupled with a series of corruption scandals

Kim Dae Jung (1998-2003)

In Dec 1997, Korea became the first third-wave democracy in East Asia to transfer power
peacefully to an opposition party
A major turning point in Koreas road to a fully consolidated democracy; also marks the transition
to a new era of democracy in East Asia
The Nelson Mandela of Asia
An economic crisis that revealed the dark side of the Korean model of democracy and prompted
serious debates over whether political democracy can coexist with crony capitalism for any
extended period of time
Kims financial and political reforms
Kims sunshine policy toward North Korea
Succeeded by Roh Moo-hyun (20037). On corruption charges after office, Roh committed
suicide on 23 May 2009

2008 Election
Election on 9 April (proportionate seat system)
The Grant National Party (GNP) gained 153 seats in a 299 unicameral legislature
The United Democratic Party (UDP) 81 seats
Conservative factionalism (between Park Guen-hye and Lee Myung-bak)
Regionalism

Foreign policy whether with China or with USA

North Korea policy

DEMOCRACY IN INDONESIA

Brief role of religion in Indonesia

32 Rule of Sir Arthur
Habibi reforms Indonesia
Role of military

2009 election and main trends in Indonesian democracy

Progress towards democracy (2009 election)
Indonesia has institutionalised two aspects of democracy: the function of elections as the only
legitimate mechanism of political succession and the use of peaceful mechanism for dispute
resolution.
Diminution of traditional authority (example of Yudhoyono versus Kalla election)
2009 election Militarys commitment to remain neutral.
Five year mandate for president.
61% of voters are under the age of 40
All post election disputes were resolved through the Constitutional Court
All parties accepted the courts decision

History:
Dutch colonial rule
Call for independence from 1911 by Indies Party
Japanese occupation in 8 March 1942
Independence proclaimed in 1945 (Holland and Japan)
Sukarnos five principles (nationalism, humanitarianism, social justice, representational
government and belief in God)

Postcolonial Indonesia
In 1950 Republic of Indonesia, Sukarno in power, ruled by a representation from different parties
Election in 1955 in Peoples Representative Council (PRC) (Indonesian National Party and
Communist Party of Indonesia gets the majority vote)
Sukarno criticises parliamentary democracy; Guided democracy
Moving towards left due to creation of Malaysia with Singapore and Borneo
Introduces nasionalisme (nationalism), agama (religion), Komunisme (communism)

Construction of new order

New economic policy market capitalism
11 March 1966 pressure on Sukarno
Relegated to figurehead president
Parties participating in anti-Sukarno were muhammadiyah, nu, psii, the catholic party and pni psi
masyumi murba
Destruction of old order and now will be a return to democracy
Promises of general election in 1966 but it was moved to June 1971

Suharto consolidated in the mean time

New System
Generous proportion of reserved seats for the members of army in both DPR and MPR.
All parties came to the conclusion that there will be a coalition of military and civilian rule
Soeharto had no intention to share power
A new party created by Suharto Golongan Karya or Golkar with civil servants down to lowest
village level officials
Enormous political and economic leverage
Golkar received 62.8 of the vote
A massive majority of 82% in MPR peoples consultative assembly and 73% in DPR a parliament

Fall of General Suharto

Pro-democracy movement in 1996
Economic Crisis (Asian Meltdown)
Suharto stands down in May 1998
Since 1998 emerging democracy in Indonesia

Transition to democracy
Habibi presidency (he was vice president in Suhartos cabinet)
Army was anti Habibi (purchasing East German navy and for creating All Indonesia Association
of Muslim Intellectuals)
Reform- release of political prisoners, end media censorship, split police from army, separate
Golkar from state bureaucracy.
East Timor issue solved

1999 election
Since 1955 first national election
Develop a new electoral and legislative system such as new political parties had to have branches
in 9 out of 27 provinces. 48 fulfilled this criteria
Reduce armys appointees from 75 to 38
5 parties shared 87% of the vote

Post Suharto 1999

National parliament (Dewan Perwakilan Rakyat)
Small and medium sized parties in parliament (DPR)
Democratic Party (DP); Golkar Party, Indonesian Democratic party of Struggle; Yudihoyonos
party and PDIP (Megawati), Wahids PKB
Bargaining and negotiation
Megawati got 33.7% Golkar 22% Wahids 12.6%
Direct presidential election in 2004
General Election Commission

Islamist
Islamist vote declining from 37% in 1999 to 24% in 2009 (disunity/rift and lack of credible
leader)
Importance of Islam in daily political life cannot be ignored.

Four Islamic Parties

National Mandate Party (PAN)
The United Development Party (PPP)
Peoples awakening Party (PKB)
Crescent Moon and Star Party (PBB)

2004 election
Constitutional reform during Wahid and Megawati presidency
Direct election to the president and vice-president; more than 50% to win.
Decision to abolish reserved parliamentary seats for the military. All seats open for electoral
contest
In 2004 election the bulk of the vote again divided among several parties
Golkar had 21.6% and PDI-P (Megawati) 18.5%
Among many parties the role of president was considered more important.

Presidential election 2004 (Yudhono Era)

Yudhono 33.6%
Megawati 26.3%
Golkar candidate General Wiranto 22.2%
Amien Rais 15%

From summary
For democracy to work, it had to come within, from the people to allow the system to

work and stay. It is no longer possible for the military and police to intervene in politics
as there is regular system checks and balances to ensure this.
There use to be the belief of having to choose between economic growth or democracy,
and for many years Indonesia chose economic growth. However in contemporary
Indonesia this is no longer the case as they now have both. Another conflict which is no
longer the case was money politics as it produced false democracy, which was betraying
the Indonesians public trust and ultimately crushing democracy ideals.
It was far from a smooth and linear change when democracy swept Indonesia in 1997. It
was difficult at first for Indonesians to accept change as they thought it to be more
convenient to stay in their comfort zone of being an authoritarian system. Indonesia
however held their first reformasi free election in 1999. People started to accept it more
as they developed the economic instinct; which is that when the Indonesians got a taste
of democracy and free choice that they were willing to fight for it. Indonesia has now had
three diplomatic national elections in 1999, 2004 and 2009.

DEMOCRACY IN JAPAN

Different phases of it
Supervised by America

Is it imported democracy?
Why didnt it succeed here?

Korea have moved in a direction towards democratisation, they arent universally

classified as democracies
will always have their own unique form of democracy, due to theirs and Asias traditional
social values that impede for the support of democratic rule

History:
The 1955 system (1955-1993) Left and right socialist parties united and liberal democratic parties
united to form two large parties (LDP and DP)
Japan a very isolated country
Ruled with the support of the Shogunal military authority
16th century Europeans introduced gunpowder, tobacco
Jesuits landed in Japan 1549
Nagasaki was extended to the Europeans for trade
Arrival of the Portuguese from the base of Macao
Japan divided into 120 daimyo domains (each independent)
Reunification of Japan in 1568 by Oda Nobugana
Christian rebellion and the Tokugawa shogunate (1603-1868) restricted external contacts
Commodore Perry and the opening of Japan (1853-1854)with four black warships
Shogunate under threat, fighting within different Shogunate and seeking favour from the
foreigners
Bureaucracy based on Samurai culture
Meiji restoration between 1868 1912 when imperial restoration took place

Meiji Modernisation
During Meiji restoration idea of representative government assembly
By 1890 an elected representative assembly.
First political party in 1881
In 1882 Ito Hirobumi goes to Europe to learn about constitutional models there
A hereditary upper House / a cabinet or modern style executive branch was established in 1885
Ito Hirobumi becomes the first prime minister of Japan
New Meiji constitution proclaimed in February, 1889
The first election to the lower house was held in 1890.

The rise of ultra-nationalism

Democracy building interrupted
Collapse of stock market in New York
Taisho democracy was thrust aside
Japan into the second world war
Japans surrender and the Treaty of San Francisco (1951)

Post war Democracy and Democratic reform

The Showa Emperor surrenders on August 15, 1945
General Douglas Mac Arthur in charge
Even after the surrender the Japanese government continued to function

In spring 1946 first postwar election (first time women were allowed to vote).
Yoshida Shigeru (1878-1967) became prime minister

Industrialisation
From 1955 Japans economy took off
From cheap goods to advanced consumer electronics (Sony/ Toyota)
Technology transfer from the USA
Capital investment due to high rate of personal savings
Industrial rationalisation (German model)
No excessive competition/ state guided capitalism (Ministry of International Trade)
Resistance to foreign direct investment
Business as fictive family/ harmony over competition/ decision making by consensus

New Deal:
Reforms unthinkable previously
Unionisation of factory
Farmland redistribution(limiting the amount of farmland) and urbanisation
Trust busting (anti-trust law passed) and equality of rights (right to organise, strike, engage in
collective bargaining)
Religious freedom/Shinto religion disestablished/ Emperor denounces his claim to be a manifest
deity

New Constitution
Drafting of a new constitution in a week (February 1946)
Passed by the Diet in November 1946 and took effect in May 1947
Emperors role reduced
Diet has 511 seats (parliament)
Upper house (House of councillors) has 252 of which 100 are elected
Western style democracy where all citizens twenty years of age and older eligible to vote. A
British style parliamentary system
Upper House of Peers eliminated and replaced by an Upper House filled with elected councilors
Prime Minister elected by the Diet/ majority party/ Liberal democratic Party (LDP) since 2009
Political legitimacy and One party democracy
Western legitimacy based on utility/ Japans on tradition
LDP for peace and prosperity
The opposition (Socialist) rejected the mutual security treaty with the US
However, LDP was mired by factionalism
Prime Minister chosen from deals corruption, costly election campaign/
In 2009 LDP loses election (less appeal to the young voters, stagnant economy); Democratic Party
wins
Article 9 of the constitution renouncing war
Self defense forces
Prime Minster is elected from the Lower House of the Diet by the majority party or coalition.

DEMOCRACY IN SINGAPORE

Soft authoritarian rule, are they going back to authoritarian rule or a democracy use e.g. there any
trend? Can just summarise all countries experiences

History
1819 Raffles (British East India Company) to search for a port to protect the strait of Malacca
from the Dutch
Singapura- city of the Lion
1867 it becomes British crown colony
After WW2 legislative council with limited power and a governor General
First election in 1955
Peoples Action Party (PAP) won only 3 seats
Riots and student protests (Chinese, Indian and Malay)
1957 Singapore was promised self rule with defense and Foreign Affairs in British hand
In 1957 City council election PAP did well and proved its capacity to the people
Election in 1959 and PAP wins decisively (43 out of 51 seats contested)
1963 general election PAP wins (a party of the professionals)
What was required was to transform into a mass party
Personal contacts/good governance and programs
Campaign to impress people (clean the beaches and streets)
Peoples association and working brigade getting closer to ordinary people
Merging of Malaysia and Singapore
Singapore independent in 1965
Peoples Action Party (PAP)
Formed on 21st Novemeber 1954PAP and government are seen as the same
Led by British-educated elites Lee Kuan Yew and his closest comrades
He raised Singapore from third world country to first world status
He had key objectives of the PAP:
1. To end colonialism and establish an independent national state of Malaya comprising the
territories now known as the Federation of Malaya and the Colony of Singapore
2. To abolish the unjust inequalities of wealth and opportunity inherent in the present system
3. To establish an economic order which will give to all citizens the right to work and the full
economic returns for their labour skill
4. To ensure a decent living and social security to all those who through sickness, infirmity or
old age can no longer work
5. To infuse into the people of Malaya a spirit of national unity, self-respect and self-reliance,
and to inspire them with a sense of endeavour in the creation of a prosperous, stable and just
society

Democratic socialist before its rise to power but parted company with the leftists and procommunists after 1959
Anti-socialist, anti-communist, anti-liberal and anti-welfare emphasis on hard work and
dedication to the state and nation
A political party with a new vision for Singapore and clear ideas for its fulfillment
The role of Asian values (read: Confucian moral precepts)
A government that delivers
An enlightened elite that is moralistic, paternalistic, and not driven by self-interest, practicing
what it preaches, and being efficient, clean and incorruptible
Authoritarian yet capable of building bridges with the masses

Tangible benefits: public housing, good education, job opportunities, personal security, efficient
transport, clean streets, racial harmony, and so on.
A multi-party system is not necessarily good for a new state that is in the process of nation
building
Whilst industrialisation and economic growth lead to the rise of the middle class, the middle class
does not necessarily support a multi-party system that creates political instability
A case can be made for a confluence (converging) of the East and the West, culturally and
politically
Illiberal democracy could be a good system of government in a society that does not have a
liberal, democratic tradition.
PAP firmly opposed to mass, popular, participatory, "democratic" politics both in principle and
fact. In principle, it was felt that representative politics was unsuitable for the Singapore masses,
who lacked the political culture to participate and were deeply divided along ethnic and religious
lines
People fed up with it:
The overall effect has been that few in Singapore are willing to offer themselves as opposition
candidates. This has allowed the PAP an easy passage at every election since 1959. In fact, for an
entire decade in the 1970s parliament comprised of only PAP members of parliament.
Anger and disenchantment with the government, which has been accumulating over the years, is
palpable. People are fed up with rulers who insist that they are the only ones capable of running
the country.
There is no turning back now. The road to freedom is without doubt still long and arduous. But
Singapore has taken that first crucial step to making parliamentary democracy a reality.

Government:
General pervasiveness of government in social affairs (family planning, marriage, savings, home
ownership etc)
Middle class state and ruled by bureaucrats
Class harmony (no landing owning class); government acquired land for housing and the business
class

Bureaucracy:
Multiethnic society/ hence many political parties (PAP is the only party viewed as the custodian)
Civil service unmoved by independence movement
Political Study Centre for the bureaucrats to train them in the task in a multiparty society
Populist slogan of creating a new bureaucracy was rejected by PAP
Salary of bureaucrats increased to make it at par with corporate business (incentives to
meritocracy)
Union role changed since 1965 after the independence (economic survival)
Business and government relationship
Industry and commerce vital
PAP and business partnership
Government investment in industry (Singapore Airlines; Keppel shipyard, Neptune Orient lines
etc)
PAP philosophy
Give clear signal; dont confuse people

Dont chop and change. Be consistent

Stay clean
Win respect not popularity
Spread the benefit dont deprive the people
Never give up
An interventionist state
The virtual merging of the government and the civil service and cooperation between
government and business without breeding official corruption
Taming of the trade unions
Not a free press as in Australia; curbs on personal freedoms where necessary
Recruitment of the educated elite attractive salaries, security, high social status and a wide range
of benefits
Vertical and Horizontal accountability ensured
Horizontal accountability (state institutions overseeing the actions of one another)
Vertical accountability (citizens overseeing the actions of the state).
Without accountability, human rights will be denied, crime will flourish, and impunity for past
conflict-related crimes will persist, undermining legitimacy and prospects for reconciliation. The
concentration of power in any one branch, institution, or level of government often leads to abuse
of power and corruption that horizontal and vertical accountability mechanisms can help prevent.
Accountability also aims to mitigate against capture of justice institutions by political and
economic spoilers that enables impunity, favouritism, and unequal application of the law.

Society:
A regimented society, marked by self-discipline, multi-racism, social harmony, political stability,
low crime rate, low unemployment, and economic prosperity
Multi-racial, extreme ethnic and religious diversity, hostile neighbouring states
A population largely of migrants, the Chinese being predominant
No natural resources, widespread poverty, unemployment, low levels of education, inadequate
housing and health facilities
Survival as a new state, nation and society
The imperatives of economic development and social change
Human rights:
Timeline by Robert Amsterdam, people were jailed from 1999-2008 for reasons for speaking in
public/selling books without a permit, holding May Day rally, speaking about ban on Muslim girls
wearing hijabs and saying that judiciary isnt independent
In an approach which has been termed the "Singapore school," these prominent Singaporeans
have argued that human dignity and "good governance" is best achieved by a political regime
dedicated to social order and rapid economic growth.' In the pursuit of such a political regime,
many rights specified by the UDHR such as free expression, free association, multiparty
elections, and free press can be sacrifice
The Singapore school also gives priority to economic development and rapid economic growth
over other political and social goals.
This was necessary for the island state in view of its economic backwardness and the high levels
of unemployment, poverty, and homelessness upon decolonization in 1965.
In a recent paper on human rights and freedom of the press, Mahbubani was more systematic in
his exposition. He argued that:

1. Asians are not afraid of "soft" authoritarianism. Instead, they fear chaos, anarchy, and "hard"
authoritarianism.
2. Asian societies have little awareness, let alone understanding of human rights concepts. They
are preoccupied with immediate challenges such as poverty.
3. Value systems, such as human rights and freedom of the press, are choices which each society
must make. In the United States, individual rights are placed ahead of law and order. In Asia,
law and order have priority over human rights. These are simply alternative value systems.
None are superior over the other. Asians and Westerners must emancipate themselves from
notions that Western value systems are superior to Asian value systems.
4. The only liberating force is economic development. It "shakes up" societies and value
systems. It paves the way for progress. It unleashes popular demands for participation. The
West must help Asia in its economic development if it really wants to change Asian value
systems and improve Asian standards of human right
5.