Documenti di Didattica
Documenti di Professioni
Documenti di Cultura
Fault types
1.2
leveled structures after the shallow 1986 San Salvador earthquake, El Salvador.
1.4
5
propagation speed of some great earthquakes, fail to alert clusters, each triggered by the shaking or stress redistributhe population of the neighbouring coast, as in the 1896 tion of the previous earthquakes. Similar to aftershocks
Meiji-Sanriku earthquake.[20]
but on adjacent segments of fault, these storms occur over
the course of years, and with some of the later earthquakes as damaging as the early ones. Such a pattern was
1.6 Tidal forces
observed in the sequence of about a dozen earthquakes
that struck the North Anatolian Fault in Turkey in the
Research work has shown a robust correlation between 20th century and has been inferred for older anomalous
small tidally induced forces and non-volcanic tremor clusters of large earthquakes in the Middle East.[29][30]
activity.[21][22][23][24]
1.7
Earthquake clusters
Aftershocks
Earthquake swarms
the rate of movement for the fault.[45] The greatest earthquake in Australias history is also claimed to be induced
by humanity, through coal mining. The city of Newcastle was built over a large sector of coal mining areas. The
earthquake has been reported to be spawned from a fault
that reactivated due to the millions of tonnes of rock removed in the mining process.[46]
Induced seismicity
5.2
as well as seismic activity. More active zones are divided the epicenter, and the local geological and geomorphologinto smaller F-E regions whereas less active zones belong ical conditions, which may amplify or reduce wave propto larger F-E regions.
agation.[49] The ground-shaking is measured by ground
Standard reporting of earthquakes includes its magnitude, acceleration.
date and time of occurrence, geographic coordinates of
its epicenter, depth of the epicenter, geographical region,
distances to population centers, location uncertainty, a
number of parameters that are included in USGS earthquake reports (number of stations reporting, number of
observations, etc.), and a unique event ID.[48]
Eects of earthquakes
5.1
Landslides became a symbol of the devastation the 2001 El Salvador earthquakes left, killing hundreds in its wake.
coastal wave attack, and wildres, can produce slope instability leading to landslides, a major geological hazard.
Landslide danger may persist while emergency personnel
EFFECTS OF EARTHQUAKES
5.3
Fires
5.4
Soil liquefaction
5.5
Tsunami
5.6 Floods
Main article: Flood
A ood is an overow of any amount of water that reaches
land.[55] Floods occur usually when the volume of water
within a body of water, such as a river or lake, exceeds
the total capacity of the formation, and as a result some
of the water ows or sits outside of the normal perimeter
of the body. However, oods may be secondary eects
of earthquakes, if dams are damaged. Earthquakes may
cause landslips to dam rivers, which collapse and cause
oods.[56]
9
ing a future earthquake. Impact projections suggest the earthquakes; however, of these ten, only the 2004 Indian
ood could aect roughly 5 million people.[57]
Ocean earthquake is simultaneously one of the deadliest
earthquakes in history.
5.7
Human impacts
Major earthquakes
8.3
8.4
8.5
8.6
8.7
8.8
8.9
7 Prediction
9.0
9.1
southern Greece
Mongolia
Ecuador-Colombia
Valparaiso,Chile central Mongolia
Afghanistan
o coast of central Peru
Ryukyu Islands, Japan
West New Guinea
Kurile Islands
Kermadec Islands, New Zealand
Tonga
Celebes Sea
Kuril Islands
Tonga region
Taiwan region
Vallenar, Chile-Argentina border
Loyalty Islands
Kamchatka, Russia, USSR
Mindanao,
Philippines
Oaxaca, Mexico
northern Xinjiang, China
Jalisco, Mexico
Sanriku, Japan
Bihar, India
Shumagin Islands, Alaska
Solomon Islands
Banda Sea, Dutch East Indies (Indonesia)
near coast of central Peru
Azores-Cape St. Vincent Ridge
o coast of
o coast of central Peru
PakiJapan o coast of Coquimbo, Chile
stan Unimak Islands,
Alaska, USA
Nankaido, Japan
DomiPanay, Philippines
nican
Assam-Tibet, China
Repu- Queen Charlotte Island, Canada
blic
Hokkaido, Japan region
9.2
9.3
9.4
9.5
9.6
Tonga
Asia
(44)
South America
(18)
Australia/Oceania (14)
North America
(12)
Europe
(2)
Antarctica
(1)
Gobi-Altai, Mongolia
Chile
Prince William Sound,
Alaska, USA
Indian Ocean, o
west coast of northern
Sumatra, Indonesia
Earthquakes of magnitude 8.0 and greater since 1900. The apparent 3D volumes of the bubbles are linearly proportional to
their respective fatalities.[58]
8 Preparedness
9 Historical views
10
11
SEE ALSO
11 See also
Seismite
Seismotectonics
Submarine earthquake
Types of earthquake
11
12
References
Global-
[20] National Research Council (U.S.). Committee on the Science of Earthquakes (2003). 5. Earthquake Physics and
Fault-System Science. Living on an Active Earth: Perspectives on Earthquake Science. Washington D.C.: National Academies Press. p. 418. ISBN 978-0-309-065627. Retrieved 8 July 2010.
[21] Thomas, Amanda M.; Nadeau, Robert M.; Brgmann,
Roland (December 24, 2009).
Tremor-tide
correlations and near-lithostatic pore pressure
on the deep San Andreas fault.
Nature 462
(7276): 104851.
Bibcode:2009Natur.462.1048T.
doi:10.1038/nature08654. PMID 20033046.
[22] Gezeitenkrfte: Sonne und Mond lassen Kalifornien
erzittern SPIEGEL online, 29.12.2009
[23] Tamrazyan, Gurgen P. (1967).
Tide-forming
forces and earthquakes.
Icarus 7 (13): 5965.
Bibcode:1967Icar....7...59T.
doi:10.1016/00191035(67)90047-4.
[24] Tamrazyan, Gurgen P. (1968). Principal regularities in the distribution of major earthquakes relative
to solar and lunar tides and other cosmic forces.
Icarus 9 (13): 57492. Bibcode:1968Icar....9..574T.
doi:10.1016/0019-1035(68)90050-X.
[13] Talebian, M; Jackson, J (2004). A reappraisal of earthquake focal mechanisms and active shortening in the Zagros mountains of Iran. Geophysical Journal International 156 (3): 506526. Bibcode:2004GeoJI.156..506T.
doi:10.1111/j.1365-246X.2004.02092.x.
[27] Earthquake Swarms at Yellowstone. United States Geological Survey. Retrieved 2008-09-15.
[14] Nettles, M.; Ekstrm, G. (May 2010). Glacial Earthquakes in Greenland and Antarctica. Annual Review
of Earth and Planetary Sciences 38 (1): 467491.
Bibcode:2010AREPS..38..467N. doi:10.1146/annurevearth-040809-152414. Avinash Kumar
[15] Noson, Qamar, and Thorsen (1988). Washington State
Earthquake Hazards: Washington State Department of
Natural Resources. Washington Division of Geology and
Earth Resources Information Circular 85.
[26] Repeating Earthquakes. United States Geological Survey. January 29, 2009. Retrieved May 11, 2009.
12
12
[32] Pressler, Margaret Webb (14 April 2010). More earthquakes than usual? Not really.. KidsPost (Washington
Post: Washington Post). pp. C10.
[33] Earthquake Hazards Program. United States Geological
Survey. Retrieved 2006-08-14.
[34] Seismicity and earthquake hazard in the UK.
Quakes.bgs.ac.uk. Retrieved 2010-08-23.
[35] "Italys earthquake history. BBC News. October 31,
2002.
[36] Common Myths about Earthquakes. United States Geological Survey. Retrieved 2006-08-14.
[37] Are Earthquakes Really on the Increase?, USGS Science
of Changing World. Retrieved 30 May 2014.
[38] Earthquake Facts and Statistics: Are earthquakes increasing?". United States Geological Survey. Retrieved
2006-08-14.
[39] The 10 biggest earthquakes in history, Australian Geographic, March 14, 2011.
[40] Historic Earthquakes and Earthquake Statistics: Where
do earthquakes occur?". United States Geological Survey.
Retrieved 2006-08-14.
[41] Visual Glossary Ring of Fire. United States Geological Survey. Retrieved 2006-08-14.
[42] Jackson, James, "Fatal attraction: living with earthquakes,
the growth of villages into megacities, and earthquake
vulnerability in the modern world, Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society, doi:10.1098/rsta.2006.1805
Phil. Trans. R. Soc. A 15 August 2006 vol. 364 no. 1845
19111925.
[43] "Global urban seismic risk. Cooperative Institute for Research in Environmental Science.
[44] Madrigal, Alexis (4 June 2008). Top 5 Ways to Cause
a Man-Made Earthquake. Wired News (CondNet). Retrieved 2008-06-05.
[45] How Humans Can Trigger Earthquakes. National Geographic. February 10, 2009. Retrieved April 24, 2009.
[46] Brendan Trembath (January 9, 2007). Researcher claims
mining triggered 1989 Newcastle earthquake. Australian
Broadcasting Corporation. Retrieved April 24, 2009.
[47] Speed of Sound through the Earth.
book.com. Retrieved 2010-08-23.
Hypertext-
[48] Geographic.org. Magnitude 8.0 - SANTA CRUZ ISLANDS Earthquake Details. Gobal Earthquake Epicenters with Maps. Retrieved 2013-03-13.
[49] On Shaky Ground, Association of Bay Area Governments, San Francisco, reports 1995,1998 (updated
2003)". Abag.ca.gov. Retrieved 2010-08-23.
[50] Guidelines for evaluating the hazard of surface fault rupture, California Geological Survey. California Department of Conservation. 2002.
REFERENCES
[51] Natural Hazards Landslides. United States Geological Survey. Retrieved 2008-09-15.
[52] The Great 1906 San Francisco earthquake of 1906.
United States Geological Survey. Retrieved 2008-09-15.
[53] Historic Earthquakes 1946 Anchorage Earthquake.
United States Geological Survey. Retrieved 2008-09-15.
[54] Noson, Qamar, and Thorsen (1988). Washington Division
of Geology and Earth Resources Information Circular 85.
Washington State Earthquake Hazards.
[55] MSN Encarta Dictionary. Flood. Retrieved on 2006-1228. Archived 2009-10-31.
[56] Notes on Historical Earthquakes. British Geological
Survey. Retrieved 2008-09-15.
[57] Fresh alert over Tajik ood threat. BBC News. 200308-03. Retrieved 2008-09-15.
[58] USGS: Magnitude 8 and Greater Earthquakes Since 1900
[59] "Earthquakes with 50,000 or More Deaths". U.S. Geological Survey
[60] Spignesi, Stephen J. (2005). Catastrophe!: The 100
Greatest Disasters of All Time. ISBN 0-8065-2558-4
[61] Kanamori Hiroo. The Energy Release in Great Earthquakes. Journal of Geophysical Research. Retrieved
2010-10-10.
[62] USGS. How Much Bigger?". United States Geological
Survey. Retrieved 2010-10-10.
[63] Earthquake Prediction. Ruth Ludwin, U.S. Geological
Survey.
[64] Working Group on California Earthquake Probabilities in
the San Francisco Bay Region, 2003 to 2032, 2003, http:
//earthquake.usgs.gov/regional/nca/wg02/index.php.
[65] Earthquakes. Encyclopedia of World Environmental
History 1. Encyclopedia of World Environmental History.
2003. pp. 358364.
[66] Sturluson, Snorri (1220). Prose Edda. ISBN 1-15678621-5.
[67] Van Riper, A. Bowdoin (2002). Science in popular culture:
a reference guide. Westport: Greenwood Press. p. 60.
ISBN 0-313-31822-0.
[68] JM Appel. A Comparative Seismology. Weber Studies
(rst publication), Volume 18, Number 2.
[69] Goenjian, Najarian; Pynoos, Steinberg; Manoukian,
Tavosian; Fairbanks, AM; Manoukian, G; Tavosian, A;
Fairbanks, LA (1994). Posttraumatic stress disorder
in elderly and younger adults after the 1988 earthquake
in Armenia. Am J Psychiatry 151 (6): 895901.
doi:10.1176/ajp.151.6.895. PMID 8185000.
[70] Wang, Gao; Shinfuku, Zhang; Zhao, Shen; Zhang, H;
Zhao, C; Shen, Y (2000). Longitudinal Study of
Earthquake-Related PTSD in a Randomly Selected Community Sample in North China. Am J Psychiatry 157 (8):
12601266. doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.157.8.1260. PMID
10910788.
13
13
Sources
Deborah R. Coen. The Earthquake Observers: Disaster Science From Lisbon to Richter (University of
Chicago Press; 2012) 348 pages; explores both scientic and popular coverage
Donald Hyndman, David Hyndman (2009). Chapter 3: Earthquakes and their causes. Natural Hazards and Disasters (2nd ed.). Brooks/Cole: Cengage
Learning. ISBN 0-495-31667-9.
14
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