Document Title:

Training on GET-Instrumentation

November
2014

FLOW MEASURMENT AND CONTROL

Code: PI

Introduction:Accurate measurement of flow rate of liquids and gases is an essential requirement

for maintaining the quality of industrial processes. In fact, most of the industrial control
loops control the flow rates of incoming liquids or gases in order to achieve the control
objective. As a result, accurate measurement of flow rate is very important. Needless to say
that there could be diverse requirements of flow measurement, depending upon the
situation. It could be volumetric or mass flow rate, the medium could be gas or liquid, the
measurement could be intrusive or nonintrusive, and so on. As a result there are different
types of flow measuring techniques that are used in industries.

Basic Units:Mass flow rate =

Mass

: Qm =
Time

Volumetric flow rate =

volume
time

m
t

: Kg/sec, kg/hr, tons/hr.

; Qv =

: m3/sec, m3/hr.

Mass flow rate is the ideal measurement value because it is independent of pressure and
temperature, although volume flow rate is usually technically more convenient to measure
and, therefore, is preferred.
The volumes of the incompressible liquids are never affected by the pressure in the ranges
normally encountered. Temperature changes, however, result in volume changes which in
some cases require correction measures.
It is well known that flow can be of two types: viscous and turbulent. Whether a flow is
viscous or turbulent can be decided by the Reynolds number RD. If RD > 2000, the flow is
turbulent
Obstruction or head type flow meters are of two types: differential pressure type and
variable area type. Orifice meter, Venturimeter, Pitot tube fall under the first category,
while rotameter is of the second category. In all the cases, an obstruction is created in the
flow passage and the pressure drop across the obstruction is related with the flow rate.

Document Title:

Training on GET-Instrumentation

November
2014

FLOW MEASURMENT AND CONTROL

Code: PI

The selection of the proper instrument for a particular application is governed by many
variables, including cost. Flow-rate-measurement devices frequently require accurate
pressure and temperature measurements in order to calculate the output of the
instrument.

Differential Type:The most widely used flow metering principle involves placing a fixed area flow
restriction of some type in the pipe or duct carrying the fluid. This flow restriction causes a
pressure drop that varies with the flow rate. Thus, measurement of the pressure drop by
means of a suitable differential-pressure pick up allows flow rate measurement.
Venturi Meter:In the venturi meter the fluid is accelerated through a converging cone of angle 15 -20 and the
pressure difference between the upstream side of the cone and the throat is measured and provides
the signal for the rate of flow.

The fluid slows down in a cone with smaller angle (5-7) where most of the kinetic energy is
converted back to pressure energy. Because of the cone and the gradual reduction in the area
there is no "vena contracta". The flow area is at minimum at the throat. High pressure and energy
recovery makes the venturi meter suitable where only small pressure heads are available.
A discharge coefficient Cv- of 0.975 may be taken as standard, but the value varies noticeably at
low values of the Reynolds' number.

Document Title:

Training on GET-Instrumentation

November
2014

FLOW MEASURMENT AND CONTROL

Code: PI

The pressure recovery is much better for the venturi meter than for the orifice plate.
The venturi tube is suitable for clean, dirty and viscous liquid and some slurry
services.
Pressure loss is low.
Typical accuracy percent is i of full range.
Required upstream pipe length 5 to 20 diameters.
Viscosity effect is high
Relative cost is medium

Orifice Meter:An orifice plate installed in a line creates a pressure differential as the fluid flows through it.
This differential pressure is measured via impulse lines by a differential pressure transmitter
which converts it into an analogue or digital signal which can be processed to provide a
display of the instantaneous rate of flow
The orifice meter shown in figure below, consists of a flat orifice plate with a circular hole
drilled in it. There is a pressure tap upstream from the orifice plate and another just
downstream. There are in general three methods of placing the taps. The coefficient of the
meter depends upon the positions of taps.
An orifice meter is essentially a cylindrical tube that contains a plate with a thin hole in
the middle of it. The thin hole essentially forces the fluid to flow faster through the hole in
order to maintain flow rate. The point of maximum convergence usually occurs slightly
downstream from the actual physical orifice this is the reason orifice meters are less
accurate than venturi meters, as we cannot use the exact location and diameter of the point
of maximum convergence in calculations. Beyond the vena contracta point (The more
important point is that, the minimum flow area is not the orifice area A2, but is somewhat
less and it occurs at a distance from the orifice plate, known as the Vena Contracta,), the
fluid expands again and velocity decreases as pressure increases.

Document Title:

Training on GET-Instrumentation

November
2014

FLOW MEASURMENT AND CONTROL

Code: PI

The discharge coefficient - Co - varies considerably with changes in area ratio and the
Reynolds' number. A discharge coefficient - Co - of 0.60 may be taken as standard, but the
value varies noticeably at low values of the Reynolds number.
The pressure recovery is limited for an orifice plate and the permanent pressure loss
depends primarily on the area ratio. For an area ratio of 0.5, the head loss is about 70 -75%
of the orifice differential.
The orifice meter is recommended for clean and dirty liquids and some slurry services.

The pressure loss is medium

Typical accuracy is 2 to 4 of full scale
The required upstream diameter is 10 to 30
The viscosity effect is high.
The relative cost is low.

Orifice Installation:Almost all flow meters need certain lengths of straight, uninterrupted pipe upstream and
downstream of the flow meter itself, and orifice plates are no exception. In order for the
velocity profile to fully develop (and the pressure drop to be predictable), straight pipe runs
are required both up- and downstream of the d/p element. The amount of straight run
required depends on both the beta ratio of the installation and on the nature of the
upstream components in the pipeline.

Document Title:

Training on GET-Instrumentation

November
2014

FLOW MEASURMENT AND CONTROL

Code: PI

Instrument Manifolds:The five-valve configuration is available for use with differential pressure and multi-variable
transmitters. Two block valves provide instrument isolation and one equalize valve is
positioned between the high and low transmitter process connections. In addition, two
drain/vent valves allow for controlled venting, 100% capture of vented or drained process,
and simplified in-process calibration capability.

Document Title:

Training on GET-Instrumentation

November
2014

FLOW MEASURMENT AND CONTROL

Code: PI

DP Installation:The size and orientation of the impulse-line pressure taps depend on both the pipe size and
the process fluid. The recommended maximum diameters of pressure-tap holes through the
pipe or flange are:
inch for pipes under two inches in diameter;
38 inch for two- and three-inch diameter pipes;
for four- to eight-inch diameter pipes; and
inch for pipes larger than eight inches in diameter.
Depend on the process fluid: -

Electromagnetic type flow meter:Electromagnetic flow meters use Faradays law of electromagnetic induction for making
a flow measurement. Faradays law states that, whenever a conductor of length l moves
with a velocity v perpendicular to a magnetic field B, an emf e is induced in a mutually
perpendicular direction which is given by
e= Blv ...(1.52)
where B = Magnetic flux density (Wb/m2 )
l= length of conductor (m)
v= Velocity of the conductor (m/s)
The volume flow rate Q is given by
Q = (d 2 /4) v
where d= diameter of the pipe
v= average velocity of flow (conductor velocity in this case)
From equation (1.52)
v= e/Bl ...(1.54)

Document Title:

Training on GET-Instrumentation

November
2014

FLOW MEASURMENT AND CONTROL

Code: PI

Q = d2e/4Bl
Q = Ke
where K is a meter constant.
Thus the volume flow rate is proportional to the induced emf.
In the electromagnetic meter, the constant magnetic field is generated around the pipe
by magnet and the flowing liquid acts as a conductor. The flowing liquid can be regarded as
a continuous series of discs passing through the magnetic field, the bore of the pipe being
directly proportional to length of the conductor. Thus the emf generated is directly
proportional to the velocity of flow.

The flow tube should have high electrical resistivity so that the magnetic flux does
not by-pass the metered liquid and also to minimize the eddy currents. The electrode
potential is detected by two metal electrodes essentially of the point type made of stainless
steel, or platinum where high resistance to corrosion is necessary. These are located
diametrically opposite to each other with their surfaces flush with the inside surface of the
lining, so that they do not disturb the flow pattern. Thus the electro magnet is of the core
type and consists of two saddle shaped copper coils. This flow tube is rigidly located in the
air gap and the laminated iron core, for focusing the magnetic field in a direction at right
angles to the flowing liquid, being positioned beneath the coils. At alternating electric
supply is used to energize electro magnet as a.c. supply avoids polarization of the
electrodes. Thus the emf across the electrodes will be directly proportional to the velocity of
flows of the metered liquid and it will not be influenced by variations in the specific
resistance of the liquid if there is no current flow through it.

Document Title:

Training on GET-Instrumentation

November
2014

FLOW MEASURMENT AND CONTROL

Code: PI

Limitations of electromagnetic Flow Meters:(i) The substance being measured must be conductive. Therefore, it cant be employed for
metering the flow rate of gases and steam, petroleum products and similar liquids having
very low conductivity.
(ii) To render the meter insensitive to variations in the resistance of liquid, the effective
resistance of the liquid between the electrodes should not exceed 1% of the impedance of
the external circuit.
(iii) It is a very expensive device.
(iv) As the meter always measures the volume rate, the volume of any suspended matter
in the liquid will be included.
(v) To avoid any trouble which would be caused by entrained air, when the flow tube is
installed in a horizontal pipe-line, the electrodes should be on the horizontal diameter.

Ultrasonic type flow meter:The ultrasonic flow meter operates on the principle that the velocity of sound in a fluid in
motion is the resultant of the velocity of sound in the fluid at rest plus or minus the velocity
of the fluid itself.
Types of Ultrasonic Flow Meters
(i) Transit time flow meters
(ii) Doppler Flow meter.
Transit time flow meters:As the name implies, these devices measure flow by measuring the time taken for an ultrasonic
energy pulse to traverse a pipe section, both with and against the flow of the liquid within the pipe.
Fig. 1.57 shows a representative transit time flow meter.
The time (tAB) for the ultrasonic energy to go from transducer A to transducer B is given by the
expression :
tAB= L/(C + V. cos ) ...(1.56)
The time (tBA) to go from B to A is given by tBA = L/(C V.cos ) ...(1.57)

Document Title:

Training on GET-Instrumentation

November
2014

FLOW MEASURMENT AND CONTROL

Code: PI

where C is the speed of sound in the fluid , L is the acoustic path length in the fluid and is the angle
of the path with respect to the pipe axis.
By combining and simplifying, it can be shown that for V << C :
t= tBA tAB= 2.L.V. cos /C2...(1.58)
It can be shown that :
V = L.t/2 cos t ; A2= K t/tA2...(1.59)
where tA is the average transit time between the transducers. Since the cross sectional area of the
pipe section or spool pipe is known, the product of area and velocity will yield the volumetric flow
rate.

Doppler Flow meter:This type of flow meter is based on Doppler principle. The transmitter of a Doppler flow
meter projects an ultrasonic beam at a frequency of about 0.5 MHz into the flowing stream
and deflects the reflected frequency. The difference between transmitted and reflected
velocities is called the beat frequency and is related to the velocity of the reflecting
surfaces (solid particles and gas bubbles) in the process stream.
Principle of Operation
An ultrasonic wave is projected at an angle through the pipe wall into the liquid by a
transmitting crystal in a transducer mounted outside the pipe. Part of the energy is reflected
by bubbles or particles in the liquid and is returned through the pipe wall to a receiving
crystal. If the reflectors are travelling at the fluid velocity, the frequency of the reflected
wave is shifted according to the Doppler principle, in proportion to the flow velocity.
Combining Snells law and Doppler equation, the flow velocity can be determined as
follows if V << C.
V = f.Ct/(2.fo. cos ) = f.K ...(1.61)
where f= Difference between transmitted and received frequency.
fo= frequency of transmission
= angle of the transmitter and receiver crystal with respect to the pipe axis
Ct= Velocity of sound in the transducer.
As shown in equation (1.61), velocity is a linear function of f. Since the inside diameter
(ID) of the pipe is known, volumetric flow rate can be measured as a function of V and
square of ID
Volumetric flow rate (Q) V.(ID)2

Document Title:

Training on GET-Instrumentation

November
2014

FLOW MEASURMENT AND CONTROL

Code: PI

Variable Area Flow Meter:ROTAMETER:The orifice meter, Venturi meter and flow nozzle work on the principle of constant
area variable pressure drop. Here the area of obstruction is constant, and the pressure drop
changes with flow rate. On the other hand Rotameter works as a constant pressure drop
variable area meter. It can be only be used in a vertical pipeline. Its accuracy is also less (2%)
compared to other types of flow meters. But the major advantages of rotameter are, it is
simple in construction, ready to install and the flow rate can be directly seen on a calibrated
scale, without the help of any other device, e.g. differential pressure sensor etc. Moreover,
it is useful for a wide range of variation of flow rates.

Basic construction of a rotameter is shown in It consists of a vertical pipe, tapered

downward. The flow passes from the bottom to the top. There is cylindrical type metallic
float inside the tube. The fluid flows upward through the gap between the tube and the
float. As the float moves up or down there is a change in the gap, as a result changing the
area of the orifice. In fact, the float settles down at a position, where the pressure drop
across the orifice will create an upward thrust that will balance the downward force due to
the gravity. The position of the float is calibrated with the flow rate.
Advantages
1. Low cost.
2. Low pressure drop.
3. Range ability is better.
4. It is suitable for small flow rates.
5. It is easily equipped with alarms and switches or any transmitting devices.
6. It also measures the flow rate of corrosive fluids.

Document Title:

Training on GET-Instrumentation

November
2014

FLOW MEASURMENT AND CONTROL

Code: PI

7. There is an availability of viscosity-immune floats.

8. It can be used in some light slurry services.
Disadvantages
1. It is difficult to handle the glass tube type.
2. It must be mounted vertically.
3. It is not suitable for pulsating services.