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HistoryofIndia:IndianArt,Architecture,Sculpture,MiniaturePainting

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SOUTHASIANHISTORY
PagesfromtheculturalhistoryoftheIndiansubcontinent

DevelopmentsinIndianArtandArchitecture
ChallengingWesternconstructsandstereotypesconcerningtheIndianlegacy
AcademicappraisalsofIndianartandarchitectureintheWesternworldhavesufferedfrommanyofthesamebiasesandprejudicesthathaveinfectedanalysesofIndian
philosophyandculture.Inthecoloniallyconstructedmodel,Indiawastobepigeonholedasalandseepedinincomprehensiblemysticismwherereligiondominated
allaspectsofsociallife,butunlikethe"noble"piousnessoftheWesternworld,India'sreligiouspracticeswereoftenseenasbizarreandgrotesque.

Althoughthesubcontinenthasenjoyedavirtuallyuninterruptedhistoryofdevelopmentsintherealmofartandarchitecture,Indiahasbeeneitherstudiouslyignored
incompilationsof"world"artorithasbeenrepresentedbyaverysmallandlimitednumberofexamples.WhenvolumesonIndianartandarchitecturehavebeen
produced,ithasnotbeenunusualforthecommentariestobeginwithgeneralizationslike"allIndianarchitecturehasbeenreligious"andveryquicklythroughthetext,
onerunsintocomparativestatementssuggestingthatIndianartandarchitecturewasneverquiteabletoreachthegrandheightsachievedbyWesternartand
architecture.

ThestatementthatallIndianarchitecturehasbeen"religious"displaysnotonlyapoorunderstandingofphilosophicalpracticesinancientIndia,butalsoaremarkable
lackofperspectiveconcerningnotonlythearcheologicaldiscoveriesinIndia,butalsointheWest.SuchcharacterizationsoftheIndianlegacyareespeciallypuzzling
becausetheurbancharacteroftheHarappancivilizationoughttobequitewellknowntoallWesternacademicsasshouldthecosmopolitanandsecularcharacterofthe
Mauryanera.

IfonewishedtobebiasedandsubjectiveinsummarizingtheWesternarchitecturalrecord,onecouldjustaseasilyclaimthatallWesternartandarchitecturehasbeen
"religious".OnecouldpointtoGreekandRomantemples,thesculpturesintheburialtombs,thenumeroussynagogues,Byzantineandgothicchurches,themonasteries
ofEasternEuropeandthethousandsofpaintingsofthechristandthecrosstobolsteronescase.

AndwhilesuchadescriptionwoulddogreatinjusticetotheRomanperiodwhenaqueducts,amphitheatres,palacesandprivatevillaswerealsobuiltandhavesurvived,
churchesandreligiouspaintingspredominatethesurvivinghistoricalrecordoftheChristianperiodbeforetherenaissance.

Byandlarge,throughouttheworld,religiousinspiredarchitecturepredominatestheplanet'sarcheologicalrecordsimplybecausereligiousmonumentswereoftenbuilt
frommorepermanentbuildingmaterials.

India'sSecularArchitecture
MuchofIndia'soldestseculararchitecturehasnotsurvivedbecauseitwasbuiltfromwood.Stonewasacumbersomeandtimeconsumingmaterialforconstruction,and
giventheintenseheat,itisaparticularlyunsuitablematerialforclosedconstruction.Thatiswhystonewasusedprimarilyforbuildingswheremuchoftheactivity
wouldtakeplaceinanoutdoorsetting.However,anecdotalaccountsofGreekandChinesetravellers,survivingliteratureandcourthistories,ancientsculpturalfinds
andcavepaintingsallindicatethatIndiawasnotlackinginsecularbuildings,manyofwhichwereembellishedwitharchitecturalornamentationandpaintedin
naturallyavailablecolours.

Forinstance,thereisconsiderableliteraryevidencetoindicatethatpublicgatewaysknownasToranaswereconstructedbynumerousrulersthroughoutIndiasomeof
whichwerevandalizedordestroyedduringtheearlyperiodofIslamicinvasions,andsomeremodelledoradapted,andincorporatedintostructuresutilizedbylater
royalcourts.

Nevertheless,somehavesurvivedintactandthereareenoughsurvivingphysicalremainstosuggestthatIndianarchitectureachievedit'sgreatestheightsinthe
constructionoftheseToranasthatoncegracedtheentriestothemajorcapitalsofIndia'sancientandmedievalpast.

Guptaperiodremainsfromthe5th6thCinDelhiareparticularlyimpressive,asaretheexquisitelycarvedToranasfromVadnagarinGujarat(ofwhichonlyoneisleft
standing),andprobablydatesfromthe9thor10thC.Dabhoi,the12th13thCcapitaloftheSolankis,hasfourgateways,eachofwhichisrichlycarved,andfour
handsomeToranasstillstandinWarangal,the13thCcapitaloftheKakathiyas.MostofWarangalwassackedinthe14thC,buttheruinsofthecitypointtoan
impressivearchitecturalcomplexthatprobablyincludedanamphitheater,royalpavillionsandperhapspublicmeetinghalls.

(ThetraditionoftheToranacontinuedwiththeBengalSultans,SherShahSuriandtheMughalswhoconvertedtherectangularorstylizedUandVshapedformsintotheclassicalarch,butinSrirangam(TamilNadu),the
olderstyleprevailed,buttookonamoregrandandimposingaura.)

Stoneand(sometimesbrick)werealsousedinconstructingstepwellsandsunkenswimmingpools(orbathingtanks)inthemannerofMohenjodaro,butoftenbecame
exceedinglyelaborateafterthe9thC.Whilesomeofthesewereconstructednexttotemples(asinModehra,Gujarat)otherswerepartofroyalcomplexessuchasthe
Queen'sstepwellofPatanwithit'sstunningsculpturegalleries,andAdalajwithit'smanyterracesandcarvedornamentalniches.Alesselaboratebutaesthetically
pleasingexampleistobefoundintheoldtownofBundi(Rajasthan)andseveralotherinterestingexamples(mostlyattributedtotheChauhans)aretobefoundinthe
AjmerDelhiregion.

(AlBerunimakesspecialnoteofthesestepwells(i.e.Baolis)inhisIndiachronicles.StepwellsforbothroyalandpublicusewereconstructedinmuchoftheIndianNorthWest,andsomemayhavebeenpartofwater
managementprojectsasevidentinFarrukhnagarinHaryana.)

AlsoofnotearetheremainsoftheuniversitiesofancientIndiasuchasTaxila,Nalanda,VikramshilaorSarnathwhereinstructionwasprovidedonavarietyof
subjectsincludingmathematics,epistemologyandlogic,thenaturalsciencesandmedicine.Nalanda,eventodayretainstheunmistakableairofacollegecampuswith
it'smanydormsandwhatappeartobelecturehalls.Toclassifysuchhistoricalsitesas"religious"siteswouldbeclearlymisleading.

AlthoughithasbeencustomarytotreatIndia'sfortsasalargelyanIslamiccontributionandtotreattheRajputfortsasquiteapartfromthegeneralIndiantradition,
IndiawasdottedwithhilltopfortsthatwereconstructedseveralcenturiesbeforetheywereconqueredandoccupiedbyIndia'sIslamicrulers.(Examplesofsuchforts,
someofthemlongabandoned,canstillbefoundinKalinjarandAjaigarhinCentralIndia,forinstance.)Overtime,India'sRajput,andotherrulerslearnttobuild
enormouspalaceswithinthesefortsandevolvedtechniquesofinsulatingthemfromtheheat,andpalacearchitectsfoundwaysofensuringoptimalventilationand
exposuretolight.Mostofthesepalaceswererichlydecoratedandprovidetremendousinsightintotheartisticanddecorativechoicesthatwerefavoredbytheroyalty.

ItisthereforequitebizarrehowinfluentialWesternacademicshavetriedtoconfinethehistoricIndianlegacytothesphereofreligion.ButevenwhenWesternart
historianshaveconcentratedexclusivelyonIndia'stemplesandstupas,theyhaveseriouslyerredintheiranalysesofthesemonumentsandtheimpulsesthatledtotheir
creation.

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PhilosophicalcontentofIndianArt
UnliketheWesternreligions,whichhavelittlephilosophicalcontentandbeliefinthe"OneGod"ismandatory,manyofIndia'sancientreligionswerenotreligionsin
thenarrowsenseinwhichreligionisconstruedtoday.India'searlyBuddhistswerepredominantlyatheists,theearlyJainswereagnostic,andwithinthebroadumbrella
ofHinduism,therewasspaceforconsiderablephilosophicalvariety.IntheUpanishads,godisdescribedinanextremelyabstractandmetaphysicalway.The
philosophicalcontentisessentiallysecularandspiritualideasemergefromdebateandspeculationnotimmortalrevelationsthatcannotbechallengedormodified
withtime.IntheNyayaSutras,theoverwhelmingfocusisonrationalandscientificthinkingandanalysis,onhumanunderstandingofnaturalphenomenonand
physicalprocessesoccurringinnature.

Thisrichtraditionofphilosophybothrationalandspiritualfoundit'swayintoIndianartandarchitectureaswell.Stupasandtemplesincorporatedaprofound
symboliclanguagebasedonvisualrepresentationsofalltheimportantphilosophicalconcepts.TheseincludedtheChakratherevolvingwheeloftimewhich
symbolizedthecyclicalrhythmsofthecosmosthePadmaorthelotussymbolwhichembodiedtheprimesymbolofcreationoftheuniversalcreativeforcethat
springsfromthebosomoftheearththeAnanta(representedasasnake)symbolizedwaterthemostimportantlifegivingforceandtheinfiniteoceanfromwhichall
lifeemerged,gotdifferentiatedandthengotremergedandredissolvedtheSwastikarepresentingthefourfoldaspectsofcreationandmotionthePurnakalasaor
theoverflowingflowerpotasymbolofcreativityandprosperitytheKalpalataandKalpavrikshathewishfulfillmentcreeperortreethatwerealsosymbolsof
imaginationandcreativityGavaskasometimesunderstoodtobethethirdeyeMrigaordeersymbolicoferoticdesireandbeautyandlingamandyonithemale
andfemalefertilitysymbols.

Ruleswerealsoevolvedtoprovideadditionalsymboliccontentthroughhandgestures(mudra)ofsculptureddeities.Deitiesweresometimesgivenmultiplearmsto
signifyenergyorpowerortosuggestmovementandassymbolicofthecelestialdance.Differentarmpositionsembodieddifferentvirtuessuchaswisdom,strength,
generosity,kindnessandcaring.Multiplearmscouldthusbeusedtosignifymultiplevirtues.

WesternanalystshaveoftenhaddifficultyunderstandingthecomplexculturalandphilosophicalsystemsthatgavebirthtoIndia'sartistictradition.Formany,Indian
sculpturalpanelsappearedtobenothingmorethanarandomcollectionofstrangeorarbitraryjuxtapositionsofprimitivebeliefsandsuperstitions.Thisisnottosay
thatIndianspiritualitywasalwaysfreefromsuperstitionorarbitraryconstructs,butinthebestofthesculpturalpanels,therewasaconsciousandknowledgeable
attempttoconveypowerfulphilosophicalideas.

SecularandSpiritualFusion
Asphysicalembodimentsofphilosophicalsystemsthatcombinedthesecularwiththespiritual,India'sstupasandtempleswerenotjustreligiousmonumentsbutalso
culturalcentresthathadbothspiritualandsecularsignificance.Thatiswhythestupaorthetemplecouldneverbecompletelyequatedtoasynagogueorchurch.And
thisiswhy,whenbuilt,theyincorporatedsomanyimagesfromsecularlife.

Forinstance,takethestupasatAmravati(1stCBC),Sanchi(1stCAD)orNagarjunakonda(2nd3rdCAD).Eachdisplaysawealthofcarvingandthemainthemes
unitingthesculptedpanelsinallthreestupasarescenesfromthelifeofthe'Buddha'.Yet,intheAmravatipanels,thereisanintenseandbarelyconcealedsensuality
thatpervadesthroughout,andflowersandcreepersaredepictedwithalovingtenderness.IntheSanchitoranastherearealsodepictionsofwarriorsonhorses,royal
processions,traders'caravans,merchantfamiliesintheirmultistoriedhomeswithbalconies,farmerswithproduceandanimals,andagain,therearebeautifuldepictions
ofplantsandanimals.

Incontrasttosynagogues,churchesormosques,theIndiantemplefromthe8thConwardsincorporatedsculptedimagesofmusicians,dancers,acrobatsandromantic
couples,inadditiontodepictionsofavarietyofdeities.Afterthe10thC,eroticthemesbegintomaketheirmark.Sensualityandsexualinterationisdisplayedwithout
inhibitioninthetemplesofKhajuraho,KonarakandBhubaneshwarandintheKakathiyatemplesofPalampet.(Eroticcarvingsarealsotobefoundinmanyofthe
lesserknowntemplesofRajasthanandtheJabalpurChhatisgarhregion).ThismayhaveseemedshockingandscandaloustothepuritanicallymindedWesternartcritic
butitshowedthatinthatperiodofIndianhistory,Tantricideasonthecompatibilityofhumansexualitywithhumanspiritualityhadenteredthemainstream.Erotic
desireswerenotconsideredtobeantagonistictospiritualliberationbutinsteadanimportantcomponentofspiritualrelease.Acompletelydifferentmoraloutlookwas
atworkherereligionwasnotbasedonsensualstarvationbutonahealthyandegalitarianacceptanceofallactivitiesthatcontributedtotheemotionalhealthandwell
beingofhumansociety.

Inmanyways,thetemplesofKhajurahoandKonarakwerealogicalculminationofthegeneraltrendtowardsincludingallthingssensualinthetemple.Beginningwith
lyricaldepictionsofflutistsanddrummersandexpressivedepictionsofromanticcouplesandcontinuingwithlivelydepictionsofdancersandacrobats,theIndian
templeevolvedintobreakingtheverylasttaboo.Themostintimateandpersonalofhumaninteractions(normallyshroudedbehindaveilofsecrecy)werenowsculpted
instone,infullpublicview.Forsome,thisrepresenteddecadenceandaregressionfromspiritualpurityforothersitwasasignofremarkableadvancethatsocietyhad
beenabletobreakdowntheshacklesofhypocriticalprudery.

Butnomatterhowthiswasviewed,itdemonstratedinaverypowerfulwaythatatthattime,Indianreligionandit'smonumentalexpressionwerebasednotonworldly
denialbutinsteadonanunabashedacceptanceofessentialhumanurges.

However,Islamicinvasionscreatedanenormouschallengeforthisfusionofthesecular(especiallythesensual)withthespiritualtosurvive.Monumentswere
vandalizedbeyondrecognition,withmonasteriesandinstitutionsoflearningbecomingparticulartargets.Manuscriptswereputtofirewhilesometemplesandstupas
wererebuiltasmosquesormadrasahs.IntheGangeticplain,virtuallynothingoftheoldcivilizationwaslefttoilluminatethefuture.Fearofvandalismcausednew
templesbuiltduringtheperiodofIslamicruletolargelyeschewsculpturaldecoration.AlthoughinplaceslikeBenarasfloralandabstractdecorationsfilledthegap,
andinMaharashtrathereweresuccessfulattemptstoenliventhetempleswithbolduseofcolorandarchitecturalembellishment,thelongtraditionofsculptural
exuberancethatcharacterizedtheclassicalIndiantemplegraduallycametoanendinmostpartsofNorthernandCentralIndia.

WhentheEuropeanworldbegantoexperiencearenaissanceintherealmofartandsculpture,exactlytheoppositeprocesseswereatworkinIndia.Aftertherenaissance,
muchofthenewpatronageforEuropeansculpturecamefromtheurbanareas,andthisiswhyEuropeansculptorsinfusedtheircreationswithanurbanesophistication.
ThestrongshadowofIslamicpruderypreventedsuchadevelopmentfromtakingplaceinIndia.ThegreatwealthofIndiansculpturewascreatedduringEurope's
Christianera,inasocietywherethedividebetweenthecityandthecountrysidehadnotyetsharpenedasmuch.ThisiswhysomuchofIndiansculptureretainssucha
stronglinktonatureandseemslessurbaneandcosmopolitan,andhencelessmeritorioustotheWesterneye.

AnotheraspectoftheIndiantraditionthathasbaffledWesterncriticsistheapparentlackofindividualisticexpressionintraditionalIndiaartandsculpture.Thereare
fewIndiansculpturesofactualpersonages.Therearenosculpturesofrulersorrichpatrons.ButthatshouldbeseenasthestrengthofIndianartthatitstrivedforthe
universalasopposedtotheparticular.ThatIndianrulerswerenotsovainastothinkthattheirportraitswouldhaveanymeaningforposterity.Inthisregard,Indian
tastesappeartoresembleGreek/Mediterraneantastesinthatmostsculpturecelebratesgodsandgoddessesintheirmostidealizedforms(unliketheRomanelitewho
weremorevain,anddisplayedapreferencefortheirownportraits)

Finally,itshouldbenotedthatitisn'talwaysessentialtobeknowledgeableaboutIndianphilosophytoenjoyorappreciateIndiansculpture.BecausethebestofIndian
sculptureisimbuedwithanadvanceddegreeofexpressivevisualrealismcomparabletothesculptureofthepreChristianMediterraneancivilizations,onemightthink
thatitmightmakeiteasierforanunbiasedWesternviewertoappreciateIndiansculptureonatleastthatcommonbasis.ButmanyWesternartcriticshavesimply
avoidedtryingtoseeanycommonalitiesbetweenthetwotraditions.Andwhentheyhavenotedthisaspect,theyhaveimmediatelyrushedtomakingpoorly
substantiatedclaimsthattherealisminIndiansculpturemusthavebeenaWesternimportforgettingthatIndiansculpturefromtheHarappanperiodwasalsorealisticor
thattherichtraditionofrealisminIndianphilosophymightverynaturallyhavegivenbirthtoanaestheticsthatfavoredrealisticrenderinginsculpturealbeitmodified
bylocallyprevalentideasofpoise,expressionandbeauty.

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TheIndianMiniature
PaintinginIndiahasaveryoldtradition,withancienttextsoutliningtheoriesofcolorandaestheticsandanecdotalaccountssuggestingthatitwasnotuncommonfor
householdstopainttheirdoorwaysorfacadesorevenindoorroomswhereguestswerereceived.CavepaintingsfromAjanta,BaghandSittanvasalandtemplepaintings
testifytoaloveofnaturalismbothinthedepictionofthehumanformandinthedepictionofnature.
ButinAjanta,wealsoseetheemergenceofastylethatappearsagainandagain,andmanycenturieslater:thetendencytodrawabstractionsfromnatureinamanner
thatisbothaestheticallypleasingandveryeffectiveasdecorativeembellishment.
Intheillustratedmanuscriptsoflatereras,itisthislattertrendthatbecomesmostimportantandprovidesthefoundationfortheIndianminiatureinwhicheventhe
humanformcanbecomeexceedinglystylized.
WhenanalyzingIndianminiaturepaintings,artcriticshaveoftenfocusedontheabsenceofperspectiveasemployedbyEuropeanpainters.Thishasledmanyart
historianstoviewIndianminiaturesasnaiveorprimitiveandinferiortothelargecanvassesinEuropethatdepictedsceneswithphotographicaccuracy.Indianart
criticsswayedbytheimportancegiventothesinglevanishingpointperspectiveschemeusedbyEuropeanpaintersaftertheEuropeanRenaissance,acceptthisasa
weaknessofIndianpainting,andsomehavesoughttoclassifyMughalpaintingsassuperiorbecausetheywereabletofindhintsofWesterninfluenceinsomeofthe
Mughalminiatures.
Whattheseartcriticsandhistoriansfailtonoteisthateveryartistfacesanenormousdilemmaindecidingwhataspectsofmultidimensionalrealitytoportrayintwo
dimensions.Whenweobservereality,oureyesrarelyrestonasinglesceneabsorbingitfromoneanglealone.Oureyesfocusfarandnear,theymovespatiallyacrossa
widepanorama.Asinglesnapshotlikedepiction,nomatterhowskillfullyexecuted,andnomatterhowbrilliantlyaccurate,isobviouslycapableofrelayingonlyone
viewofthatreality.
WhentheIndianpainteremployedmultipleperspectives,he/shewastryingtoconveymorethanwhatwouldhavebeenpossiblehadhe/shemerelyimitatedthe
Europeanapproach.Often,theIndianpainterwasinterestedinconveyingtherealitythatexistedbehindwallsanddoors,orontheothersideofahilloratree.These
attemptswerenotnaiveorsimplistic,theyreflectedlargergoals.Theyattemptedtodemonstratethatrealitywasmorethanwhatcouldbeobservedfromasinglefocal
pointorasingleperspectivethatarealityexistedthatmaybeunseenfromacertainvantagepointyetrequiredtobeconveyed.SincethegenesisoftheIndian
miniaturelayintheillustratedbook,thisapproachtopaintingbecomesveryeasilyunderstandable.
Indianminiatureshavealsobeencriticizedfortheirflatnessi.e.lackofbodyandshading,buthereagain,wemightobservethatadifferentvaluesystemmaybeat
work.Forinstance,realityisneverconstant.Treesbendwiththewind,birdsflyaround,peopleshaketheirheadsandshifttheirbodypartsnoneofthiscanbe
conveyedthroughanystandardizedrulesconcerningperspective.Sometimesapaintingthatappearstolackthreedimensionalitymayactuallybetterconveyasenseof
motionthanonethatseemsthreedimensionalinappearance.Miniaturesdepictingdancescenesmightfloatthedancersaroundcurvedlinessetagainstaflat
backgroundtoemphasizethefluidityofmotionandtobringoutthegaietyofthescene.Flatnessalsoassistedthepainterinshiftingfocusawayfromindividualsto
broadergroupssuchasanensembleofdancersorensembleofmusicians,oracrowdatafestival.
ManyofthefinestIndianminiatureswerebasedonRagmalasi.e.moodsassociatedwithdifferentmusicalragas.Heretheemphasiswasonconveyingaparticular
sentimentormood,oratmosphere.Throughthebolduseofcolor,abstracttouches,anddeliberateflatteningofthreedimensionaltextures,theartistsucceededin
bringingoutcertainhiddennuancesthatsimplywouldnotbepossibleanyotherway.
Paintingwasalsoamediumfortheexpressionofvisualfantasies.Birdsandflowers,treesandcreepershaveoftenbeendepictedwithalovinggracebyIndiansculptors
andpaintersalike.IntheminiaturepaintingsfromMewarortheKangraValley,idyllicnaturesceneswerecreatedtoconveyasenseofjoyandwonder,oramoodof
unspoiledromanceanderoticism.
Inrecentyears,thesheerdecorativebrillianceandluminescentcolorofsomeIndianminiatureshaswonoverconvertsamongstWesterncollectorsandcriticsalike.And
theyhavebeguntorealizethatadifferentaestheticprincipleisatwork.ThedecorativebrillianceoftheShahNama(commissionedbyMughalemperorShahJahan)
andtheexpressivenessofthebirdandanimalpaintingscommissionedbyJehangirhavewonparticularinternationalacclaim.ButappreciationofIndianminiatures
neednotbeconfinedtoMughalexamples.
OnceIndianpaintingisfreedfromexternallyimposedstandards,andthemotivationsoftheIndianartistarebetterunderstoodawholenewworldofvisualdelightcan
openup.Fromthequixotic15thCillustrationsofJaintextsinGujarattothedeeplyexpressiveminiaturesofMalwa,onecanmoveontothecolorfulwhimsyof16thC
Mewar,thestrikingeleganceoftheKishangarhschool,andtherefinedbeautyoflaterKangraminiatures.OnecanappreciatetheearnestlyricismoftheOrissapalmleaf
miniatures,thedecorouselanoftheBundelkhandwallpaintings,theboldanddarkcolorsofLepakshi,andthevivaciousrenditionsinthepalacesandtemplesof
Madurai,ThanjavurandRamanathapuram.InallthesevariedtraditionsofIndianpainting,animportantelementthatinfusedIndianpaintingwithcharmandvivacity
wasthefolkidiomthatunabashedlyfoundit'swayintheartoftheregionalkingdomswhowerelessinfectedbyformalMughaltastes.
(PaintingsoftheDeccancourts,particularlythoseillustratingRagamalathemesfromAhmednagar,AurangabadandBijapuralsorevealfolkinfluences.RagamalapaintingsfromHyderabadareparticularlyevocativeand
appealing.AlthoughrarelyondisplayinIndianmuseums,illustratedbookswithcharminglycolorfulfolklikerenditionswerealsocommissionedduringthereignoftheSharqisofJaunpur.)

ArchitectureoftheIslamicCourts
AftertheIslamicconquestinIndia(bythe12th13thCinthenorthernplains,andbythe14thCintheDeccanplateau),monumentalarchitectureinIndiaoftencame
tobedefinedbythetastesofmedievalIndia'sIslamicrulers.Constructionactivitybecamemoregearedtowardsthedemandsoftheelite,andthevoluntary
participationofthemassesinmonumentalconstructionbecamegreatlyreduced,orevenentirelyeliminated.
InSanchi,itisusefultonotethattheconstructionoftheToranasinvolvedthevoluntarylaborandcontributionsofmuchofthecitizenry.Voluntaryparticipationin
theconstructionandmaintenanceoftemplesinSouthIndiaandintheDeccanregionhasalsobeenrecordedandquitelikelyoccurredthroughoutIndia.
Yet,itwouldbeanerrortothinkthatpopularinfluencesonIndianarchitecturewerecompletelyextinguished.IntheGangeticplain,folkinfluencescontinuedtoplaya
vitalroleinthedecorofHavelisandvillagehomestraditionslikeRangolialsocontinued.Intheregionalcourts,folkinfluencesplayedanimportantrolenotonlyin
thefinearts,butalsoinroyalfurnitureandarchitecturaldecor.FolkinfluencesalsofoundtheirwayinsomeofthesmallermosquesandSufishrineswhichwerepainted
withfloralmotifsinfolkishstyle.
Thechangeinethoswasreflectedmostinprominenturbanlandmarks,inthearchitectureofcitygatewaysandinnsforthenobility,andinthedesignofroyalmosques
andtombs.But,itwouldbeincorrecttoconsiderIndia'sIslamicarchitectureasanentirelyforeignimplantassomearthistorians(bothintheWestandinIndia)are
inclinedtodo.Asweshallsee,traditionalIndiantastesandinfluencesplayedanimportantroleinshapingthemostvibrantmonumentscommissionedbyIndia's
Islamicrulers.
SomearthistorianshaveroutinelytreatedIndianartandarchitectureoftheIslamicperiodasaregionalderivativeofPersianartandarchitecturealmostapoorcousin
ofthegrandPersianIslamictradition.WesternbiasesandanadmirationofallthingsPersianamongstsectionsoftheUrduspeakingIndianintelligentsiahavecombined
tospreadthemyththatallgreatIslamicartoriginatedinPersiaandthequalityofartandarchitecturesponsoredbyIndia'sIslamicrulersmustbejudgedbyhowclosely
itcametomeetingPersianideals.ThatmanyofIndia'sIslamicrulersemployedPersianartistsintheirateliersandPersianpoetsandwritersfoundfavorintheroyal
courtscannotbedenied.ButthisobsessionwithconnectingallthingsIslamicinIndiatoPersiahasnotonlyledtoanextremelyselectiveanddistortedanalysisofthe
IslamiclegacyinIndia,ithasbeenbasedonarathersuperficialexaminationoftheIslamiclegacy.Notonlyhavearthistoriansoftenfailedtodistinguishbetweenwhat
camefromPersiafromelsewhere,suchasAfghanistan,IraqorCentralAsiaithasledtothevirtualneglectofthoseaspectsoftheIslamiclegacyinIndiawherethe

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predominantinfluenceshavebeenalmostentirelyfromwithinthesubcontinent.(ArthistorianshavealsofailedtoinvestigatethepossibilityofIndianinfluencesimpactingPersiantastesand
sensibilitiesaswasquitelikelyduringthereignsofJehangirandShahJehan).

Manyarthistorianswhoattempttoanalyze"Islamic"artinIndiaseemtoforgetthattheIslamicfaithwasborninaratherbarrenlandwithoutahistoryortraditionof
supportforthefinearts.(AlthoughsomearguethattheArabianpeninsulahadarichtraditionofterracottasculpturethatvanishedwiththeiconoclasticascentofIslam.)Inanycase,intermsofarchitecture,
priortotheascendanceofIslamintheMiddleEast,onecouldspeakofmonumentalEgyptian,PersianorBabylonianarchitecture,butcertainlynotMeccan
architecture.AsIslamspread,itwasobligedtoborrowandadaptfromtheoldertraditionsthatalreadyexistedinthelandsitconquered.Forinstance,theIslamic
monumentsofSyriaandPalestinehavearemarkableresemblancetoByzantinearchitectureofearliercenturieswiththeimportantexceptionthatallportraitureis
avoided.Althoughvegetalmotifsareemployedwithexuberanceinthe7th8thCUmayyadarchitectureinSyriaandPalestine,laterIslamicarchitecture,especially
fromCentralAsiareliedalmostexclusivelyonabstractfiguration.
ButsincesculpturaldecorationandrepresentationofanimalsandnatureplayedsuchasignificantroleinthearchitectureofpreIslamicIndiatheadventofIslam(at
leastinitially)ledtomereimitationofformsborrowedfromCentralAsia.WhatseemedfreshandoriginalinBukharaduringtheSamanidreign(910thC)becamedull,
laboriousandoutofplacewhentransplantedintoIndiansoil.Withtheexceptionofafewmonumentsthatmakerathereffectiveuseofdecorativecolumnsandmotifs
fromearlierJainmonumentsasinAjmerortheQutbareainDelhiearlyIslamicarchitectureinIndiaissingularlyblandanduninteresting.Muchofitisstarklyaustere
andcoldlyalooffromthemorelivelytraditionsofthesubcontinent.Itisonlyafterthe13thcenturywhenabitofwhimsyandornamentalfancybeginstoenlivensome
ofIndia'sIslamicmonuments(asinChanderi).ButthisinfluencecomesfromTurkey,notPersia!
OutsideIndiaproper,architectureintheIslamiccourtscontinuestomakeprogress,culminatinginthetheconstructionoftheoverwhelminglygrandmonumentsofthe
TimuridsinHerat,SamarkandandBukhara(14th15thCandonwards).AlthoughtheTimuridswreakedconsiderablehavocontheirimmediateneighboursandraided
andplunderedlandsasfarWestasinEasternEurope,theTimuridswerenotweddedtoIslamicorthodoxyandcontinuedtheSamanidtraditionofpromotingthearts
andlearning.SamarkandandBukharaemergedasthemostimportanturbancentersofthemedievalworldwherestudyinastronomyandmathematicswasencouraged
andpoetryandartreceivedroyalsupport.Butaboveall,itwasintheirsponsorshipofmonumentalarchitecturewheretheTimuridrulersexcelled.Aweinspiring
monumentswithtileworkindazzlinggreen,blueandturquoiserosefromtheAfghanandCentralAsiandesertsandtheserichurbancentersbecamethemodelsfor
citiesthroughouttheMiddleEast.BrilliantregionalvariantssprangupthroughoutAfghanistan,PersiaandIraq.However,therewereseriousobstaclestotheimportof
thisnewandbrilliantarchitecturalstyleintoIndia.
Asselfconsciousoutsiders,andwitharathertenuousholdonpowerinalargelynonIslamicland,itwasprobablydifficultforIndia'sIslamicinvaderstocommission
monumentsthatcouldhavematchedthepowerandgrandeurofthemonumentsinlandswhereIslamhadtriumphedcompletelyandconcernsoflegitimacyhadbeen
adequatelysettled.TheLodhisandtheearlyMughalscouldonlybringamodestandratherrestrainedversionoftheCentralAsianstyletoIndia.
InMultan,UcchSharif,andDeraGhaziKhan(allinWesternPunjab)whereamajorityofthepopulationhadbeenconvertedtoIslam,tombsbuiltinhonourofSufi
saintsdisplayedanexpressiveoriginalityevenastheyimbibedinfluencesfromCentralAsia.ButbeyondPunjab,theimpactwasfairlylimited,andsomeofthe
greatestIslamicmonumentsofthesubcontinentshowlittleifanytraceofforeigninfluence.
TheSultansofBengalandGujarat,theSharqikingsandSherShahSuriallcommissionedmonumentsthatwerevirtuallyunlikeanyseenoutsidethesubcontinent.
Theexquisitelychiseledreliefsinthe14thCJamaMasjidinPandua(oneoftheoldcapitalsoftheBengalSultanate)displayakinshipwiththecarvedreliefsofthe13thC
KakathiyamonumentsofWarangal.OthermosquesofthePandua/GaurregionskilfullyrecycledmaterialfromHinduandBuddhisttemples,creatingauniquelylyrical
andexpressiveBengaliIslamicstyle.LikethemonumentsofBukhara,someofthesemosquesandgatewaysweredecoratedwithcoloredtiles,buttheconstruction
techniquesandcolorswerequiteoriginal.ManyofthetilesweremulticoloredandincorporatedmotifsconsideredimportantandauspiciousintheIndiantradition.
InAhmedabadandChampaner,symbolicmotifsthathadbeeninuseforcenturiesinJainandHindumonumentswereemployedwithabandonandbecamethevery
focusofboththeinternalandexternaldecorativespaceofthetypicalmosqueortomb.TheChakra,thePadma,thePurnakalasa,theKalpavriksha,theKalpalataand
theJain'lampofknowledge'becamevitalcenterpiecesofthemonumentsoftheGujaratSultanate.
AlthoughgeometricaldecorationisacommonfeatureofallIslamicarchitecture,theIndianJaalidevelopedsomeoriginalfeaturesbycombiningmotifsconsidered
auspiciousintheHindutraditionwitharabesquesandgeometricaldesigns.LacelikeJaalisdistinguishtheSharqimonumentsofJaunpurandtheChunarmonuments
commissionedbySherShahSuri.
IntheDeccan,architecturalformsweresometimesinspiredbynature.TheHyderabadmonumentsstandoutfortheiruseofpineapplelikedomesandminarets,and
columnsmodelledonpalmtrees.Inmanyways,thesemonumentsaremoreinterestingthanthemorerenownedMughalmonuments.WhilethebestoftheMughal
monumentsstandoutfortheirbalanceofform,technicalvirtuosityandtheluxuriantuseofmarble,semipreciousstonesandgiltcriticsfindsomeMughalarchitecture
tobeexcessivelyformal,andabittooreliantonarchitecturalclichs.
Nevertheless,theMughaleramonumentsofPunjabstandoutinsomeways.InNakoddar(nearJullundhur)therearetwotombswithbrilliantpolychromedecorations,
unusualnotonlyfortheirtileworkbutalsobecausetheywerededicatedtoascholarandacourtmusician,notroyalpersonages.One,(alsoknownastheBaghdadi
owingtoit'simitationofastylepopularizedinBaghdad)effectivelyemploysgeometricarabesquesinyellow,greenandbluetilesetoffagainstabrickbackground,
whiletheothermakesliberaluseofthePurnakalasamotif,butwithaningeniousinnovation:thePurnakalasamotifappearsinarainbowofcoloredtiles.Tothe
uninformedthismayappearasaPersiantransplantsincefloralmotifswerealsousedinPersianarchitecture,butthePurnakalasamotifhadcomeintofrequentuse
duringthereignofAkbar(beforefloralmotifscametobewidelyemployedinthePersiantombs)andtheNakoddartombwasmorelikelyanaturalevolutionofthe
MughalstylepopularizedbyAkbar.LatertombsinLahoreappeartoeffectivelyreplicatethisstyle.
However,MughalarchitecturetookaondecisivelyconservativetoneduringthereignofAurangzeb.WiththeexceptionoftheQutabShahiswhoturnedHyderabad
intoagrandandgloriouscityinthe17thC,andtheAwadhnawabswhomadeLucknowfamousinthe18th19thC,thelastphaseoftheIslamicchapterinIndia
graduallyfadedintooblivion.
ThiswasinstarkcontrasttotrendsinPersia,wheretheSafavidscontinuedtobuildontheachievementsofthe16thCuntilwellintothe17thand18thCwhenthe
SafavidcapitalofIsfahanacquiredthereputationofbeingoneoftheworld'smosthandsomecities.WhereasAurangzeb'sreigninthesubcontinentwasmarredby
tremendouspoliticalstrifeandsocialupheaval,SafavidIranenjoyedrelativepeaceandprosperity,causingIndia'sPersian/Urduspeakingintellectualsandcultural
elitetolooktoPersiaforculturalaffirmationandinspiration.
TheDecorativeArtsandCrafts
Butintherealmofthedecorativeartsandcrafts,India'slegacyhadfewchallengers.TheMughalswereespeciallygreatpatronsofthedecorativearts,andalthough
initiallyitappearstheymayhavefavoredimportsfromPersiaandChina,Indianmanufacturesrapidlyperfectedandenhancedimportedstylesandtechniques.Indian
textileshadalwaysbeenknownfortheirrichcolorsandvarietyofdesign,andIndiansteelproductscommandedworldwiderespect.ButveryrapidlyIndiaalso
emergedasapreeminentcenterforavarietyoffineartsandcrafts,excellinginthemanufactureofallmannerofobjectssoughtbytheroyaltyincludingluxuriant
carpets,decoratedmetalware,finejewelry,glassandjadeware.Althoughinitially,theimpetusforsomeofthesecraftsmayhavecomefromChina,CentralAsiaor
Persiabythelate16th17thcentury,rulersinbothChinaandPersiacovetedluxurywarefromIndia,andsoughttoimitatetheperfectionofMughalmanufacturesin
theirownateliers.
ButtheMughalswerenotaloneintheirencouragementoffineartsandcrafts.TheRajputcourtsweremorethanequaltotheMughals,andfarmoreamenabletothe
employmentoftraditionalandfolkelementsintheirfurniture,jewelryandotherdecorativecrafts.Theyalsodisplayedagreaterfondnessforboldandsaturatedcolors
whereastheMughals(likeShahjahan)showedadistinctpreferenceforformalgraces.WhentheMughalempirecollapsed,itwastheRajputcourtsthatbecamethe
modelsfortheregionalSikhkingdoms,thehillkingdoms,thekingdomsofBundelkhandandBenares,andalsotheNawabsofBengalandAwadhtoanextent.The

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Deccancourtsalsoplayedasignificantpartinencouragingthedecorativeartsandcrafts,andtheytooexertedastronginfluenceonthecourtsinCuttack,ason
Lucknow.
(AmoredetaileddiscussionofIndianCraftsisavailableintheessay:HistoricAspectsofCraftandTradeinIndia)

ArtandArchitectureoftheRegionalKingdoms
WhereasMughalarchitecturewentintorapiddeclineaftertheascendanceofAurangzeb,aculturalrenaissanceofsortsoccurredintheregionalkingdomsoftheNorth,
andtheDeccanandMarathakingdomsoftheSouth.ButevenduringtheperiodofIslamicrule,theRajputs,theBundelkhandis,therulersofTripura,Manipurand
Assam,andtheVijaynagarandMalabarkingsretainedtheirindependence.IntheseregionsofIndia,architecturalstylesemergedthatwerepartiallyinfluencedby
contactswiththeIslamiccourts,butretainedalargedegreeofautonomyandcontinuitywitholderIndiantraditions.InTripura,Manipur,AssamandtheHimachal
region,bothtempleandpalacearchitecturewerestronglyinfluencedbyvernaculartraditions.
InGwalior,theManMandirpalace(builtinthe15thC)appearstoharkbacktoamucholderera.Oneofit'sfacadesbearsstrikingresemblancetodepictionsofapalace
intheAjantawallpaintings,andtherearealsosomearchitecturalsimilaritieswiththeAjantacaves.Aparticularlyinterestingaspectoftheindoordesignsarethe
creativetransformationoftwodimensionaldecorativemotifscommonlyseenintheIndiantempleorStupaintospatiallyeffectivethreedimensionalarchitectural
features.Theresplendantouterfacadeisinpolychrometileswithacharmingfriezeofgeese,palmandotherdecorativemotifs.Allinall,itisoneofIndia'sarchitectural
jewelsandtherearefewothersquitelikeit.{ThenowmostlyruinedpalaceintheRaisenfort(nearBhopal)bearssomeresemblancetoit,asdoesthemuchlaterandconsiderablymoreelaborateNayakpalacein
Madurai}

InVijaynagar,therewasaneclecticfusionofstylisticinputsderivedfrompreviousSoutherndynasties.AparticularlyinterestingdevelopmentwastheSrisailam
temple(centralAndhra14th15thC)allofwhosecarvingsareinfascinatinglyfolkishidiomavarietyofinterestingscenesfromthepopularepicsmakeupthethemesofit's
sculptedpanels.Particularlyendearingaretheportrayalsofyogis,acrobats,folkdancers,musicians,andqueenswiththeirladiesinwaiting.
AdistinctivefeatureoftheRajputfortswasthefancifuluseofcolor,mirrorwork,motherofpearandgiltinthedecorationoftheirfortresslikepalaces.Althoughnot
remarkableinarchitecturalterms,theJharokhasandAangans,andrichlydecoratedgatewaysmakethesepalacesuniqueandinteresting.InBikaner,thegoldlacquer
workisquiteexceptionalandprobablyinfluencedthedecorationoftheGoldenTempleinAmritsarandtheSheeshMahalinPatiala.
VirtuallyalloftheRajputPalaceshadChitraShalasi.e.paintinggalleries,andtheonesinJhalawar,Bundi,Nagaur,Karauli,Jaipur,andKishengarhareespecially
remarkableasarethegalleriesintheBundelkhandpalacesofDatia,OrchhaandJhansi.TheHimachalpalacesalsohavefineChitraShalas,suchasintheSultanpur
palaceinKuluandtheRangMahalofChamba.IntheSouth,theRamanathapurampalaceisnotableforit'sengagingwallpaintings,whileMajuliisarenownedcentre
ofwallpaintingsinAssam.
TheroleofFolkartintheIndianartistictradition
Asbroughtoutearlier,oneofthemostendearingaspectsofIndianartandarchitecturepriortocolonizationhasbeenthestrongimpactoffolkidiomsandfolkarton
courtlyart.Althoughfolkartreceivedlittleencouragementduringtheperiodofcolonization,independencebroughtforwardarenewedinterestinfolkpaintings.
Historically,folkartistsnotonlyprovidedanimportantrecreationalserviceinvillageandurbancommunities,theyhelpedpreserveculturaltraditionsthroughtheir
illustrationsoflovestories,popularballads,epicsandfolktales.Alongwithplaywrightsandpoets,theywereinstrumentalinthespreadofsocialvaluesandethics,
andreligiousandphilosophicalideasthathadpopularappeal.
Butaboveall,owingtotheirclosecontactwiththemasses,theirpaintingswereofteninfusedwithawarmthandattractivesimplicitythatmorethanmadeupforany
lackofformalgraceortechnicalbrilliance.Andinsomeways,itisthewidespreadpenetrationofthefolkidiomintocourtlytraditionsthathasbeentheoutstanding
hallmarkofIndianart,andgivesitit'shighlycharacteristicflavor.
(Foranabstractandthematicoutlineofthisarticle,clickhere.)
OnlineVisualReferences:
ForimagesofIndianartandarchitecture,see:
SurveyofIndiansculpture:INDIANSCULPTUREGALLERY
IndianMonuments:LEGACYINDIA and IMAGEINDIA
FolkArtandDrawings:JagdishandKamlaMittalMuseumofIndianArt
RagamalapaintingsfromtheDeccan(Hyderabad,18thC):BombayMuseum
SomeBuddhistArchealogicalSites
IndianSculptureandTempleOrnamentation
Forts,PalacesandToranas
ArchitectureoftheIslamicCourtsinIndia
IndianFolkArts&Crafts
AntiquesfromtheKhajurahoRegion

IllustratedTextReferences:
1.R.Nath:HistoryofDecorativeArtinMughalArchitecture
2.JagdishMittal:IndianFolkpaintings
3.C.Sivaramamurti:IndianPainting,NationalBookTrust,India
4.MiraSethi:WallPaintingsoftheWesternHimalayas(PublicationsDivision,GOI)

5.BirendranathDutta:FolkPaintinginAssam,TezpurUniversity

6.ShivKumarSharma:TheIndianPaintedScroll,KalaPrakashan,Varanasi

7.B.N.Goswamy/UshaBhatia:TheGoenkaCollectionofIndianPaintings(VedamsBooks)

8.R.A.Agarwal:Bundi,TheCityofPaintedWalls(PublicationsDivision,GOI)

9.LeelaShiveshwarkar:CharupanchasikaASanskritLoveLyric(PublicationsDivision,GOI)

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10.M.S.Randhawa:BasohliPaintings,KangraPaintingsonLove(PublicationsDivision,GOI)

11.M.S.Randhawa/D.SRandhawa,GulerPaintings(PublicationsDivision,GOI)

12.MukandiLal:GarhwalPaintings(PublicationsDivision,GOI)

13.KapilaVatsayan:GaurGitaGovinda(PublicationsDivision,GOI)

14.B.Mohanty:PataPaintingsofOrissa(PublicationsDivision,GOI)

15.C.Ramamurti:VijayanagarPaintings(PublicationsDivision,GOI)

Alsosee:K.M.Shrimali:Aestheticdeceptions(whocriticizesthecompartmentalizationanddivisionofIndia'sculturalhistoryalongreligiouslines).
Notes
C.Sivaramamurti(IndianPainting,NationalBookTrust,India)providesashortbutusefulintroductiontothestudyofIndianPainting.HeprovidesseveralreferencestoancienttextssuchastheChitrasutra
intheVishnudharmottara,theShilparatna(whichalsohadsectionsonsculptureandotherartforms),andtheAbhilashitarthachintamani,amongstmanyothertextsthatdescribevariousaspectsofthe
ancient(andmedieval)artsofIndia.Hereferstotreatises/essaysonartclassificationandartcriticismtheoriesonwhatconstitutesfineartonthemeritsanddemeritsofa"good"paintingtheconstructionof
chitrashalastodisplayartpaintingtechniquesandartmaterialssuchaspaintsandbrushesthesocialresponsetoart,it'simportanceintheculturallifeofIndiaandthestatusandrecognitionprovidedto
courtpainters.HisbookalsoprovidescolorillustrationsfromtheimportantcentresofIndianArtsuchas:Balavaste(34thCKushansite),GuptaperiodmuralsfromtheBaghCaves(5thC),Jatakaillustration
fromaVakatakaCavePainting(5thC,Ajanta),CavePaintingsfromBadami(WesternChalukyan6thC),Panamalai(Pallava7thC),TemplepaintingsfromThanjavur,LepakshiandChidambaram,
ManuscriptpaintingsfromMoodbidri(12thCHoysala),aPalaillustratedpalmleafillustration(12thC)aswellasillustrationstotheGitaGovindafromOrissaandanillustratedleaffromtheKalpasutra
(WesternIndia).
PagesfromIndia'sillustratedmanuscriptsarenowscatteredinmuseumsthroughouttheworld,andsomeofthemostinterestinggenresofIndianpaintinghavebecomealmostobscuredduetotheverylimited
availibilityoftheirrepresentationsinIndianmuseums.Forinstance,theillustratedKalpasutrasfromJaunpur(15thC)areveryunusualandattractivebecausealthoughtheysharecertainstylisticsimiliarities
withtheGujaratstyleofillustration,thecolorsaremorevivid,andthebordershaveamorefolkishflavor.
AlsolittleknownarethePalaeraillustratedmanuscriptsofBiharandBengal,andthevibrantlyillustratedmanuscriptsfromOrissa.ThecollectionsintheBenarasMuseum,theN.C.MehtaandtheSarabhai
collections(Ahmedabad),theSalarJungMuseum,andtheJagdishandKamlaMittalcollection(Hyderabad)areamongstthefinestinthecountryandareagoodplacetofindexamplesofinteresting
paintingsfromthelesserknownregionalschools.AparticularlyfinecollectionofSikhminiaturesisondisplayatthePatialaPalaceMuseum.
ThefolkelementcomesoutparticularlystronglyintheminiaturesfromtheMalwa,BundelkhandandMewarregionsandLalitKalaAcademy'srecentlyreleasedvolumeontheGoenkacollectionhasseveral
attractiveselections.ThreevivaciousexamplesfromtheMalwaschoolhavebeenincludedinHugoMunsterberg'sArtofIndiaandSouthEastAsia,whodescribesthebestoftheMalwaminiaturesas
"masterpiecesofcoloranddesign".

SincesofewMughalartifactsremainwithinIndia,itisdifficulttofullygaugetheexcellenceofdesignandexecutionthatexemplifieditemscommissionedduringthereignofemperorJehangir.However,
illustratedbooksonMughalartifactssuchasTheIndianHeritage:CourtLifeandArtsunderMughalRulewhichdocumentsMughalartifactsinthecollectionoftheVictoriaandAlbertMuseuminLondon
canbehelpfulinthisregard.Althoughthetextleavesmuchtobedesired,thenumerousplatesprovideagoodintroductiontothequalityandrangeofMughalartifacts.Whileitisunfortunatethatmuchofthe
MughallegacynowsurvivesinmuseumsoutsideIndia,pictorialvolumesdocumentingtheMughalheritagecanserveasimportantguidesinproperlyassessingtheMughalrecordinIndia.

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