L6, L7, & L8 (08 August 2014)

Transistors
The invention of the transistor by John Bardeen (19081991), Walter Brattain (19021987), and
William Shockley (19101989) in 1948 totally revolutionized the world of electronics. For this
work, these three men shared the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1956. By 1960, the transistor had
replaced the vacuum tube in many electronic applications. The advent of the transistor created a
multitrillion-dollar industry that produces such popular devices as personal computers, wireless
keyboards, smartphones, electronic book readers, and computer tablets (Serway & Jewett, 2014),
p.1368. Imaging the world without this amazing electronics building block, your cellphone would
be the size of a washing machine, your laptop wouldn't fit on your lap (or a single room), an your
iPod would still be a gleam in Steve Jobs's eye.
A transistor is a solid-state switch that opens or closes a circuit. Unlike an electromechanical relay,
the switching action in a transistor is caused by non-mechanical motion and is due to the change in
the electrical characteristics of the device. In addition, they enabled the miniaturization of
electronics, leading to the development of cellphones, iPods, GPS systems - and much more. You
can say, transistors are the heart of nearly every electronic device in the world, quietly working
away without taking up much space, generating a lot of heat, or breaking down every so often. In
fact, they were the salient invention that led to the electronic age, integrated circuits, and ultimately
the entire digital world.
They basically do just two things in electronic circuits: switch and amplify. But those two jobs are
the key to getting things done. The beauty of transistors is the way they can control electric current
flow in a manner similar to the way a faucet controls the flow of water. With a faucet, the flow of
water is controlled by a control knob. With a transistor, a small voltage and/or current applied to a
control lead acts to control a larger electric flow through its other two leads. For example, if you can
switch electron flow on and off, you have control over the flow, and you can build very involved
circuits by incorporating lots of switches in the right places. On the other hand, if you can amplify
an electrical signal, then you can store and transmit tiny signals and boost them when you need
them to make something happen.
The diagrams in figure below show some common transistor cases (also called packages). The cases
protect the semiconductor chip on which the transistor is built and provide leads that can be used to
connect it to other components. For each transistor, the diagrams show the lead designations and
how to identify them based on the package design.

Figure 1.

Common transistors (Boysen & Kybett, 2012), p.93.

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Nowadays, there are many different types of transistors. The three most common types of
transistors are:
v Bipolar junction transistors (BJTs).
v Field-effect transistors (FETs).
v Metal-oxide semiconductor field effect transistors (MOSFETs).
The major difference between the BJTs and FETs is that bipolar transistors require a biasing input
(or output) current at their control leads, whereas FETs require only a voltagepractically no
current. [Physically speaking, bipolar transistors require both positive (holes) and negative
(electrons) carriers to operate, whereas FETs only require one charge carrier.]

Page 2 of 34

Example: Transistors.
(a) How many leads are there on most transistors?
(b) Where there are only two leads, what takes the place of the third lead?
(c) What are the three leads or connections called?
(d) Why should you take care when soldering transistors into a circuit?
Solution:
(a) Three.
(b) The case can be used instead, as indicated in the diagram on the right side of figure above.
(This type of case is used for power transistors.)
(c) Emitter, base, and collector.
(d) Excessive heat can damage a transistor.

L7.1. Bipolar Junction Transistors-(also see textbook p.90)

1. The Definition and Structure of Bipolar Junction Transistors
The bipolar junction transistors (BJTs) were invented in 1945 by Shockley, Brattain, and Bardeen at
Bell Laboratories, subsequently replacing vacuum tubes in electronic systems and paving the way
for integrated circuits.
B consist of two pn -junctions fused together to form a three-layer sandwich-like structure. In other
words, you can think of a BJT as functioning like two diodes, connected back-to-back, as illustrated
in figure below.

Figure 2.

The structure of two pn-junctions (Boysen & Kybett, 2012), p.94.

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However, in the construction process, one important modification is made. Instead of two separate
p regions, as shown in figure above, only one thin region is used, as shown in figure below.

Figure 3.

A transistor.

As we saw, a BJT is a three-terminal device. One terminal is used as the control input, another is
connected to the load voltage, while the third is connected to ground or a constant potential. They
connect as shown in figure below.

Figure 4.

The three terminals of a transistor (Boysen & Kybett, 2012), p.95.

When talking about a transistor as two diodes, you refer to the diodes as the base-emitter diode and
the base-collector diode. By controlling the voltage applied to the base-emitter junction, you control
how that junction is biased (forward or reverse), ultimately controlling the flow of electrical current
through the transistor.
Shown in figure below is an example comprising of a p layer sandwiched between two n regions
and called an " npn " transistor.

Figure 5.

An npn BJT.
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Of course, it is also possible to make an " pnp " transistor as well. Both npn and pnp type
transistors can be made from either silicon or germanium.

Figure 6.

A pnp BJT.

v npn BJTs: A thin piece of p - type semiconductor is sandwiched between two thicker
pieces of n - type semiconductor, and leads are attached to each of the three sections.

Figure 7.

Schematic of an npn BJT.

v pnp BJTs: A thin piece of n - type semiconductor is sandwiched between two thicker
pieces of p - type semiconductor, and leads are attached to each of the three sections.

Figure 8.

Schematic of a pnp BJT.

The circuit symbol for the both BJTs are shown in figure below.

Figure 9.

Circuit symbol of an npn BJT.

As denoted by the bold n in figure above, the n - type silicon in the emitter is more heavily doped
than the collector, so the collector and emitter are not interchangeable.
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Figure 10.

Circuit symbol of a pnp BJT.

Some general characteristics of a BJT are:

v A BJT is an active device that requires power to operate.
v The BJT is a current-controlled device whose operation depends on the magnitude of the
current supplied to the base.
v A small base current allows a much larger current to flow between the collector and the
emitter.
v The BJT has three states of operation. These include the off or non-conducting state, the
linear state, and the saturation state. These states of operation are determined by the
magnitude of the VBE and VCE voltage. The former is set by the current supplied to the base.
v The voltage at the emitter ( VE ) is always lower than the voltage at the base ( VB ) by about
0.6 V.
v The collector voltage ( VC ) has to be more positive than the emitter voltage ( VE ).
v If AC voltages are applied to the base input, then a DC offset voltage (called a bias voltage)
needs to be added in series to the AC voltage to enable the transistor to be controlled by both
the positive and negative parts of the AC signal.

Example: Transistors.
(a) Why dont two diodes connected back-to-back function like a transistor?
(b) Which transistor terminal includes an arrowhead?
(c) Draw a circuit symbol for both an npn and a pnp transistor.
(d) Which of the transistors represented by these symbols might be silicon?

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(e) Are silicon and germanium ever combined in a transistor?

Solution:
(a) The transistor has one thin p region, whereas the diodes share two thick p regions.
(b) The emitter.
(c) See figure below.

(d) Either or both could be silicon. (Either or both could also be germanium)
(e) Silicon and germanium are not mixed in any commercially available transistors. However,
researchers are attempting to develop ultra-fast transistors that contain both silicon and
germanium.
2. How Bipolar Transistors Work
Before continuing with the BJT, it is instructive to study an interesting effect in pn -junctions.
Figure below is a schematic representation of a pnp BJT along with its attendant circuitry. A very
thin n - type base region is sandwiched in between p - type emitter and collector regions. The
circuit that includes the emitter-based junction (junction 1) is forward biased, whereas a reverse bias
voltage is applied across the base-collector junction (junction 2).

Figure 11.
Schematic diagram of a pnp BJT and its associated circuitry, including input and
output voltage-time characteristics showing voltage amplification (Callister & Rethwisch, 2010),
p.751.
Figure below illustrates the mechanics of operation in terms of the motion of charge carriers.
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Figure 12.
For a BJT, the distributions and directions of electron and hole motion (a) When no
potential is applied; and (b) With appropriate bias for voltage amplification (Callister & Rethwisch,
2010), p.751.
Because the emitter is p - type and junction 1 is forward biased, large numbers of holes enter the
base region. These injected holes are minority carriers in the n - type base, and some will combine
with the majority electrons. However, if the base is extremely narrow and the semiconducting
materials have been properly prepared, most of these holes will be swept through the base without
recombination, then across junction 2 and into the p - type collector.
The holes now become a part of the emittercollector circuit. A small increase in input voltage
within the emitterbase circuit produces a large increase in current across junction 2. This large
increase in collector current is also reflected by a large increase in voltage across the load resistor,
which is also shown in the circuit (see Figure 11). Thus, a voltage signal that passes through a
junction transistor experiences amplification; this effect is also illustrated in figure above by the two
voltagetime plots.
Similar reasoning applies to the operation of an npn BJT, except that electrons instead of holes are
injected across the base and into the collector.

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Figure 13.

The simple work model of an npn BJT (Scherz & Monk, 2013), p.431.

Consider the reverse-biased junction depicted in figure below and recall from last class that the
depletion region sustains a strong electric field. Now suppose an electron is somehow injected
from outside into the right side of the depletion region. What happens to this electron? Serving as a
minority carrier on the p side, the electron experiences the electric field and is rapidly swept away
into the n side. The ability of a reverse-biased pn -junction to efficiently collect externallyinjected electrons proves essential to the operation of the bipolar transistor.

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Figure 14.

Injection of electrons into depletion region (Razavi, 2014), p.125.

3. Bipolar Transistor Water Analogy

Figure 15.

Bipolar transistor water analogy (Scherz & Monk, 2013), p.436.

4. Bipolar Transistor Physics Theory

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Let us label the voltages applied to the B, C, and E terminals as VB , VC , and VE , respectively (see
figure below). The transistor is labelled Q1 here.

Figure 16.

(a) Structure; and (b) Circuit symbol of an npn BJT (Razavi, 2014), p.124.

Let us further define the following voltage differences and current:

VBE = VB - VE .

(1)

VCE = VC - VE .

(2)

I E = IC + I B .

(3)

For the transistor to be on, the base-to-emitter junction must be forward biased ( VBE = 0.6 V , so
VB = VE + 0.6 V ). When this is the case, a large collector current can flow ( I C > 0 ) with a small
base current ( I B << I C ), and there will be a small voltage drop (VCE ) in the collector-to-emitter
circuit ( VE = VC - VCE ).
To understand how the npn BJT functions, we begin by considering the base-to-emitter junction.
Because this junction is forward biased ( VB > VE ), electrons diffuse from the emitter n - type
region to the base p - type region. On the other hand, because the base-to-collector junction is
reverse biased ( VC > VB ), there is a depletion region that would ordinarily prevent the flow of
electrons from the base region into the collector region.
However, because the base region is manufactured to be very thin and the emitter n - type region is
more heavily doped than the base, most of the electrons from the emitter accelerate through the base
region with enough momentum to cross the depletion region into the collector region without
recombining with holes in the base region. For example, on the average, out of every 200 electrons
injected by the emitter, one recombines with a hole.
Remembering that conventional current is in the opposite direction of electron motion, the result is
that a small base current ( I B ) flows from the base to the emitter and a larger current ( I C ) flows
from the collector to the emitter. In other words, the base current ( I B ) must supply holes for both
reverse injection into the emitter and recombination with the electrons travelling toward the
collector (see figure below).

Page 11 of 34

Figure 17.

Base current resulting from holes; (a) Crossing to emitter; and (b) Recombining
with electrons (Razavi, 2014), p.132.

The small base current controls a larger collector current, and therefore the BJT functions as a
current amplifier. This characteristic can be approximated with the following equation:
IC = b I B

or

I C = hFE I B .

(4)

which states that the collector current is proportional to the base current with an amplification factor
known as the beta ( b ) for the transistor. In general, it is called current gain, because it shows
how much the base current is amplified. Manufacturers often use the symbol hFE instead of b .
Now, if you combine this equation with I E = I C + I B , you can come up with an equation relating
the emitter and base currents:
I E = ( hFE + 1) I B .

(5)

As you can see, this equation is almost identical to the current-gain equation ( I C = hFE I B ), with
exception of the +1 term. In practice, the +1 is insignificant as long as hFE is large (which is almost
always the case). For typical BJTs, b is on the order of 100, but it can vary significantly among
transistors (range from 50 to 1000).
This means that you can make the following approximation:
I E IC .

(6)

In addition, b is also temperature and voltage dependent; therefore, a precise relationship should
not be assumed when designing specific transistor circuits.

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Now, it is important to note that the current-gain formula applies only if rules1 and 2 are met, i.e.,
assuming the transistor is within the active region. Finally, in mathematical form, the rule expresses
as the follows:
VBE = VB - VE = 0.6V ( npn )
VBE = VB - VE = -0.6V ( pnp )

Figure 18.

(7)

The relationship between emitter, collector, and base (Scherz & Monk, 2013), p.433.

One final note with regard to bipolar transistor theory involves what is called transresiststance ( rtr ).
Transresistance represents a small resistance that is inherently present within the emitter junction
region of a transistor. Two things that determine the transresistance of a transistor are temperature
and emitter current flow. The following equation provides a rough approximation of the rtr :
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rtr =

0.026V
.
IE

(8)

In many cases, rtr is insignificantly small (usually well below 1000 ) and does not pose a major
threat to the overall operation of a circuit. However, in certain types of circuits, treating rtr as being
insignificant will not do. In fact, its presence may be the major factor determining the overall
behaviour of a circuit. We will take a closer look at transresistance later on in this chapter.
In addition, BJTs have certain parameters that should not be exceeded. These parameters include
maximum collector current and the power dissipation capability. These parameters are listed in
table below for three common npn BJTs.
Table 1.

CHARATERISTICS OF COMMON

npn BJT TRANSISTORS

Note that the power dissipation capability of a transistor is dependent on the environment
temperature. In table above, the power is listed for air temperature of 25C. The power dissipation
decreases with increasing temperature.
5. Darlington Transistor
The TIP102 transistor is called a Darlington transistor and it consists of two cascaded BJT
transistors to amplify the collector current (see figure below). The advantage of this combination is
that the current gain is the product of the two individual transistor gains and can exceed 10,000.
They may often be found in power circuits for mechatronics systems.

Figure 19.

Schematic of a Darlington transistor (Scherz & Monk, 2013), p.443.

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By attaching two transistors together as shown here, a larger current-handling, larger hFE equivalent
transistor circuit is formed. The combination is referred to as a Darlington pair. The equivalent hFE
for the pair is equal to the product of the individual transistors hFE values ( hFE = hFE1 hFE 2 ).
Darlington pairs are used for large current applications and as input stages for amplifiers, where big
input impedances are required. Unlike single transistors, however, darlington pairs have slower
response times (it takes longer for the top transistor to turn the lower transistor on and off) and have
twice the base-to- emitter voltage drop (1.2 V instead of 0.6 V) as compared with single transistors.
Darlington pairs can be purchased in single packages.
6. Basic Operation

Transistor Switch

In the pnp circuit, everything is reverse; current must leave the base in order for a collector current
to folw.

Page 15 of 34

Current Source

Current Biasing Methods

Page 16 of 34

Voltage Regulator

In addition, two of the most common standard BJT circuits are called common emitter circuit and
the emitter follower circuit. These circuits are discussed next.
7. Common Emitter Transistor Circuit
If a BJT's emitter is grounded and an input voltage is applied to the base, the result is the common
emitter circuit, because both the emitter and the supply voltage ground are connected to the same
common point.
The transistor switch or common emitter circuit is shown in figure below. In this circuit, Vin is the
control voltage, Vout is the output voltage, and VCC is the supply voltage. In this circuit, a resistor
( RC ) is always placed between the supply voltage lead and the collector. In practice, this resistor
represents the resistance of a load (such as an LED or motor) that needs to be switched on and off,
and hence, the name of this circuit.

Page 17 of 34

Figure 20.

Common emitter circuit (Jouaneh, 2013), p.43.

The transfer and output characteristics of a BJT are shown in figure below. In figure below (a), the
collector current ( I C ) is plotted against VBE . The figure shows that the collector current ( I C ) is zero
unless VBE exceeds 0.6 V, at which point I C starts increasing.

Figure 21.

(a) Transfer; and (b) Output characteristics of a BJT (Jouaneh, 2013), p.43.

Figure above (b) shows the relationship between I C and VCE as a function of the base current
( I B ).The figure shows that away from the vertical axis or in the linear region, the collector current
is mainly a function of the base current and does not change appreciably with an increase in VCE .
Close to the vertical axis or in the saturation region, I C is a function of both VCE and I B .
Some important terms used to describe a transistors operation include saturation region, cutoff
region, linear (or active) region, bias, and quiescent point (Q-point)

Saturation region refers to a region of operation where maximum collector current flows and
the transistor acts much like a closed switch from collector to emitter.

Cutoff region refers to the region of operation near the voltage axis of the collector
characteristics graph, where the transistor acts like an open switch only a very small
leakage current flows in this mode of operation.

Page 18 of 34

Linear (or active) region describes transistor operation in the region to the right of saturation
and above cutoff, where a near-linear relationship exists between terminal currents
( I B , I C , I E ).

Bias refers to the specific DC terminal voltages and current of the transistor to set a desired
point of active-mode operation, called the quiescent point, or Q-point.

In general, a BJT has three states of operations:

v When VBE < 0.6 V , the transistor is said to be in the off state (non-conducting state). In this
state, no current flows between the collector and the emitter, so I C = 0 . The Vout voltage
will be the same as the VCC voltage, because no current flows between VCC and VC .
v When 0.6 V VBE < 0.7 V and VCE > 0.2 V , the transistor is in the linear operation state. In
the linear operation state, the collector current ( I C ) is linearly related to the base current ( I B )
by the following relationship:
IC = b I B .

(9)

v When VBE 0.7 V , the transistor is in the saturation state. In this state, current flows
between the collector and the emitter, and VCE has a value of 0.2 V . Vout in this case will be
same as VCE , and the output voltage will switch from VCC to 0.2 V when the transistor
switches from the off state to the saturation state.
In the common emitter circuit, the transistor is normally designed to operate in either the off state or
the on (saturation) state, but not in the linear state. The question is then what is the minimum Vin
voltage needed to cause the transistor to saturate?
By referencing figure (see figure below) and using KVL, we get
Vin = I B RB + VBE .

Figure 22.

(10)

Common emitter circuit (Jouaneh, 2013), p.43.

and just before saturation, I B is related to I C by

Page 19 of 34

IB =

IC
b

or

I C = hFE I B = b I B .

(11)

where I C is determined from

IC =

(VCC - VCE ) .

(12)

RC

These equations can be solved to find Vin to cause saturation.

It is important to note that the equations here are idealistic in form. In reality, these equations may
result in unreal answers. For instance, they tend to screw up when the currents and voltages are
not within the bounds provided by the characteristic curves. If you apply the equations blindly,
without considering the operating characteristics, you could end up with some wild results that are
physically impossible.
The common emitter transistor circuit can serve as semiconductor switch to turn on or off an LED,
electric motor, solenoid, electric light, or some other load (represented by RC ). These loads require
large currents, ranging from milliamps to many amps, to function properly. When the input voltage
and current are increased enough to saturate the transistor, a large collector current flows through
the load RC . The magnitude of the collector current is determined by the load resistance RC and the
collector voltage (VCC ). When the base-to-emitter voltage is below 0.6 V, the transistor is off, and
no current flows through the load.
Let us summarize the guidelines for designing a transistor switch:
v The collector must be more positive than the base or emitter.
v To be ON, the base-to-emitter voltage (VBE ) must be at least 0.6 V.
v The collector current ( I C ) is independent of base current ( I B ) when the transistor is
saturated, as long as there is enough base current to ensure saturation.
v The minimum base current ( I B ) required can be estimated by first determining the collector
I
current ( I C ) and then applying ( I Bmin C ).
b
v For a given input voltage, the input resistance must be chosen so that the base current ( I B )
exceeds this value by a conservative margin (e.g., 5-10 times larger).The reasons for this are
that may vary among components, with temperature, and with voltage; and the load
resistance may changes as current flow through it.
v It is also important to calculate the maximum values of I C and I B to ensure that they fall
within the manufacturer's specifications, and add or change series resistors if the currents are
too large.

Example: Voltage saturation calculations for the 2N3904 transistor.

The 2N3904 transistor is a small-single transistor manufactured by many companies as a general
purpose amplifier and switch. If you examine the specifications online or in a discrete transistor
handbook, you can find a complete list of ratings and electrical characteristics. Here is some of the
Page 20 of 34

information provided:
v Maximum collector current (continuous)=200 mA .
v VCC =10 V ; VCE ( sat ) =0.2 V; VBE =0.7 V .
v RC = 1 k ; RB = 5 k .
v hFE = b = 100 (depending on collector current and many other things)
and with reference to figure below:

Figure 23.

Common emitter circuit (Jouaneh, 2013), p.43.

(a) Determine the input voltage needed to cause the transistor to saturate.
(b) What is the output voltage ( Vout ) of this circuit during the off states if VCC = 10 V ?
(c) What is the output voltage ( Vout ) of this circuit during the saturation states if VCC = 10 V ?
Solution:
(a) Because VCE (saturate) for the 2N3904 is 0.2 V , when the transistor is fully saturated the
collector current is
(10 - 0.2 ) = 9.8 mA .
IC =
1000
Notice that I C has to be smaller than the 200 mA limit for the collector current, which is
satisfied in this case. Also from the data sheet, the DC current gain ( hFE ) is about 100, I B must
I
I
be at least C (use Eq. I B = C ) , that means, I B just before saturation is given by
b
100
I
9.8
IB = C =
= 0.098 mA .
100 100
Because VBE =0.7 V and RB = 5 k , the input voltage for saturation is
Vin = 0.098 5 + 0.7 = 1.19 V . (use Eq. Vin = I B RB + VBE )
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To insure saturation, Vin has to be greater than 1.19 V. This can be achieved easily if we let Vin
be 2 V for example.
(b) When this transistor is off, Vin has to be less than VBE when the transistor just turns on (less
than 0.6 V). In this case, Vout will be equal to VCC (10 V).
(c) When the transistor is in saturation,
Vout = VCE = 0.2 V .
8. Common Emitter Amplifier

Page 22 of 34

9. Emitter Follower Circuit

The emitter follower circuit is shown in figure below.

Figure 24.

Emitter follower circuit (Jouaneh, 2013), p.45.

Note how the output is connected to the emitter is this case, and there is no resistor between VCC
and the collector. This circuit is called the emitter follower, because the output voltage follows the
input voltage with a difference of about 0.6V. Assume first that there is no resistor RB in this circuit.
Then VB = Vin ,
Vout = VE = Vin - VBE = Vin - 0.6 (for Vin > 0.6 V) .

(13)

Vout = VE = 0 (for Vin < 0.6 V) .

(14)

and

Page 23 of 34

Now if the resistor RB was present, we need to account for the voltage drop across this resistor and
Vout is then equal to
Vout = Vin - I B RB - 0.6 (for Vin > 0.6 V) .
But I E = I C + I B , I E =

(15)

Vout
, and I C = b I B when the transistor is in the linear state. This gives
RE
Vout
.
(1 + b ) RE

(16)

I E = I B (1 + b ) .

(17)

IB =
and

Eq. ( I E = I B (1 + b ) ) shows the current gain of this circuit is (1 + b ) . Substituting Eq.

( IB =

Vout
) into Eq. (Vout = Vin - I B RB - 0.6 (for Vin > 0.6 V) ) and solving for Vout , we get
(1 + b ) RE
Vout = Vin - 0.6

(1+b ) RE
RB + (1 + b ) RE

(18)

Equation above shows that the output voltage (Vout ) is linearly related to the input voltage ( Vin ) and
is independent of the supply voltage ( VCC ). The output voltage ( Vout ) is also in phase with the input
voltage ( Vin ), and voltage gain is slightly less than 1. The above three equations apply as long as the
transistor is not in saturation. When the transistor saturates, Vout is equal to VCC - 0.2 because VCE
is about 0.2 volts at saturation.
Overall, the emitter follower has current gain, a feature that is just as important in applications as
voltage gain. This means that this circuit requires less power from the signal source (applied to Vin )
to drive a load than would otherwise be required if the load were to be powered directly by the
source.
By manipulating the transistor gain equation and using Ohms law, the input resistance and output
resistance are :

Rin = hFE Rload

Rout =

Rsource .
hFE

(19)

Page 24 of 34

Example: Analysis of a BJT circuit.

Determine the voltages at points 1 and 2 in the circuit shown in figure below , for

a) Vin = 0.1 V and

b) Vin = 3 V .
Let RC = 1 k ; RB = RE = 100 .and VCC = 10 V .
Solution:
(a) For Vin = 0.1 V , the transistor is off, because Vin has to be larger than 0.6 V to cause the
transistor to start conducting. So
V1 = VCC = 10 V , since the current I C = 0 .
V2 = 0 V , because VBE < 0.6 V .
(b) For Vin = 3 V , the transistor is either operating in the linear range or saturated. We will
assume that the transistor is just at the point of being saturated, and we will check this
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assumption by comparing the currents I C and I B .

Applying KVL to the VCC loop gives
VCC = I C RC + VCE + I E RE .
Similarly, applying KVL to the Vin loop gives
Vin = I B RB + VBE + I E RE .
Noting that I E = I C + I B , and using the given values for RB , RC , RE , Vin , and VCC , and
assuming VCE = 0.2 V and VBE = 0.7 V at saturation, we get

10

= RC + VCE + I E RE
= 1000 I C + 0.2 + 100 ( I C + I B )

10
10

= 1000 I C + 0.2 + 100 I C + 100 I B

= 1100 I C + 0.2 + 100 I B

VCC

and
Vin

I B RB + VBE + I E RE

= 100 I B + 0.7 + 100 ( I C + I B )

3
3

= 100 I B + 0.7 + 100 I C + 100 I B

= 100 I C + 0.7 + 200 I B

Solving equations for I B and I C , we get

I C = 8.24 mA , and I B = 7.36 mA .
For I C = 10 mA , the current gain b is about 100 if the transistor is operating in the linear range.
Since I C b I B , the transistor is in saturation and the assumption is correct. This gives
V1 = VCC - I C RC = 10 - 8.24 (1) = 1.76 V .
V2 = I E RE = ( I C + I B ) RE = ( 8.24 + 7.36 ) ( 0.1) = 1.56 V .

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10. Emitter Follower (or Common collector) Amplifier

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11. Open Collector Output

Many sensors used in mechatronics applications such as proximity sensors, have electronic circuits
that use an internal BJT as an interface. The output of the sensor electronic circuit drives the base of
the transistor. These circuits are normally known as open collector output voltage circuits. To get
an output from these sensors, an appropriate pull-up resistor or load, and the supply voltage needs
to be applied to the terminals of the sensor.
Figure below shows a typical wiring for such a sensor. In this example, a positive voltage needs to
be applied to terminal 1 and a pull-up resistor needs to be connected between terminals 1 and 2.
When the proximity sensor is OFF, the transistor is not in saturation, and there will be no voltage
drop across the load resistor, since the collector terminal 2 is open with respect to the emitter
terminal 3. The output in this case will be pulled up by the load resistor to the value of the external
supply voltage.

Figure 25.

Typical circuit for an npn type non-contact, capacitive-type proximity sensor

(Jouaneh, 2013), p.47.

When an object is detected by the proximity sensor, the transistor conducts and a voltage drop
develops across the load resistor, resulting in the output voltage changing from the value of the
supply voltage to almost zero.
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12. Phototransistor, Photo Interrupter, and Opto-Isolator

Instead of using a voltage source to saturate the transistor, a phototransistor (see figure below (a))
uses light that is received by a photodiode to do the same thing. Typically a phototransistor and an
LED are packaged together to make optical sensors that can be used to detect the presence of
objects. In these sensors, which are commonly referred to as photo interrupters (see Figure blow
(b)), the LED provides a light source that is received by the phototransistor. An interruption of the
light received by the phototransistor causes the phototransistor to change state, thus indicating the
presence of an object in the path between the LED and the phototransistor.

Figure 26.

(a) Phototransistor; and (b) photo interrupter (Jouaneh, 2013), p.48.

An opto-isolator or an optocoupler combines two elements (a light-emitting device such as a diode

and a light-sensitive device) similar to a photo interrupter but in an enclosed package. An optoisolator is also designed for a different purpose, which is to provide an optical coupling between the
input and the output sides. The light emitter on the input side takes a voltage signal and converts it
into a light signal. On the output side, the light-sensitive device detects the light from the emitter
and converts it back to a voltage signal. The light-sensitive device could be a phototransistor, a
photodiode, or a thyristor. This optical coupling provides electrical noise isolation between the
input and the output sides. To take advantage of this isolation, a separate power supply should be
used for the input and output sides. Opto-isolators are used to prevent voltage spikes on one side of
the device to damage or affect components on the other side. Opto-isolators are available with
isolation of 5 kV or more between the input and output sides.

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13. Important Things to Know about BJTs

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References
Boysen, E., & Kybett, H. (2012). Complete electronics self-teaching guide with projects. 10475
Crosspoint Boulevard Indianapolis, IN 46256: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., ISBN 978-1-11821732-0.
Callister, W. D., & Rethwisch, D. G. (2010). Materials science and engineering: an introduction
(8th ed.). River Street, Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons. Inc., ISBN 978-0-470-41997-7.
Jouaneh, M. (2013). Fundamentals of mechatronics. Stamford, CT, USA: Cengage Learning, ISBN
978-1-111-56901-3.
Razavi, B. (2014). Fundamentals of microelectronics. River Street, Hoboken, NJ, USA: John Wiley
& Sons, Inc., ISBN 978-1-118-15632-2.
Scherz, P., & Monk, S. (2013). Practical electronics for inventors. New York Chicago San
Francisco Lisbon: McGraw-Hill, ISBN 978-0-07-177134-4.
Serway, R. A., & Jewett, J. W. (2014). Physics for scientists and engineers with modern physics.
Boston, MA, USA: Brooks/Cole CENAGE Learning, ISBN 978-1-133-95405-7.

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Additional Readings
1. Transistor

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2. Pinouts for Bipolar Transistors

3. Darlington Transistor

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