Bio202: Exam One Notes

Bio202: Exam One Notes
Why do we always begin with atoms and neutrons and protons?

We have to understand atoms and the properties of atoms and what causes them to come
together to make molecules and macromolecules in order to have a proper form.
What is about these

guys that makes them
so likely to come
together in varied and
complexed ways?
How can they give us
macromolecules that
give us properties? Why
do fats give us energy?
What is it about DNA
that causes us to code?
functions.
Matter
space.
about
earth,
If they're all made up of

the same thing why do
they have such different
is anything that has mass and takes up

We are going to use mass and weight
interchangeably since we are talking
life we are talking about things here on
so gravity doesn't mean much to us. im
sure you've learned that matter

comes in different forms s,l,m and we are not going to be talking about any bizarre
temperatures.
And so we begin at the beginning with elements and atoms. Elements is a pure substance made
up of one kind of an atom and an atom cannot be broken down into simpler substances by
chemical means.
We are interested primarily in atoms
and how they interact with each
other, and the electrons since as we
know those are what drives atoms
to come together to form
molecules.
Reads slide.

yes i know you guys are like really? how many times do i sit through this slide
Atom has a nucleus made out of protons and neutrons (same mass) very tiny mass. Protons
have a positive charge and neutrons are neutrons.
The electrons are in obit

around the nucleus and have
the same amount of charge
as the protons except
negative, so the atom itself is
neutron.

Some elements have a lot of different isotopes, some have a few some have none. Isotopes are
different forms that the atoms can exist in. Some are stable others are unstable. Unstable
isotopes can spontaneously give off matter or energy and they are known as radioactive. Not all
isotopes are radioactive.
Isotopes have a lot of use in

bio and well be talking about
how we use them a lot later in the
semester, how scientists use isotopes to
understand DNA replication..
They are are a very important tool about
asking questions about
processes that occur within cells.
The rate of decay can go
from thousand of years to
10^-21 seconds, so they
have a very broad range of
half life. Depending on the
isotope this can be used for
different things. On the
bottom is a petscan that
uses an isotope of glucose
labeled with radioactive
fluorine.

The electrons exist in orbitals (defined as the path that the electron is taking). Orbitals exist
moving out from the nucleus. We have energy levels or shells and each of these has one or
more orbitals and the electrons go in the orbitals in 2s. Like everyone else no one likes to be
alone. electrons like to be in pairs too.
The first shell has one orbital and can hold on pair of electrons. Moving further away from the
atomic nucleus is the second
shell which has four orbitals,
each holding 2 electrons,
giving us a total of 8 electrons.
All of the orbitals we will be
talking about beyond the
second shell we can consider
the
same. We can define what an
electron looks like or atom
looks like showing its
electrons. We see Neon has
all shells full.
When we look at how atoms
are described there is going to
be a letter which is the
abbreviation for the element
and above it is the atomic
number which is the number of protons and below it the atomic mass which is the sum of the
protons and neutrons. Sometimes its not a full integer because it is the average mass of carbon
(among isotopes). That
average is the average mass of
carbon. The inner shell has one
orbital and it is full, the second
orbital has 4 electrons but
doesn't have partners.

Looking at the second and third shell (4 orbitals) each can have up to 2 electrons. Anywhere up
to 1-8 electrons.
AS you go from L to R
you are increasing
both number of
protons and
electrons. The outer
shell is referred to as
the valence shell
because it is the shell
involved in
meaningful
interactions between
atoms. Anywhere
between 1 and 8.
Everything in the
same column, has
the same electron
story. It is what is
going on with the
electrons that
determines the
reactivity of the atom. They are stable when all their orbitals are full. The rule that defines how
atoms behave is that they are given to have a partner for all of their electrons and have all of
their orbitals full.
We are made up of atoms because of their reactivity, which means they must share electrons
with other atoms.
Notice that they all have unpaired

electrons.

Big shots now that we learned about atoms were moving onto molecules.
Hydrogen atoms are very unstable and have one unpaired electrons. two hydrogens stay close
enough to each other and electron orbitals combine.
This is called a covalent bond, because they share the
electrons co for
cooperative Va. for
valance electrons. Not the
only kind of bond, but most
important since it is the most
stable in biological settings.
Carbon has an atomic

number of 6, inner = 2, outer
= 4. Each of these are
occupying an orbital all by
itself having 4 unpaired
electrons, so it can share
each with a hydrogen so
each of these covalent
bonds means that the
electrons are being
shared
dots in red, are shared.
Electrons are shared but

not always shared equally.
A polar bond means they are (not equal) most likely to be on one side more
than another, typical
because one atomic
nucleus is larger having a
much bigger positive
charge so the electrons
are more likely to be there
because opposites attract.

A nonpolar covalent bond they are equal.

F is the most electronegative but were not made of it so we dont care.
O is in living things.
Oxygen is sucking all of the electrons to it. Polar covalent bonds actually have a slight charge.

A hydrogen bond is not a covalent bond but it is very important because it drives the properties
of water which is essential to life. All molecules of water look like mickey mouse with the big ears
because oxygen has
the four orbitals but
2 are filled with
electrons from
Oxygen alone and 2
are involved in
covalent bonds. All of these
slightly positively
charged Hydrogens are
appealing to the
negatively charged .
Hydrogen bond is not a
covalent bond,
electrons are not being
shared. it is an
attraction but brings the
molecules close to one
another and are part of
our understanding of the
structure of double stranded DNA.
Classical example is
table salt Sodium has
one lone electron in its
outer shell, chlorine is
missing one so the
chlorine boosts that
electron from sodium
and then everyone is
happy.
The consequence of
this happening, an
electron going from one atom to another is that these atoms are
really no longer atoms

since atoms are neutral. Once you lose or gain an electron you now have a charge. So you are
an ion.
Ions are attracted to one another is ionic attraction. An attraction based an opposites attatch.
Ionic
bonds are attractions based on opposite ions,
and
when you have on in real life its really not just
2, its
a crystal (a huge chunk of
attracted positive and
negative attracted ions).
velcro).
Attractions that can happen

transiently between atomic
nuclei or atoms when
they get to be a certain
distance between one
another. If they get closer
than that they repel one
another and further they're not
attracted.
It only works when atoms are a
certain distance between
one another (think
Carbon is the
backbone of
biological molecules
because it is
unparalleled. Nothing
else like it.
It has a strong drive
to be involved in
chemical drives

because it has 4 unpaired electrons. All of the biological molecules have a backbone made up
of carbon.
Carbon is driven to form covalent bonds and stable covalent bonds, and biological molecules
must be stable or else wed all fall apart. Carbon is happy with 4 covalent bonds so it bonds with
other molecules in lots of different ways.
This is what you

have to know.
Hydrogen valence
of 1, 1 unpaired
electron looking for
one. Oxygen 2
looking for 2.
Nitrogen 3 unpaired
electrons looking
for 3. Carbon 4
unpaired electrons
looking for 4.
Lecture 2
Acids and Bases
(slide)
The behavior of
water and concepts
that makes us
understand pH
which is crucial in
bio function and
what goes on in

our planet and the processes that occur on the inside of our cells and of other organisms, which
is maintained by pH.
The molecule of water can exist as we know it as H2O and it can also exist in another state and
the fact that there are arrows in both directions means there is an equilibrium. Water can
disassociate to form 2 ions called a hydronium ion ( additional proton) or the hydroxide ion who
has lost a proton.
The disassociation of water to form hydronium and hydroxide ions is very rare, the vast majority
of water exists as water molecules. In any solution of pure water the vast majority is H2O but
one in 10^-7 M
are existing as
hydronium ions
and hydroxide
ions. M, refers to
a way we can
describe the
concentrations of
solutes in solution that
is dependent on the
molecular weight. So
the molecular weight for
example of sodium chl
is the number of
protons and neutrons in
a sodium plus the
amount in a cl and we
get 58. A one molar
solution of sodium chloride would be to take the molecular weight (58) and add 58 grams to 1 L
of water, that would be a 1 Molar Solution. The amount that you may found of each different
solute will be different, but the amount of molecules will be the same. A 10 ^ -7 Molar
Logarithms with a negative number are the number of zeroes between the decimal place and
the number. The larger the number, the smaller the number actually is. Just like 1/8 is smaller
than 1/4 10 ^-7 is less than 10^-3. The vast majority of molecules exist at water molecule but
10^-7 are in the ionium form, but present in equal amounts. Even though we know that it actually
is a hydronium ion sometimes our short hard is to represent it as H+ and OH-. We know its not
really a free proton, but for explanation purposes in terms of pH we use H+.
The hydrogen or H+ and hydroxide ions in pure water are the same because every time a water
molecule disassociates you make on H+ and one OH-. So the amount will alway she 10^-14
molar.
Sometimes you can
dissolve things in
water that change the
amount of hydrogen ions
or hydroxide ions so that
they are no longer equal
towards one another
making the solution either
acidic or basic and
changes the solution. If
you have more H+ than
OH- you have an acidic
pH.
So again if you introduce
something into the water
that increases the amount
of H+, the solution is now
acidic. If you take a strong base like sodium hydroxide and dissolve that in water you have more
OH-, so this solution is a
base.
Other bases dont add OHbut remove protons, NH3

can pick up a proton and
become NH4+ so doing this
out of solution effectively
raises the concentration of
OH- decreasing H+.

The pH scale pH stands for power of hydrogen, power referring to the exponent.
In pure water which is neutral H+ and OH- are both present at 10^-7 molar.
Adding more acid will pull OH- out of solution and you are going to combine to form water so
OH- is going to
decrease.
They will always
balance out to equal
14.
The lower the pH

number is, the more
acidic the solution, and
the more protons are
present.
The higher the number the more OH- the more basic.
PH 6 has 10 times more
Hydrogen Ions than pH 7.
PH is usually neutral.

A little bit lower in pants but some biological solutions such as stomach acid have a much lower
pH and that is where the enzymes that break down our food are residing, but are satisfied with
this unusual pH.
A very very strong acid like HCL acid

dissolves completely in water.
So whatever that concentration of HCl
is that would be the concentration of
hydrogen ions.
Other acids are weaker so exist in

equilibrium between the bicarbonate and
hydrogen ions.
So when sodium hydroxide, a strong

base completely dissociates in water
what happens is the hydroxide ions
which are increasing in solution find
Hydrogen and form water so the pH increases
in number because the number of hydrogen
ions drops as the hydroxides find H+ from
dissociated water.
Answers : D, B
Our bodies pH is normalized by the use of

buffers. Buffers are molecules that can exist
in two different states, and can move back
and forth increases and decreases in
protein concentrations so they can absorb
these fluctuations in protein concentrations
to maintain a biological pH. The most
common pH in our blood is carbonic acid
(weak acid). Doesn't disassociate completely.

Next Module.
Carbohydrates
All of these macromolecules (nucleic acid, proteins lipids and carbohydrates) are all polymers
made up of polymeric subunits.
Polymerization is what we call a dehydration

reaction also condensation. This means each
of the monomers come together in such a
way that a new covalent bond is formed
between the incoming subunit and the
growing chain. For that bond to form, other covalent bonds have to break. The ones that break
lead to the formation of a molecule of water. SO all f the polymerization reactions we will talk

about, the polymerization always requires a reaction called a dehydration reaction because
you've lost a molecule of water.
Polymerization is a dehydration reaction.
Depolymerization is a hydrolysis reaction hydro
for water lysis for splitting, a molecule of water
is donated and is used to break the bond.
The bond between that monomer and the
chain is broken by adding an H to one side
and an OH to another. We have
polymerization and depolyimerization,
dehydration hydration and hydrolysis.
Carbohydrates are categorized base on their
size. Carbon is hydrated or saturated with
water. There are many hydroxyl groups and
one carbonyl carbon (carbon double bonded
to an oxygen).
We can describe carbohydrates and here are

examples of monosaccharides. Sugar = Sucrose
= Disachcaride.
These are all mono saccharides that have one

carbonyl carbon and the rest of the carbons have carbonyls
on them. They can exist on the end carbonyl carbon or the one not
at the end. If the carbonyl carbon is not on the
end, it is a ketone. All carbohydrates end in the
suffix ose.

Aldehyde = aldose (carbonyl carbon at the end)
Ketose = carbonyl carbon is not at the end.
n can be between 3 and 8 in biological molecules
These are examples of two isomers of C5H10O5 depending on the carbonyl on the end or note.

Glucose does not primarily exist in a linear form. There is an isomeraztion that occurs between
the linear form and the ring form. The rational for why this exists (why the ring form forms),
which is something you'll learn in chemistry.
The first carbon (carbonyl) now
instead of a carbonyl has a
hydrogen and a hydroxyl. Thats
carbon number 1. The carbon
thats closes to the carbonyl
end, is always carbon
number 1.
On carbon number 1 can be
above the plane or below the
plane of the molecule.The ring
form of glucose can exist in two
different forms, depending on
where the hydroxyl group
ends up. If its below it, its aglucose, above it is bglucose. That seems like a
lot of bla bla bla but it turns out to be very important because you can get two completely
different kinds of polysaccharides.
Disaccharides form by dehydration synthesis. You have hydroxyls and hydrogens that come
together and leave as a molecule of water a new bond is formed. The bond is known as the
glycosidic
image and includes the
numbers
of the carbons that are
involed.
Polysaccharide are huge polymers of monosacchirides typically glucose and by huge i mean
thousands. They can be structural molecules like cellulose which make up plant cell walls very
firm very rigid able to bear weight,
bear stress. Or they can be very
digestible reactive energy storage
molecules like starch Starch is an
energy storage polysaccharides.
Animals glycogen, animals
amylose, amylopectin. The key
difference of two different kinds
of polysaccharides is weather
they're made up of alpha or beta
glucose.

We store all of our energy or glucose we eat in glycogen so our body our liver our muscles take
individual glucose molecules from the food we eat and join them together to make gylcogen.
This is our money in the bank. The way we store our glucose to make ATP as we talk about in
the metabolism chapter.
In plants it is the exact opposite they use b

glucose. The difference is beta glucose chains
are straight.
Now it turns out our bodies dont

have enzymes that can break
down beta glucose, only alpha
glucose. Alpha glucose like
starch french fries or potatoes
we can break down to
individual glucoses which we
use for energy.
We finished off last time talking

about covalent bonds and why
are so important and why they

are components of the macromolecules of life. What is it about these molecules give us
differences?!
Organic compounds are very rich in carbon

and hydrogen, and people used to think
that the inanimate and animate world had
very different compounds. People thought
the molecules of living things formed from
some kind of vital force. We now know that the same laws of chemicals apply to biological
molecules and molecules applying to the non living world. Organic typically means now atoms
that are rich in Carbon and Hydrogen regardless of wether or not they were found in living

things. Even though you might think these molecules are fairly simple or predictable because
they are hydrocarbons, they are anything but due to the different variations of the theme. If you
look at something simple like pentane, we can make many variations. Add different functional
groups to one of the carbons or we can change the components of the carbon backbone itself,
like branch the chain where one of the carbons is attached to three other carbons, we can have
double bonds
Continuing on with the themes of
molecules that seem similar but have
very important differences are what
we see as isomers.
Isomers are similar but different and
there are different classes of isomers

The concept of enantiomers or mirror image molecules lead to some heartbreaking and
frightening or frustrating information. It turns out that you can build molecules in the lab, and
specifically build one enantiomer or another by complex organic synthesis protocol. Inside our
bodies there are pathways that can do something called isomerization which can convert one
isomer to another which wasn't
understood.
Functional groups are little addins or features you can add to a

molecule that change it in a
predictable way, because the
functional groups themselves
have predictable properties like
solubility or reactivity or a
negative charge.
By making something an alcohol
you make it soluble or something
you call hydrophilic (water-liking)

Amines, at physiological pH are capable of picking up
a proton. This means that protons that are floating in solution are going to be attracted to that
Nitrogen because it is electronegative. Under physiological pH they exist in ionized form. (They
want IONIC BONDS)
An
aldehyde has the carbonyl carbon at the very end, a
ketone has the carbonyl carbon not at the end
(somewhere from the middle). We are
going to talk about aldehydes and
ketones on the chapter about

This is an example of a carboxylic acid that is a fatty acid, fat = straight.
Very rich in oxygen and very negative!!!

Water is the biological medium on earth but what is it about water that makes it essential to life
the way we understand it. Water has four properties I'm going to describe in detail.
The central molecule is the Oxygen and
in the outer shell there are four orbitals.
Two of the orbitals are filled with Oxygen
electrons alone, and the others shared.

The hydrogen bonding explains a lot of properties of water called cohesion adhesion and
surface tension.
water
Adhesion is hydrogen bonding between a

molecule and anything else thats able to form Hydrogen
Bonds.
Even though hydrogen bonds are weak

compared to covalent bonds they are
strong when there are a llot of
them. You have a bunch of
water molecules attracted to
one another going from the
roots the leaves and as they're all
up you have cohesion
water-
At the surface of the water air or

air interface the hydrogen bonding is EXTREMELY strong
because all of the water molecules are turing towards each other
instead of up and down. This makes the surface act almost like a
solid.

Anything that is soluble in water is hydrophilic, so polar covalent bonds or ionic bonds. There are
only very few molecules that are not
soluble in water and well look at what
makes that happen in a moment.
Things that are soluble in water have

polar covalent bonds. This is an
example of a molecule with lots of
polar covalent bonds. Anything that
has polar covalent bonds is going to be
soluble in water. Salts or ionic
compounds are also soluble in water. Ionic
bonds are not stable in the presence of water.
Ions separate from one another and the water
surrounds each ion and orients itself so that
opposites are attracking.
electro
polarity and
nothing in
supposed to
The only things that can absorb in

water are called hydrophobic and
have non polar bonds. Neither
carbon nor hydrogen is especially
negative (C-C, C-H) have no
something that is non polar has
common with water. since like is
solve like, they don't mix.

Ice floats because it is actually less dense than water so less water molecules per space.

Evaporative cooling is how we cool our bodies down when we overheat. We sweat or perspire
and put water on the surface of our skin. The heat of our body breaks those hydrogen molecules
and they leave or evaporate , taking
our heat with them.
.. B

I hope that all of you are getting the emails regarding clickers and the catchup lecture I put up on
echoe.
So this is lipids just what you want to see when you're
hungry is lipid and oil. Lipids are a class of molecules
that do a variety of different things and different
structures but have one quality they cant dissolve in
water.
Lipids and lipid derivates are important mediators

because they are generated within a cell and bring
information or tell things to do different things. For now
it is important to remember the roles of lipids are fall
more than just the structural molecules people were. In
fact steroids are an example of hormones derived from
lipids.
A fatty acid
Acid is the
(2 parts .. acid and fat

carboxylic acid up here and the fat part is this
straight hydrocarbon chain. Fats are
hydrocarbons, (totally NONPOLAR) so the
electrons are distributed equally throughout the
entire molecule so its nonpolar, explaining why
lipids are not soluble in water. Water is looking for
polar covalent bonds that it can form hydrogen
bonds with and it cant do this with this.
Type of lipid found in cell membranes !

Membranes are what we call phospholipids bilayers. They are made up of fatty acids with some
other things. Backbone of glycerol (3 carbon alcohol) Each has been modified by binding
something due it (by a synthetic reactions) , is TWO fatty acids. On the third carboxyl group is a
phosphate, which is why it is called a phospholipd and attached to the phosphate is an organic
molecule. Many
types, maybe 6 or 7 found in animal cell membranes
which have slightly different properties.

Steroids are these 4 fused things, many have a OH group calling them sterols.
cholesterol
Cholesterol ( ONLY IN ANIMAL CELLS)

Carried in the blood stream by these lipoproteins. Wanting to know how much cholesterol is in
your blood stream since too much can cause cardio complications. HDL and LDL are
lipoproteins, proteins capable of binding them to lipids and carrying them around the blood
stream.
Triglycerides is the short

hand word f or this
triaclyglycerol aka fat.. One
molecule of glycerol with
three fatty acids attach to it.
All fatty acids is saturated with as

many hydrogens as it can hold. The reason it cant hold anymore is because all of the carbons

have already filled up every single available valance with a hydrogen. Have a sort of linear
structure allowing them to alpine with each other and more or less solidify. Saturated fats tend to
be solid at room temperature and animal fats we are familiar with. No carbon carbon double
bond.

Unsaturated fatty acids also called oils (mono or poly) are unsaturated because they have
double bonds and if you have double bonds you have 2 less hydrogens. One double bond =
mono, more than one = poly.
The double bond causes a bend in the shape because they restrict the mobility of the rest of the
chain (bends or kinks) preventing the fat molecules from associating with one another.
A long time ago before your time

people were realizing that having
having too much fat had a higher
incidence of cardiovascular
disease. So people thought oh okay, lets cut out butter thats rich in fat. We should start making
more food with oil, plant based
unsaturated fats since people who
ate that are healthier.
are
life
far
The
oil
The problem with oils is that they

liquid, they're not stable, dont have a long shelf
because oil can turn whereas fat and butter is
more stable since it is more soil.
idea was to take plant oils like corn
and soy bean oil and partially
hydrogenate it. In chemical or
industrial ways basically blow
hydrogen across these double
bonds and try to saturate those

unsaturated fats to give it more of a texture and a bit of a longer shelf life. The lab hydrogenated
fats were different than the naturally occurring fats because what the ended up doing instead
was making up trans fats, not the fats you see in nature which are always in the cis (same side),
you end up making a TRANS fat. You arent making something that mimics the natural. THEY
ARE NOT HEALTHY.
There are some fatty acids are bodies can't make we HAVE to get them from our diet. They are
called essential fats, essentially in your diet or supplements. These are made of omega 3 and
omega 6 fatty acids.
Ideally we should be getting

equal amounts of both. In the wester
world we are getting FAR more omega
6 and far less omega 3. Omega 6 fats
when processed can turn into
mediators that can lead to
inflammation and proliferation.

We need to have an energy rich molecule that is compact and portable. Fats have more energy
than carbohydrates. So animals need to have fat because its a more portable and energy rich
form of energy rich storage. it also provides cushioning for our organs as we are moving around
and also provides insulation for our warmth.
CLICKER:
Answer:
B
The source of information which needs to be read

by the cell. Dinner is not the same at the menu.
Menu states what dinner would be. The actual
working molecules of the cells (proteins usually) and
info on how to work them is inside DNA.

Nucleic acids are polymers of neculeotides. Neucleotides themselves are made out of three
things a phosphate, sugar and nitrogenous base.

.. A
.. A
ALL Proteins are made up the same 20

amino acids, however they all differ in
their properties and their functions.

1/3 of 20,000 proteins are enzymes.
Metabolism- Enzymes!
Signaling tells a molecule to do something, protein has ability to interact with another molecule
in such a way it changes its activity.

transport- hang onto other things and bring them around an organism
Some R groups are polar and charged.

Charged means what? Ionized. So
they've either lost or gained a proton. In
this picture the backbone of the amino
acid is shown in black and the R group is
shown on top in Red. All 20 amino
acids have a name and a three
letter abbreviation. They also have
a single letter abbreviation (which
we can skip because they're not
obvious).
Middle of the protein.
The secondary structure is how we

understand how the protein folds.
This again is due to the hydrogen
bonding the occurs bw components
of the hydropeptide backbone.

oxygen part of carbonyl attacting a hydrogen part of a nitrogen of an amine group somewhere
else in the protein, now protein is adopting a complicated 3D structure Secondary protein
structure are driven by the polypeptide backbone ALONE, nothing to do with R groups
Driven because of interaction between R groups.

R groups can lead them to fold in all sorts of different ways/
Not every protein has a

quaternary structure which
refers to the fact that some proteins
are actually part of a team and in order
to appreciate what they look like in 3D
we have to know their structure.
Tertiary between R Groups
=C
=D
Enzymes facilitate the making and

breaking of bonds. Molecules are in
general stable so it would be very rare
for this to happen without the presence of
enzymes. In order for things to happen for
us, we need enzymes.
So how do enzymes do this?
Enzymes are catalysts so they speed up
reactions (either making or breaking).
They bring together the two molecules
(yellow and red), making a bond,
leaving as one.
All enzymes have an active site, a cleft in
the enzyme that has the perfect 3D
shape that fits its substrate, enzymes are
INCREDIBLY specific.

Enzymes lower the activation energy of a reaction making it more likely to happen. They do so
by facilitating the collision between the
two substrates that are going to be
coming together (drive a reaction by
lowering the amount of energy that
you need to put in it to make it
happen).
The enzymes inside us fold and

function optimally at our body
temperature. Others in the atlantic,
need a different temperature.

Good afternoon everyone, lets settle down thank you. Okay im going to finish off the end of
chapter 11 on enzymes and since a lot of our proteins are enzymes we are talking about how
enzymes are regulated.
Enzymes build molecules and bring them
down, but not all enzymes are active at all
time they have to be regulated.
How does that happen?
The general theme of regulation is involving
activation and inhibition. Many drugs act to
activate or inhibit things not in good health.

ADD MORE SUBSTRATE
B
A scanning electron microscope

Bio202: Exam One Notes

Caricato da

Informazioni sul documento

Descrizione originale:

Titolo originale

Copyright

Formati disponibili

Condividi questo documento

Condividi o incorpora il documento

Opzioni di condivisione

Hai trovato utile questo documento?

Questo contenuto è inappropriato?

Copyright:

Formati disponibili

Bio202: Exam One Notes

Caricato da

Copyright:

Formati disponibili

Bio202: Exam One Notes

Why do we always begin with atoms and neutrons and protons?

What is about these

If they're all made up of

is anything that has mass and takes up