Othello, Colour, Race and Prejudice, As They Manifest in The Play

National and Kapodistrian University of Athens
School of Philosophy
Faculty of English Studies
William Shakespeare (6th Semester)

Associate Professor Marianthi Yianni
OTHELLO
Colour, Race and Prejudice,
as they manifest in the play.
Alexander-Michael Hadjilyra (99362)
Othello: Colour, Race and Prejudice.
Preface
William Shakespeare wrote Othello around 1602-1604 - right after Hamlet and before
King Lear -, drawing upon Giraldi Cinthios Hecatommithi1. The first performance took
place in the Banqueting House, Whitehall at Hallowmass, in November 1604, for the
pleasure of King James I. Later performances were held at the Globe Theatre, but it
was not published until 1622 and 16232. The play initially takes place in Venice and,
from Act II onwards in Famagusta3, Cyprus - one of the richest cities in the mediaeval
world, a powerful harbour in the Levant. Legend has it that the Venetian governor of
Cyprus, Christoforo Moro (1506-1508), whose surname means Moor (a
Mauritanian), killed his wife Desdemona in a fit of jealous rage in Famagusta.
Othellos name is Shakespeares coinage, based on Ben Johnsons Thorello in Every
Man in his Humour (London, 1598). The only gross discrepancy between Shakespeares
Othello and the actual facts has to do with Othellos colour: Christoforo Moro was not
black. The issue of blackness and the dramatic emphasis placed on the racial
difference between Othello and the other characters of the play constitutes a gross
incongruity between Shakespeares Othello and Cinthios tale, in which Othello is also
black.
Introduction
Othello is a masterpiece of dramaturgy and a jewel amongst classical
masterpieces, both in terms of language and in terms of philosophical ideas
embedded into the play, unfurled one by one, entangled with each other, as
the plot gradually unfolds. The story of Othello is the account of a love affair
that was born, grown and tragically terminated, surrounded and attacked by a
society that not only condemned its occurrence, but also envied its existence unable to grasp the reasons for its presence. Yet, at the same time, the very
society that loathed this affair perpetuated the presence of such aliens
. Giovanni Battista Giraldi (1504-1573) was a University professor, a poet, a novelist and a dramatist.
His academic name, Cynthius, appears frequently in various forms: Cinzio, Cintio, or Cinthio.
Hecatommithi (100 tales) was published in 1565 and actually contained 112 stories. The story of the
Venetian Moor appears in Decade 3, Story 7. Although the book was not translated in English until
1753, it was translated into French in 1584, by Gabriel Chappuys. It is interesting that, in Giraldis
story, only Desdemona is mentioned by her name (meaning the unfortunate one in Greek).
2
. The first edition (Q1) was longer than the second edition (F1), which was printed in Folio. A new
Quarto edition came out in 1630 (Q2). The first edition has over a thousand differences in wordings
and about 160-170 lines less, suggesting that Shakespeare must have revised his play for the second
edition, adding Desdemonas Willow song and further developing Emilias role in the closing scenes
and her interrelationship with Desdemona.
3
. The stage directions only mention A sea-port in Cyprus. With the exception of Famagusta, all
other maritime cities in Cyprus (Kyrenia, Larnaca, Limassol and Paphos) have a mediaeval castle, yet
none of them has a citadel, which is mentioned five times in the play; it would be highly unlikely that
the General of Cyprus would dwell in an unfortified city (only Nicosia and Famagusta have
fortifications); it is also known that Famagusta had reached its climax of fame through trade,
commerce industry, arts and crafts; Famagustas citadel is also called Othello tower. All these point
to Famagusta as being the locus of the play.
Alexander-Michael Hadjilyra, June 2005
within the Republic, allowing them to ascend up to the highest ranks of the
Venetian military, a bizarre dichotomy itself.
The most striking and readily recognisable feature of Othello is that it is a play
characterised and understood only within a framework of ubiquitous
antitheses and juxtapositions. One cannot possibly begin to attempt
interpreting the issues raised in the play outside this duality matrix, outside
the ubiquity of this surreptitiously well-entrenched and firmly established
intolerance for the other, both in terms of race and colour. The play is,
simultaneously, about black pride and white supremacy, and vice versa. It is a
play about a domestic tragedy (as opposed to a state tragedy, such as Macbeth)
and about common people. Instead of becoming a comedy, Shakespeare has
masterly constructed it into an intense and profound psychological drama.
Othellos colour and race

Othello is undoubtedly not a Caucasian. We arrive at this conclusion by
reading the title and by exploring the lines of the tragedy. So, the question
arising pertains to Othellos race and colour. Was Othello a Negro or an Arab?
Unfortunately, nobody can accurately answer this question, but Shakespeare
himself, and he has unfortunately departed this life nearly four centuries ago.
Throughout his works, Shakespeare uses the word black to mean either
brunette or dark-complexioned, as denigration. Although modern readers may
instantaneously deduce4 that Othello was a Negro, his appellation The Moor
and other references5 to him may equally well allow us to visualise him as an
Arab. Towards the end of Othellos heroic speech, he parallels himself with
the Arabian trees (5.2.346). And not to disregard Iagos little misleading joke of
Othellos demotion or even the very cornerstone6 of his exploitation, jealousy.
When Iago deliberately misinforms Roderigo that Othello will be demoted and
his post will be assigned to Cassio, it is Mauritania he chooses as the imaginary
location Othello will return to (4.2.221-224).
The average English spectator, during the time Othello was originally
performed, had had numerous encounters with African slaves in the streets of
4
. Apart from the prevalent and extensive reference to Othello as being black, instances such as What
a full fortune does the thick-lips owe, if he can carry it thus! (1.1.67-68), or Run from her guardage to the sooty
bosom of such a thing as thou (1.2.70-71) validate that theory.
5
. Iago says to Brabantio: Youll have your daughter covered with a Barbary horse (1.1.111-112). Such a
reference would, without a doubt, lead the audience to envision Othello as an Arabian steed!
Furthermore, when he scornfully speaks of Othello as being an erring barbarian (1.3.350), he uses the
exact term that the Queens courtiers used to refer to Abd el-Quahed and his escorts.
6
. North African races were popularly associated with extravagant jealousy, especially within wedlock.
Leo Africanus in his Geographical Historie of Africa, translated into English by John Pory (London,
1600), mentions that: No nation in the world is so subject unto jealousy; for they will rather lose
their lives than put up any disgrace in the behalf of their women.
London7, while part of the knowledge about Africa came from a number of
books about the Dark Continent, such as Mandevilles Travels by John
Mandeville (London, c. 1371), Decades by Richard Eden (London, 1555) and
Principal Navigations by Richard Hakluyt (1589). Although all Africans were
initially considered to be equally black, regardless of their geographic location,
it later became apparent that there were various degrees of blackness,
depending on race and location. George Abbott, in A Brief Description of the
Whole World (London, 1599) separated blackish Moors from exceedingly black
Negroes than whom no men are blacker. Leo Africanus also pointed out the
difference between Mediterranean white or tawny Moors and southern
Negroes or black Moors.
Shakespeare, no doubt, was well aware of that: the stage directions of The
Merchant of Venice (Act 2, Scene 1) describe the Prince of Morocco - a suitor for
Portia - as a tawny Moor all in white. Apart from Othello, however, the only
other Moor in Shakespeares works is actually a Negro: He is Aaron, the villain
in Titus Andronicus, with a fleece of a woolly-hair, a thick-lipped coal-black
Moor (3.2.78), his colour compared with that of a raven and a swans legs.
Innumerable philologists, dramatists and other experts have attempted to decode Othellos genetic identity. However, there is a school of thought
asserting that what Shakespeare did was to combine the many descriptions of
Africa, thus constructing a character that was not a member of a particular
society, but a composite African, a synthesis of Leo Africanus description of
both tawny and black Moors, thus escaping a common negative
stereotype. And, given Shakespeares mentality, the possibility of such a
trick should not be ruled out.
A consensus will perhaps never be reached, it is interesting however to
observe that the critics who have found Othello to be a noble hero are often
the same ones who declare that he is a pale-skinned Arab, while those who
think that his actions are beastly and are the outcome of unjustified rage, are
also the ones who insist that he was a black African.
Othello: The Moor of Venice

Othello is a black man in a white society; a soldier amongst civilians; a knight
amongst mercenaries; a follower of genuine love amidst people who mock
loves omnipotence or prostitute it. Privileged himself, Othello firmly believes
7
. Queen Elizabeth I herself was discontented at the great numbers of Negars and blackmoors which
are crept into the realm, and demanded that they be ousted and returned to Spain and Portugal,
although between August 1600 and February 1601, a few months before she issued that decree, she
hosted a 16-member delegation from Barbary, led by Abd el-Quahed. Needless to say, their presence
and manners immediately caught the attention of most Londoners - including Shakespeare himself.
in equal opportunities and meritocracy, the moment that almost everyone else
in the play pursuits his or her own personal gain. He is the embodiment of
virtue and love, gallantry and affection, bravery and resourcefulness. Had
there not been Iagos vituperative manipulation8, Othello would have never
committed the ultimate sin, a crime driven not by jealousy and fury - as many
would superficially presume - but a crime driven by his loss of purpose in life.
Desdemona is everything for Othello. Without her, he has nothing to pursue,
nothing to draw upon, he is nothing9. Even Iago, admits that The Moor, howbeit
that I endure him not, is of a constant, loving, noble nature; and I dare think hell
prove to Desdemona a most dear husband (2.1.277-280). Othellos fixation with
Desdemona, who has become his purpose in life, becomes egregiously
apparent when Othello says - amidst a number of other farewells: Farewell!
Othellos occupations gone! (3.3.358).
Similarly to our present society, the Venetian society, however progressive
and tolerant, raises or lowers barriers, directly related to colour, religion,
ethnic origins etc., always depending on the situation. The Republic of Venice,
multicultural by necessity, is primarily defined as the bulwark of Christianity,
the defender of the Christian faith, in a sea and vicinity whose religious
adherence and civility are threatened by the impending and enduring
Ottoman threat. Christians were considered to be the elite of the cosmopolitan
Venetian society and were generically considered the civilised part of the
world. White in colour, fair - with all intended meanings -, and just, they are
juxtaposed to any non-Christian and/or any dark-skinned individual.
The Ottomite (Ottoman) threat to Cyprus is overtly stated a number of times,
throughout the play, with at least five references to the Turkish fleet. It is this
threat that has brought Othello in Cyprus (The Turk with a most mighty
preparation makes for Cyprus 1.3.219-220), and it is this threat that expedites the
plot, for Othello is summoned back to Venice on such a short notice by the
arrival of Lodovico, presumably to discuss the further deployment of the
Venetian fleet around Cyprus and the eastern Mediterranean. The Duke of
Venice and the Senate consider the importancy of Cyprus to the Turk as that as
it more concerns the Turk than Rhodes (1.3.19-20, 22) and, fearing the worse,
8
. Iagos motives are indeed obscure: One may initially support that Iagos motive resides on his
bitterness for not being selected as Othellos lieutenant; or, perhaps, that his hatred towards Othello
has racial grounds. But, as we see later on, it appears as if Iago is possessed by motiveless
malignancy, so eloquently manifested in 2.3.338-340: So will I turn her [Desdemonas] virtue into pitch,
and out of her own goodness make the net that shall enmesh them all. Nevertheless, Iago - evil or not - knew
how to exploit Othellos weakness: jealousy and navet, gullibility and inability to discern truth from
plausible lie.
9
. We have a premonition of that in 3.3.90-91: Perdition catch my soul, but I do love thee; and when I love
thee not, Chaos is come again, alluding to Doomsday. And even before that, when Othello is warned by
Brabantio that She has deceivd her father and may thee, he responds My life upon her faith! (1.3.290,
291).
announce to Othello: Valiant Othello, we must straight employ you against the
general enemy Ottoman (1.3.48-49).
Othello, it seems, has been carefully chosen for the station he maintains,
precisely because he is considered a third party: ethnically, he is not a
Venetian and, apparently, there was even a law designating that the General of
the Army should be appointed by the Senate, and he should always be foreign
born. Perhaps this law was formulated because Venice sought to promote
unity within the high-ranking military officers, as well as to promote alliances
with other city-states, such as Florence or Genoa. Under this spectrum Florentines Cassio and Venetians Iago dispute, regarding whom should
Othello choose as the second-in-command, seems perfectly equal: Since
Cassios origin makes him no less equal to Iago, each mans candidacy is judged
solely on grounds of meritocracy and military value10. Unlike the English
audience, for Cinthio and his readers, there is nothing remarkable about the
spectacle of a foreign commander of Italian forces.
So, it seems that, although black and a foreigner, Othello is perfectly suited for
his task, and he is equally acceptable by his political superiors. Not even Iago
antagonises Othellos supremacy as his commanding officer. Brabantio himself
admires Othello for the bravery he exhibits and all the other virtues he
possesses. He has developed a cordial relationship11 with Othello, often
inviting him for dinner to his house, considering him an honoured guest and a
distinguished soldier, since Othello has earned the respect and valour he is
invested with. Brabantio, it seems, was quite happy to be acquainted with
Othello purely as a military man who has done the state some service, but was
vigorously opposed to the possibility that his daughter, a maid so tender, fair
and happy (1.2.66) would marry Othello or even speak to him, for that matter.
It is only when Othello steps out of the role of the military servant and
becomes a lover, gaining the heart of his daughter, that he automatically raises
the issue of race and colour, awakening all the suspended prejudices, so as to
convincingly attack Othello for being related to his daughter and, in the
process, attempts to convince the other Senators of his rightness (as a father
and as a citizen of Venice). Brabantio is adamant, refusing to accept that
Desdemona, in spite of nature, of years, of country, credit, everything was able to
fall in love with what she feard to look on! (1.3.96-97, 98).
10
. Iago speaks of Cassio very scornfully: Forsooth, a great arithmetician, one Michael Cassio, a Florentine, a
fellow almost damnd in a fair wife, that never set a squadron in the field, nor the devision of a battle knows more
than a spinster, unless the bookish theoric, wherein the toged consuls can propose as masterly as he (1.1.19-26).
However, given Iagos lax relationship with truth, it is rather debatable whether we should accept his
description of Cassio as true.
11
. In the opening of his apology, Othello says: Her father [Brabantio] lovd me; oft invited me, still
questiond me the story of my life from year to year - the battles, sieges, fortunes that I have passd (1.3.127-130).
Within this highly prejudiced mentality he exhibits, and given the - often real
- superstition that black men are associated with witchcraft, Brabantio fears
(or, perhaps, hopes?) that Othello has bewitched12 his daughter. Brabantio is
raving Ay, to me. She is abusd, stoln from me, and corrupted by spells and
medicines bought of mountebanks; for nature so preposterously to err, being not
deficient, blind, or lame of sense, sans witchcraft could not (1.3.60-64), and goes on
by overtly accusing Othello: thou hast practisd on her with foul charms, abusd
her delicate youth with drugs or minerals that weakens motion (1.3.73-75), only to
be confronted with a much simpler true: She lovd me for the dangers I had
passd, and I lovd her that she did pity them. This only is the witchcraft I have usd
(1.3.166-168).
The Duke is very supportive of Othello and his stories: I think this tale would
win my daughter too (1.3.170) and, attempting to ameliorate the situation, he
pleads with Good Brabantio to take up this mangled matter at the best
(1.3.171). He needs Othello for the battle in Cyprus; he cannot afford to offend
him or insult him, and he calls him by his name, a sign of respect, many times.
What lingers in our minds is the Dukes reaction if, other things being equal,
the Republic did not depend on Othello to protect Cyprus, being a brilliant
military tactician and a charismatic person. And, of course, one cannot help
but wonder, how would the Duke of Venice react, the very same Duke who
approved the union of Othello and Desdemona before the Senate, by assuring
Brabantio that his soninlaw is far more fair than black (1.3.287), if it was his
daughter the one to fall in love with what shed fear to look on (1.3.98)!
A Christianised Othello?
Othello is, in all probability, a Christian himself. Enquiring about the fracas
that happened during the day the soldiers were allowed to feast until 11 p.m.,
he rhetorically says: Are we turnd Turks, and to ourselves do that which heaven
hath forbid the Ottomites? For Christian shame, put by this barbarous brawl
(2.3.154-156). Later on, Iago, conversing with Cassio, tells him: for her
[Desdemona] to win the Moor, weret to renounce his baptism, all seals and
symbols of redeemed sin (2.3.320-322). Othello himself makes a number of
references to heaven and hell, the two polarised states of life after death, in
which he firmly believes. After all, it is rather debatable whether a Muslim
12
. Brabantio, speaking to Othello in front of the Senate, says: Damnd as thou art, thou hast enchanted
her, for Ill refer me to all things of sense, if she in chains of magic were not bound (1.2.63-65), and later adds:
I therefore apprehend and do attach thee for an abuser of the world, a practiser of arts inhibited and out of
warrant (1.2.77-79). In the next scene, he repeats his accusations of Othello having cast a spell on
Desdemona, for her love for Othello, against all rules of nature, can be reasonably accounted for only if
[she] must be driven to find out practices of cunning hell (1.3.101-102). So convinced he is of this theory
that insists: I therefore vouch again that with some mixtures powerful oer the blood, or with some dram
conjured to this effect he [Othello] wrought upon her (1.3.103-106).
would be allowed to hold a position of nobility in a Christian society, especially

a society whose primary foe was Muslim.
Othello refers to Desdemonas complexion resembling a cherub (4.2.62). In his
verbal attack on Desdemona, Othello tells Desdemona: You, mistress, that have
the office opposite to Saint Peter, and keeps the gate of hell! (4.2.89-91), a
reminiscence of Proverbs 7:27 (Her [the harlots] house is the way to hell, going
down unto the chambers of death). When Othello enters the bedchamber of
Desdemona and faces her, virtuously slumbering in her bed, he declines her
invitation to come to bed by asking her: Have you prayd tonight, Desdemon?
(5.2.25) and urges her: if you bethink yourself of any crime unreconciled as yet to
heaven and grace, solicit for it straight (5.2.27-28). Desdemona asks him what he
means and he persists: Well, do it, and be brief: I will walk by: I would not kill thy
unprepared spirit: No heaven forfend! I would not kill thy soul (5.2.30-32). All
these, along with his Amen, with all my heart! (5.2.34) indicate a strong faith in
God on behalf of Othello and an equally strong esperance of life after death13.
In his last utterance, Othello - stabbing himself - says: I took by ththroat the
circumcised dog, and smote him, thus (5.2.351-352). Such a reference, although it
is himself who stabs, clearly indicates a Christian-oriented stance towards the
Muslim infidels. Interesting is Othellos highly discriminative description of
the circumcised dog: he describes him as a malignant and turband Turk
(5.2.349), a sign of intolerance for Turkish religious attire. However, one could
argue that, precisely because it is himself whom Othello parallels with the
circumcised dog, he has come to think of himself as unworthy of Grace and,
eventually, as an outcast. And indeed, being a Moor, he could very well be
perceived as being a Muslim or a pagan. At any rate, a marriage between a
baptised Christian and an infidel was not only forbidden, but also inoperable.
His colour, though, overrides and circumvents his faith and loyalty, even his
noble ancestry from men of royal siege (1.2.22).
We are given little hints that Othello was a converted Christian, by his
references to the pagan gods of the Romans. Although these references were
common in Shakespeares time, especially in reference to imaginary
monstrous entities14, it is interesting that almost no other character in Othello
uses them15, except for Othello himself: he speaks of Desdemonas name, that
13
. A quintessential dogmatic difference between Catholicism and Protestantism is that Catholics

believe in Purgatory, while Protestants do not. Othello seems to retain hope that Desdemonas soul
may redeem itself in Purgatory. Shakespeare, allegedly Catholic himself, uses a ghost from Catholic
Purgatory as Hamlets father in Hamlet (1.5.9-17).
14
. Cassio makes such a reference, to parallel his desperate need to be restored in Othellos conscious
(and, consequently, in his previous position). It is found in 2.3.283-285: I will ask him for my place again;
he shall tell me I am a drunkard. Had I as many mouths as Hydra, such an answer would stop them all.
15
. Iago, appropriately, swears By Janus once (1.2.33) to respond to Othello. It is blatantly obvious
that Shakespeare chooses Janus [the Roman god of beginnings (January owes its name to him),
doors, archways and gateways] as the God whom Iago swears on, because Janus was artistically
was as fresh as Dians visage (3.3.387-388), and invokes the mortal engines,
whose rude throats thimmortal Joves dread clamours counterfeit (3.3.356-357). In
desperation, he confesses to Desdemona: I know not where is that Promethean
heat that can thy light relume (5.2.12-13).
What Othello is called

The use, or lack thereof, of Othellos name is important, for a number of
reasons. Calling someone by their name is a sign of respect, while calling them
utilising a racial name constitutes a rather discriminative naming act.
Depending on their attitude towards Othello and the amount of racial hostility
each character professes against Othello, different characters in the play use
different ways and words to address him, or refer to him.
Brabantio never calls or refers to Othello by his name, he only refers to him as
(the) Moor, four times. Roderigo refers to Othello by his name only once
(4.2.219), while he generally prefers to refer to him as the thicklips (1.1.67), a
lascivious Moor (1.1.126), or the Moor (1.2.56).
Iago calls or refers to Othello by his name seven times, most of which are
either asides or part of conversations with Montano and Cassio, both of which
deeply appreciate Othello. Exiting the Sagittary (the Inn Othello and
Desdemona have lodged in), Iago tells Othello: Come, captain (1.2.53). In a
conversation with Cassio, he refers to him as our general (2.3.13-14), while he
also calls him (the) general (2.3.152, 255, 294-295; 3.3.335; 4.1.59). Iago also uses
black Othello (2.3.28) to emphasise Othellos otherness. And, of course, he
calls him my good lord (3.2.4), dear my lord (3.3.157), my noble lord (3.3.92,
368), my lord (many other times) - every single time occurring in front of
Othello, obviously to gain his trust and show his unbound loyalty.
However, these are the exception of the rule - Iago favours calling Othello with
a number of highly racial and vulgar instances behind his back. He scornfully
refers to Cassio as being his Moorships ancient (1.1.33); he suspects the lusty
Moor (2.2.284) of having copulated with his wife, Emilia; he sees him as the
devil four times, alluding to his black colour - something which Iago is clearly
obsessed with; he envisions him as an old black ram (1.1.89), a Barbary horse
(1.1.112) and an erring Barbarian (1.3.350), underlining Othellos dangerous
sexuality and his vagabond life; and, he generally refers to him as the Moor
26 times, in total.
represented with two opposite faces, each gazing in opposite directions. And when Iago tells Cassio of
Desdemona that she is sport for Jove (2.3.16), he does that only to express his base sexual fixation,
which is further elaborated two lines below, when he says And, Ill warrant her full of game. Jupiter
(Jove) was renowned for his sexual adventures, some of which included bestialities and, perhaps, that
is why Cassio evokes his name to guard Othello (2.1.77), being quite sexually active himself.
Less racially charged characters address Othello by his name, or qualify the
word Moor with an adjective. Cassio once refers to the Moor (2.1.44), while a
few lines later, he pleads: Great Jove Othello guard (2.1.77). He also addresses
him as (the) general (1.2.36; 3.4.187) and dear general (5.2.296) and drinks to his
health (2.3.75); talking to Desdemona, he expresses his fear: my general will
forget my love and service (3.3.18). The Duke of Venice calls Othello by his
name three times, while, addressing him, he uses valiant Othello (1.3.48) as a
salutation. The First Senator, upon Othellos entry to the Senate, refers to him
as the valiant Moor (1.3.47) and urges him: But, Othello, speak (1.3.110). Upon
Othellos departure from the chambers of the Senate, he greets him Adieu,
brave Moor, urging him to use Desdemona well (1.3.288).
Lodovico is a very gracious man; although kinsman to Brabantio, he deeply
respects Othello. He is perhaps one of the few characters in the play for whom
Othellos colour does not seem to matter. Having arrived from Venice, he
addresses Othello worthy general (4.1.211), while he also calls him my lord
(4.1.226, 239, 249), and refers to his lordship (4.1.245) - even when he slaps and
dismisses Desdemona. Deeply disappointed, he switches to the noble Moor
appellation (4.1.262), while he later on calls him simply sir (4.3.1). The moment
Othello grieves his iniquitous act (5.2.258-279), Lodovico enters searching for
this rash and most unfortunate man (5.2.280). When Iago is found to be the
accessory before the fact, Lodovico - clearly shaken and confused - turns to
Othello and tells him: O, thou Othello, that were once so good, fallen in the
practice of a damned slave, what shall be said to thee? (5.2.289-290). In the end,
Lodovico instructs Gratiano to seize upon the fortunes of the Moor (5.2.362).
Montano, Cyprus Governor, uses Othellos name and racial appellations
interchangeably: while he refers to him as the noble Moor (2.3.124) or the
Moor (2.3.127; 5.2.238), he also refers to him as (the) general (2.3.118; 5.2.167) and
brave Othello (2.1.38); in a conversation he has with some gentlemen and,
reciprocating Othellos Worthy Montano, he calls Othello Worthy Othello (2.3.
174, 181). The moment he is informed of Desdemonas strangling, he calls him
notorious villain (5.2.237) and a damned slave (5.2.241). Gratiano, Brabantios
brother, refers to Iago as being Othellos ancient (5.1.52), while he also informs
us that he will fetch the generals surgeon (5.1.100) to operate on Cassio.
The numerous references to Othello as the Moor (qualified or not) reduce
Othello to a thing, a racial and social quasi-outcast of the Venetian Republic.
Although everyone appreciates what Othello does for them and the services he
offers to the Republic, the continual reference to Othello as the Moor serves
to remind the audience of Othellos inability to truly become an integral part
of the Venetian society.
Emilias outlook - Desdemonas attitude

Many characters in the play exhibit some kind of racism towards Othello.
Other than Brabantio, Iago and Roderigo, whose stance has been elaborated in
the quotes before and after these lines, it is interesting to observe Emilias
attitude towards him, as well as Desdemonas, a quite intriguing thing to do.
Emilia conveys some sort of misandry, as very aptly pointed in her own words:
They [men] are all but stomachs, and we all but food; to eat us hungerly, and
when they are full, they belch us (3.4.98-100). As interesting as it would be to
hear Emilia elaborating on her view of men, she is unfortunately interrupted
by Iagos and Cassios entrance. The suspense we have to see her clarify her
obscure words is not satisfied until a few scenes later. Emilia is some sort of a
pre-feminist theoretician, as aptly pointed in her voicing of opinion in 4.3.8485: But I do think it is their husbands faults if wives do fall and, even more
importantly, in her justification of the wives sin. Yet, it is not her misandristic
attitude we are interested in, or her feministic point of view, but her latent
racism, which is not so different from modern peoples attitude towards the
issue: many people today have a dormant form of racism within them, which
they suspend, until a stimulus awakens it, unleashing their intimate thoughts
on the matter.
Throughout the entire play, she has obeyed the Moor and her lord most
meekly. The only time she seems to actually respect his position is in an
exchange with Cassio, when she speaks of the general and his wife (3.1.42). Yet,
the moment she discovers that her lady was murdered by Othello, she
frantically voices her previously unspoken sentiments, and she does that in
the most vicious of ways: O, the more angel she, and you the blacker devil!
(5.2.132), later bemoaning that She [Desdemona] was too fond of her most filthy
bargain (5.2.156), alluding to her marriage with a black man, which came at
such a high price. The use of the adjective filthy has a dual meaning: the
literal relates to Othellos appearance, while the metaphorical relates to
Othellos soul, which has now been identified with his colour, a mingling that
emerges a few lines later, when she accuses Othello of being as ignorant as
dirt (5.2.163).
And, in an attempt to further denigrate him, she calls him dull Moor (5.2.223)
and cruel Moor (5.2.247). Her indignation towards Othello calling Desdemona
a whore is so irresistibly intense, that she calls to his face Thou dost belie her,
and thou art a devil (5.2.134). All these quotes suggest that Emilia has always
thought of Othello as a black devil (in those days, devils were depicted black,
not red as they are today), which has now become blacker, as the immediate
result of the murder he has committed. And her words are most studiously
chosen, for she seems to serve here as the voice of the audience and her words
10
convey the catharsis the audience seeks. It is as if her outburst allows the
audience to express its own anger towards Othellos pernicious actions, also
biased by his colour.
Desdemona, on the other hand, also seems to convey an even more subtle form
of racism. She is infatuated with Othello, not for his body, but for his mind and
his words. When the Duke of Venice asks Desdemona to procure her side of the
story, she replies, among others, that she saw Othellos visage in his mind
(1.3.249). This statement is rather obscure: in the absence of any reference to
Othellos body as being attractive to her, it is as if she subliminally recognises
that Othello, being so different from her in a number of ways (as to his age,
colour, race etc.), is perhaps not the best match she could get - in terms of
external appearance. She acknowledges that her father does have a point that
she should fear to look on such blackness, realising herself that there is
something unnatural about her love for Othello.
The subtle display of racism she exhibits is best manifested in the way she
addresses and refers to Othello: She addresses him by his name (3.3.68); she
calls him my dear Othello (2.1.176; 3.3.282) and sweet Othello (4.1.237) and, a
number of times, my (noble) lord. She refers to him by his name only once
(3.4.157) in her prayer; in front of the Senate, she refers to him as the Moor
(1.3.187, 245); conversing with Emilia, she caressingly tells her that my noble
Moor is true of mind (3.4.22-23).
The ramification of this dual mode of reference serves to enlighten the
audience of Desdemonas feelings: she does attempt to minimise his difference
from the other characters; yet, his difference from all the other characters in
the play is so enormous, that even her own attempt fails.
Entrenched Stereotypes: Language

Language and culture seem to be closely interwoven: historically, the attitudes
of a specific culture are encoded into its language and, even when a particular
attitude or norm ceases to exist in the culture, it continues its presence
fossilised in the language, thus creating a vicious circle. So, in a way, language
forms a cultures attitude and vice versa. An excellent example would be the
word right: prior to the capitalistic/liberal and communistic/socialistic
ideas, the word was there to indicate something correct. When the
communists appeared, they were called the left, in juxtaposition to the
right (the conservatives), for a very good reason: language mechanisms were
employed by the conservatives to subliminally imbue a negative attitude
11
towards the ones who held progressive ideas, the exact opposite of what
happened to the word gay16.
In this spectrum, we must meticulously and, perhaps, pedantically examine
what we perceive as racist or loaded language, which in Shakespeares
time was, in some aspects, less or more discriminating, always depending on
the occasion. Long before black people were first seen by Europeans, their
language was loaded against black17 and darkness, thus pre-possessing a
spontaneous horror at the sight or the very thought of a black man. This
binary opposition between white and black - white representing purity and
goodness and black representing darkness and evil - is haunting us even today.
It is not without reason that the Devil was depicted black in Mediaeval plays,
nor why Iago speaks of the devils [who] will the blackest sins put on (2.3.329)
and why Emilia calls Othello the blacker devil (5.2.132). Othello, well aware of
the precariousness of his position, declares that, if Desdemona is proven a
haggard, he will whistle her off and let her down the wind, to pray at fortune,
by adding the famous Haply, for I am black (3.3.264-265). It is as if he doubts
himself, on the grounds of his colour.
Black, being the colour of the Devil in Shakespeares time, immediately links
Othello with that image in Iagos mind, who, associating Othello with the devil
[who] will make a grandsire of you (1.1.92), warns Brabantio. Iago raises the
taboo of miscegenation, as an extension of his blackness (which connotes to
the Devil) warning and announcing to Brabantio: Your heart is burst; you have
lost half your soul (1.1.88). The binary opposition between white and black is
once more exploited by Iago when, using shepherds register, he tells
Brabantio that an old black ram is tupping your white ewe (1.1.89-90), as if evil
devours good. The Duke of Venice also exploits that contrast, in favour of
Othello this time, when he assures Brabantio that his soninlaw is far more fair
than black (1.3.287).
When Iago tells Othello that he has seen the handkerchief he gave to
Desdemona in Cassios hands, wiping his beard with it (3.3.438-440), Othello
again, in his rage, employs a black stereotype in his speech, saying: Arise,
black vengeance, from thy hollow cell! (3.3.448), while some lines earlier, he
deplores Desdemona, for her name, that was as fresh as Dians visage, is now
begrimd and black as mine own face (3.3.387-389).
16
. The adjective gay was employed by groups of American homosexuals in 1953, in an effort to
promote the idea they were a happy group and should, consequently, be embraced by the general
public. In the process, gay acquired the status of a noun, thus displacing both the meaning and use
of the original adjective, which had been in the language since the 1325 (Middle English gai).
17
. As described by the Oxford English Dictionary, the meaning of black before the 16th century
included: deeply stained with dirt; soiled, dirty, foul; having dark or deadly purposes, malignant;
pertaining to or involving death, deadly; baneful, disastrous, sinister; foul, iniquitous, atrocious,
horrible, wicked; indicating disgraces, censure and liability to punishment. Black was an emotionally
partisan colour, the handmaid and symbol of baseness and evil, a sign of danger and repulsion.
12
Are we to say that Othello was a racist, exercising his racism against his own
self? Certainly not! To be free of racism, Shakespeare (or anyone, for that
matter) would have to invent a new language with no loaded words, and no
words with colour discrimination, associating blackness with evil and
whiteness with good. Othello (and, by extension, Shakespeare) is bound to the
language he uses: he cannot do without a basic set of expressions that
necessarily allude to goodness and badness via colour. The only way he could
avoid this, would be to invent his own expressions or use extravagantly
elaborate and analytical counterparts, both of which would be extremely
thorny to verbalise and comprehend.
Entrenched Stereotypes: Society & Culture

The union of Othello and Desdemona is, from a number of perspectives and in
the mildest of words, uncommon and disproportionate18: He is black and she is
white, he is old and she is young, his past has been tumultuous, while hers has
been rose-covered, he has been in Africa and Europe and the Middle East,
while all she knows is her fathers house. On top of that, she is a Venetian
citizen, while he is a foreign soldier, alien to Venice in so many different ways:
through his colour, his race, his manners, even his own language19.
Desdemona often does not understand Othello, because of their disparate
cultural backgrounds. She takes on the role of a traditional woman in Cyprus
and her actions are often interpreted as the actions of an emancipated woman,
something which Othello dislikes. Desdemonas increased freedom and her
aggressive promotion of Cassio allows Iago to cast aspersions on her. But the
cultural differences between Desdemona and Othello are also great, in a more
intimate fashion. Desdemona fails to recognise Othellos restlessness and,
queried by Emilia if he is jealous, she navely responds: Who, he? I think the sun
where he was born drew all such humours from him (3.4.27). And indeed, their
love is also diametrically dissimilar: Desdemona loves Othello for his heroic
achievements, while Othello loves her for her irresistible physical beauty20.
18
. Many fictional stories of such unions have been cinematised. Quite recently, there were two films:
the Canadian My Big Fat Greek Wedding (2002) and the British Bend it like Beckham (2002). In
the former, the issue has been highly dramatised: American Ian is not accepted by Toulas Greek
parents, on the grounds that he is a xeno (a foreigner). The latter film deals with a number of other
issues (such as racism, emancipation, male and female homosexuality, tradition Vs. progress), yet the
issue of miscegenation is scraped in a rather latent, yet sharp fashion: Indian Jesminder is fully aware
that her orthodox Sikh family will have a hard time accepting Irish Joe, on the grounds that he is a
gora (a white person). The most intriguing element that unites the two films is that, in both cases,
it is the minority that ghettoises itself - the exact opposite of Othellos situation.
19
. While speaking to the most potent, grave, and reverend signiors and his very noble and approvd good
masters (1.3.76-77), Othello humbly acknowledges his deficiency of language: Rude am I in my speech,
and little blessd with the soft phrase of peace (1.3.81-82).
20
. Desdemona seems to be a divine figure, similar to Beatrice in Dante Alghieris The Divine Comedy,
or to Cordelia in William Shakespeares King Lear. All male characters speak of her, yet she speaks so
little. She seems to be surrounded by an aura of eroticism and an irresistible sexuality.
13
Othello himself is fully aware of his otherness, which, in turn, makes things
quite awkward for him. When Iago begins sowing the seed of doubt upon
Othello, he gets to a point where he tells him: Ay, theres the point: as, to be
bold with you, not to affect many proposed matches of her own clime, complexion,
and degree, whereto we see in all things nature tends (3.3.230-233). Confronted
with a reality that he, himself, is very well aware of, Othello dismisses Iago,
unable to respond: it is the crucial point at which Othello cracks. Yet, Iago has
perceived Othellos shaken morale: he returns and continues his manipulation,
to which Othello responds that if he discovers that Desdemona has been
unfaithful to him (If I do prove her haggard, 3.3.262), he will reject her at once,
Haply for I am black and have not those soft parts of conversation that
chamberers have, or for I am declind into the vale of years (3.3.265-268) - a
profoundly discriminatory remark he makes on himself.
Iago speaks in such a generalised manner that, having already cast the seed of
doubt upon Othello, Othello readily places himself within Iagos equivocal
stories, thus falling into his captious trap. Othello, desperate and possessed by
the greeneyed monster which doth mock the meat it feeds on (3.3.168-169)
identifies his own self with the cuckold [who] lives in bliss who certain of his
fate loves not his wronger (3.3.169-170). Iago, echoing Brabantios last words to
Othello, reminds him that She did deceive her father, marrying you; and when
she seemd to shake and fear your looks, she lovd them most (3.3.208-210). It
seems that this utterance serves a dual purpose: on the one hand, it
strengthens the web of doubt Iago weaves around Othellos and Desdemonas
relationship, but on the other hand - and that is its prominent function for this
essay - it reminds Othello of his otherness, thus denigrating him and making
him feel, once more, an outsider who has intruded in Desdemonas life.
Othello is deeply divided; his dilemma is so intense, that he admits he is
emotionally paralysed: my heart is turned to stone: I strike it and it hurts my
hand (4.1.178-179). He has already pronounced that I had rather be a toad, and
live upon the vapour of a dungeon, than keep a corner in the thing I love for others
uses (3.3.272-275), something which most men would have said. It is not only
Iagos innuendoes that have led him to this state of mind, but also the
circumstances around the handkerchief21, another ingenious manoeuvre of
Iago, which - in turn - has placed Othellos scepticism to the pinnacle of his
disbelief towards Desdemonas innocence: demanding that Iago gives him the
ocular proof (3.3.361), Othello is reminded of the handkerchief (which Iago has
managed to possess) by Iago (3.3.433-436), who knows that Desdemona will
intervene to have Cassio be received again22.
21
. This handkerchief has such a mysterious story, that even Shakespeare himself seems to have
forgotten it: at first, Othello says that it was given to his mother by an Egyptian charmer (3.4.51-64),
but later on he says it was an antique token given to his mother by his father (5.2.215-216).
22
. Desdemona is indeed an honest woman. She tells Cassio: Assure thee if I do vow a friendship, Ill
perform it to the last article. My lord shall never rest, Ill watch him tame and talk him out of patience; His bed shall
14
When asked by Othello to lend him her handkerchief (3.4.47), Desdemona,

coyly conceals the truth concerning the handkerchiefs whereabouts, and,
upon Othellos insistence, she becomes audacious and boldly tells him: This is
a trick to put me from my suit: Pray you, let Cassio be receivd again (3.4.83-84).
Othello insists that she must fetch him the handkerchief, and she responds
Come, come; youll never meet a more sufficient man (3.4.86). Othello angrily
re-iterates the handkerchief! and she replies I pray, talk me of Cassio, and A
man that all his time hath founded his good fortunes on your love, shared dangers
with you (3.4.88, 90). Any suspicious man would undoubtedly infer that poor
Desdemona was guilty of adultery. And so, Othello has made up his mind.
Deeply romantic, he praises Desdemonas qualities, but at the same time, the
inculcations Iago has cast upon him haunt Othello and, ultimately, they win
over his profound love23. And, indeed, given the suspicious circumstances, why
would anyone doubt honest Iago who, as he assures Othello, knows his
country[s] disposition well (3.3.203), and also confides to Othello that in Venice
they [women] do let God see the pranks they dare not show their husbands; their
best conscience is not to leavet undone, but keept unknown (3.3.204-205)?
Othellos complexion as a dramatic character tends to confirm the reports of
travellers, in which black men were possessed with an intense desire to
possess a white woman and all that she entails: her body, her status, her
wealth and power. Othello is obsessed with Desdemonas whiteness, the
moment she minimises the importance she attributes to his blackness. He does
refer to Desdemona as sweet Desdemon (3.3.55), my good lady (3.4.30) and
fair lady (1.3.125)24, but he seems to be constantly fixated with her body and
colour, calling her my fair warrior (2.1.175), excellent wretch (3.3.90), or the fair
devil (3.3.479) - fair meaning both honest and just, but also white and
beautiful.
Othello, battling with his conscious, asks Desdemona: Turn thy complexion
there, patience, thou young and roselippd cherubin; Ay, there, look grim as hell!
(4.2.61-63). He sees her as an angel, but fears that her name, that was as fresh as
Dians visage, is now begrimd and black as mine own face (3.3.387-389), thus
emphasising the contrast between white and black, which creates an
enormous gap between the two lovers. Yet, the most eloquent exposition of
seem a school, his board a shrift; Ill intermingle every thing he does with Cassios suit. Therefore be merry, Cassio;
thy solicitor shall rather die than give thy cause away (3.3.20-28). And so, she did.
23
. Othellos division is obvious: Hang her, I do but say what she is: so delicate with her needle, an admirable
musician - O, she will sing the savageness out of a bear - of so high and plenteous wit and invention (4.1.183186).
24
. There are three female characters in the play: Desdemona, Emilia and Bianca. Desdemona and
Bianca are both called sweet and fair, but poor Emilia is never attributed such a courtesy. In fact,
the only time Emilias name is qualified by an adjective is in 4.3.15, when Desdemona speaks to her,
calling her good Emilia.
15
Othellos obsession with Desdemonas colour is to be found in the soliloquy he

utters upon entering Desdemonas bedchamber: contemplating Desdemonas
murder he is about to commit, he says: Ill not shed her blood, nor scar that
whiter skin of hers than snow, and smooth as monumental alabaster (5.2.3-5).
Entrenched Stereotypes: Sexual Intercourse & Promiscuity

Shakespeare, in his own wont, has made the issue of sex such a paramount
matter that it seems its ubiquity haunts (or, delights) most of the plays
characters. One could say that, other than the issue of blackness, the next
important issue is sex and, in particular, loyalty and fidelity within wedlock.
The enormous emphasis placed on sex has become the quintessence of Iagos
cunning scheme.
Cassio, though an honest man and a noble gentleman, every once and a while
has another woman in his arms, the most prominent of all being Bianca, a
Cypriote courtesan. Emilia, Iagos wife and Desdemonas attendant, speaks her
mind freely about mens lack of affection, for the very first time, towards the
end of Act III, Scene IV25. But she is interrupted by the arrival of Cassio and
Iago. She does, however, resume towards the end of Act IV, Scene III. She
seems to hold liberal (perhaps, too liberal for her time) ideas on fidelity and
adultery, equating conjugal fidelity and infidelity for both husbands and wives,
advocating that I do think it is their husbands faults if wives do fall. Say that they
slack their duties and pour our treasures into foreign laps, or else break out in
peevish jealousies, throwing restraint upon us; or say they strike us, or scant our
former having in despite (4.3.84-89), perhaps one of the earliest feminist
manifestoes in English literature.
However, it is beyond the scope of this paper to elaborate on the erotic affairs
of the white characters of the play. Let us focus upon Othellos sexuality and,
collaterally, to Desdemonas. Throughout the play, there are instances relating
to Othellos copulation with Desdemona, some of which we hear of, some of
which we see. In fact, the only time we see an instance of sexual
intercourse between Othello and Desdemona is right after the Senate has
approved their wedding: Come, Desdemona, I have but an hour of love, of
worldly matters and direction to spend with thee: we must obey the time (1.3.295297). Indeed, it is quite odd for us today to see a man with Othellos duties
delay the immediate departure to Cyprus for an hour of love26. However, let
25
. Desdemona, obviously hurt by Othellos inexplicable behaviour, confesses to Emilia that she is
most unhappy in the loss of it [the handkerchiefs] (3.4.96). Emilia sympathises with her and, trying to
console her, she tells her: Tis not a year or two shows us a man. They are all but stomachs, and we all but
food; they eat us hungerly, and when they are full, they belch us (3.4.97-100).
26
. Since Othello and Desdemona had been married for some time, it is highly unlikely that this hour
of love is their first one; in fact, the way Othello approaches Desdemona denotes that it is not the first
time they engage in sexual activities.
16
us not forget that it is Renaissance Venice, a place of love and passion, and that
a voyage to any distant place entailed numerous dangers (tempests,
shipwrecks, inundations, pirates etc.), including death itself.
As previously mentioned, part of the knowledge the Elizabethans had about
the natives of the Dark Continent came from travellers accounts. All these
accounts fascinated them, because they included tales of monstrous creatures,
heathen customs, cannibalism and sexual orgies. Thus, black received
another connotation, that of savagery, nakedness and general depravity. This
view is reflected in Iagos words to Roderigo in 2.1.219-223: When the blood is
made dull with the act of sport, there should be, again to inflame it and to give
satiety a fresh appetite, loveliness in favour, sympathy in years, manners and
beauties: all which the Moor is defective in.
Renaissance commentators, in an attempt to account for the colour of
Africans skin, which was so different from their own, offered two
explanations: the quasi-scientific one suggested that blackness was natures
defence against the intense tropical sun. The other explanation offered was
based on scriptural tradition and myth. According to this explanation27,
blackness was a form of punishment, another original sin, but also an ocular
signifier of an unbridle lust and a daemonic spiritual state. Dramatists drew
upon these accounts and created the image of black men inextricably
coalesced with the context of illicit sex, paganism and exotic, yet forbidden
sexuality. In Elliot H. Toksons words (in his The Popular Image of the Black Man in
English Drama, 1550-1688, Boston: 1982): there is hardly a black character created for
the stage whose sexuality is not made an important aspect of his relationships with
others.
Iago exploits all these stereotypes of blackness as a visual signifier of the
eternal sin and the sexual fall from Grace, but also blackness and forbidden
sex, heathenism and coarseness28. Polygamy and lecherousness were also
attributed to the autochthones of Africa, along with bestiality, brutishness and
cannibalism29. In his apology to the Senate, Othello says: It was my hint to
speak such was the process; and of the Cannibals that each other eat, the
27
. George Best, in his Discourse from Richard Hakluyts Voyages mentions that, when Noah and his
sons, Sem, Cham and Japhet were in the Ark, during the time of the Deluge, Noah received
commandment from God which instructed all of them to abstain from copulation. Yet, impatient and
persuaded by the expectation that the first-born child after the flood would become the inheritor of all
the dominions of the Earth, Cham disobeyed that commandment; thus, Chus - his child - and his
descendants were born so blacke and lothsome, as a sign of the curse they bore.
28
. All these are mentioned in Thomas Thorpes and William Aspleys A True and Large Discourse of
the Voyage of the Whole Fleete of Ships (London, 1603), as well as in John Kingstones and Henry
Suttons The Fardle of Facions Conteining the Auncient Maners, Customes, and Lawes, of the Peoples
Enhabiting the Two Partes of the Earth Called Affrike and Aise (London, 1555).
29
. These are mainly referred to in the English translation of Philippo Pigafettas description of Congo,
translated by Abraham Hartwell in A Report of the Kingdome of Congo, a Region of Africa (London,
1597).
17
Anthropophagi and men whose heads do grow beneath their shoulders (1.3.141144).
When Iago first informs Brabantio of Desdemonas affair with Othello, he tells
the Senator that Even now, now, very now, an old black ram is tupping your white
ewe (1.1.89-90), warning him that, unless he awakes the snorting citizens with
the bell, the devil will make a grandsire of you (1.1.91, 92). Attempting to
reasonably justify their intrusion (after all, it was in the middle of the night),
he says: we come to do you service and you think we are ruffians, youll have your
daughter covered with a Barbary horse, youll have your nephews neigh to you,
youll have coursers for cousins and jennets for germans (1.1.110-114). He carefully
chooses those phrases, to arouse Brabantios disgust and imagination, using
bestial and detestable imagery: He animalises Othello as an Arabian stallion,
and he conceptualises Brabantios posterity as racehorses, and little Spanish
horses.
Still, Brabantio refuses to believe them and, being the recipient of such
unprecedented abominable language, asks Iago: What profane wretch art thou?
(1.1.115). Iago confronts that and, trying to further stimulate Brabantios
imagination, he utilises another bestial image: I am one, sir, that comes to tell
you your daughter and the Moor are now making the beast with two backs (1.1.116117). It is not uncommon, quite the contrary in fact, for Iago to use profanely
vulgar sexual imagery and, in specific, bestial sexual imagery. A few lines later,
Roderigo emphasises on the dangerous sexuality of Othello, by telling
Brabantio that his daughter is transported to the gross clasps of a lascivious
Moor (1.1.126).
After the sanction of the Senate, Iago feeds Roderigos expectations of gaining
Desdemonas heart, by telling him that if sanctimony and a frail vow betwixt an
erring barbarian and a supersubtle Venetian be not too hard for my wits and all the
tribe of hell, thou shalt enjoy her (1.3.349-352). This is to echo another sexual
stereotype relating to black people, that they honour no vow and that they
place their sexual drive above every other institution of civilised society. Inbetween the numerous appeals to Roderigo to put money in thy purse, Iago
perpetuates the promiscuous stereotype of Moors, by telling Roderigo that
these Moors are changeable in their wills (1.3.341-342), thus allowing him to
form aspirations that he will have the chance to couple with Desdemona.
Iago perceives Othello as an erring barbarian, a wandering and uncivilised
vagabond. And, in an effort to raise Roderigos expectations even higher, Iago
tells him that her [Desdemonas] eye must be fed. And what delight shall she
have to look on the devil? (2.1.218-219). Iago also reminds Othello of his
unsightly looks in 3.3.209. In both occasions, Iago firmly deems Desdemonas
love as something shallow and superficial, devoid of any mental plenitude.
18
Shakespeares View of Othello

Othello is not about race, or colour, or even jealousy. It
dramatises the way actions are directed by attitudes, fears,
and delusions that rule the subconscious than by evident facts.
P. Davidson, Othello: An Introduction to the Variety of Criticism,
Hampshire: Macmillan press (1988).
Although the above quote seems to shift the focus from Othellos colour and
the prejudice he experiences, it does serve an elucidatory purpose: it reveals
that Othello and Othello may be interpreted in a number of ways, depending on
the focus each person places on the play. And indeed, it is not very hard to
conclude that Othello is probably Shakespeares most controversial play.
It would be exciting to attempt to reveal Shakespeares own view on his
Othello, a task so much hindered by a number of factors. Shakespeare has
made Othello a problematic character, in that he never really tells us what he
thinks of him, although he clearly tells us about the other characters in the
play. Furthermore, although a large number of books relating to the Dark
Continent were published circa Othellos compilation, we can never be certain
as to which books Shakespeare actually read. The dominant majority of the
Renaissance texts were ethnocentric, but a general consensus as to what
degree Shakespeare shared those assumptions, relating to colour and foreign
customs, may never be reached.
We can only attempt to deduce Shakespeares point of view based on two
factors. To begin with, Shakespeare was known to hold unorthodox views on
a number of highly politicised matters, such as the issue of homosexuality (or
homoeroticism), the issue of kingship or queenship (and, interestingly, he
lived both of those reigns), as well as on the issue of female emancipation and
Justice and order. In a fashion resembling to Leonardo Da Vincis surreptitious
insertion of unorthodox elements on religious paintings and drawings30,
William Shakespeare manages to furtively incorporate his unorthodox ideas
in his plays, embedding them in a way as it would be acceptable by the stern
censorship his works had to go through prior to publication and performance.
A brilliant example of that would be his great tragedy, King Lear, in which he
30
. Although the great debate among various specialists is still unquenched, several experts have
observed unorthodox elements in many of Da Vincis famous paintings, including The Madonna of
the Rocks (c. 1485 and 1508), Mona Lisa (La Gioconda - c. 1507) and The Last Supper (1498). The
argumentation for The Last Supper asserts that it is not John the Baptist who sits to the right of
Jesus, but Mary Magdalene, and her attires are the colour inversion of Jesus attires. Furthermore, it is
claimed that their position in the painting, in conjunction with Christs position, forms an M (which,
supposedly, stands for Magdalene) and that St. Peters hand threateningly extends towards
Magdalenes side - a sign of the rumoured dispute between them.
19
actually questions the limits of a Kings reign and indifference for his subjects:
by placing his setting in an ancient, pre-Christian era, he avoids being
censored or, even worse, executed for undermining the institutionalised
system of regality.
However, this quite generic description of Shakespeares predilection is not
the only clue we have on what he actually thought of his Othello. A critical
reading of Act I, allows us to judge for ourselves and juxtapose appearance and
reality, which is another pervasive theme throughout his works. By the time
Othello first appears, uttering the wise Keep up your bright swords, for the dew
will rust them. Good signior, you shall more command with years than with your
weapons (1.2.59-60) to Brabantio and his custodians, we are pretty vigorously
bombarded by a collection of representative stereotypes that convey the
Elizabethan attitude towards Africans, regardless of degree of blackness and
ethnic origin: Othello is presented as a lecherous stallion, a hideous beast, a
man who looks like the Devil and acts like a monster. Yet, the very moment he
actually appears, all the theatrical clichs collapse and all cultural
misconceptions are shattered.
It is quite amusing to see Brabantio, a sophisticated and civilised Senator, to
suddenly speak in terms of black magic, potions, philtres, hexes and spells, in
order to explain what he seems to be unable to grasp. However, it is important
to understand that, although today we may view the love affair of Othello and
Desdemona as comfortably as we can accept Hamlet/Ophelia or Romeo/Juliet
as love pairs, the Elizabethan audience would be abhorred by even the very
thought of such a union. Racism was inherent in them, since most of the black
people they came in contact with were considered slaves and savages. The
visual disproportionateness was so enormous, that it would have managed to
block every hope of a successful relationship between Othello and Desdemona.
Othello is the living proof of an accomplished commander, a successful soldier,
a respected knight. His words convey such a tremendous clarity, and his lack
of ambiguity, which is strikingly contrasted to the Venetians multi-ambiguous
language, fill us with a sublime sense of awe. Othello uses a profoundly poetic
locution, which is diametrically contrasted with Iagos prosaic and pejorative
wording. After Act I, most of the racial comments fade away, and Othello
seems to be quite competent in earning the respect he is invested with. And,
indeed, Othello is extremely confident of himself: My parts, my title and my
perfect soul shall manifest me rightly (1.2.31-32). Yet, no sympathetic reader can
verily anticipate the exact extent to which Othellos reputation will be able to
counter the prejudice he is surrounded with. In the very beginning, at least,
we realise that Othello has every potential to transcend certain pre-conceived
notions of race, through his heroism and valour, his virtue and his gallantry.
20
In my humble opinion, Shakespeare attempts to convey an intense anti-racist

message to his audience (or readership, for that matter). In a way, he tells us
that those who have a racist attitude towards people like Othello are the ones
who have not really seen Othellos soul. By allowing us to see Othello for what
he really is, he allows us to form (or, perhaps, change) an opinion on coloured
people, not based on what others say, but based on Othellos actions and
words. He also passes the message that not all black people can be slaves.
He is neither a bestial and lascivious man, nor a warlock and a charlatan. The
only venial sin we can account for him, other than his navet and tragic flaw
of gullibility, is his swaggering. He does seem to be pretentious when he
narrates his adventures and the story of his life. But we are inclined to forgive
that, not only because of his impeccable behaviour (prior to Desdemonas
unfair strangling), but also because his bragging can be interpreted as a
psychological defence on the attacks he is recipient of: partial pomposity
allows him to elevate before the eyes of all those who think of him as nothing.
The very moment he realises his own ignorant sin, he begs for Cassios pardon
(5.2.297-299) and then implores Lodovico to report the truth on the affairs that
had transpired, seeking to ensure his posthumous fame: Soft you; a word or
two before you go. I have done the state some service and they knowt: No more
of that. I pray you, in your letters when you shall these unlucky deeds relate, speak
of me as I am; nothing extenuate, nor set down aught in malice. Then must you
speak of one that lovd not wisely, but not too well; of one not easily jealous but,
being wrought, perplexd in the extreme; of one whose hand, like the base Indian31,
threw a pearl away richer than all his tribe; of one those subdued eyes, albeit
unused to the melting mood, drops tears as fast as the Arabian trees their
medicinable gum (5.2.334-347).
This is an allusion to Hamlet, the tragedy that was written right before Othello
(c. 1601), where Hamlet, also in the last scene, implores Horatio to report the
truth. However long and lamentable, it is important that Othello here
abandons all sort of swaggering yet he retains his poetical eloquence. He
realises his tragic flaw and the great calamity his tragic fall has brought upon
him. He can no longer stand the humiliation he will suffer and ultimately takes
his own life, in an attempt to preserve his dignity - a teaching of Stoicism.
However, he wants to be remembered for what he was, not for what he did. He
acknowledges his mea culpa and, at the same time, he firmly believes that he is
eligible for indulgentia (indulgence).
A final note for the tragic end of Othellos and Desdemonas marriage: Indeed,
their marriage does not survive, pleasing many puritans and pre-Nazi, white
supremacist individuals, such as Iago. The failure of these two individuals to
31
. Q1 (1622) reads: of one whose hand, like the base Indian, threw a pearle away. F1 (1623) reads: of
one, whose hand (Like the base Iudean) threw a Pearle away.
21
successfully mate does neither demonstrate an insurmountable cultural

incompatibility, nor is it the case that black and white blood cannot be
intermingled in marriage without a gross outrage upon the law of Nature, as John
Quincy Adams (1767-1848), the sixth American president wrote. There was
some incongruity between them, but they were able to overcome it, within
their relationship. What has destroyed their marriage is not Natures law or a
divine omen, but a malicious and malignant society, represented by loathsome
individuals, such as Iago. In a way, Shakespeare - and any critical spectator or
reader, for that matter - gets the message that, other things being equal,
should Othello and Desdemona lived in another society, their marriage and
relationship would have prospered.
22
SELECTED SOURCES
http://www.clicknotes.com/othello
http://clcwebjournal.lib.purdue.edu/clcweb04-1/reitz-wilson04.html
http://www.campusnut.com/book.cfm?article_id=337
http://www.essays.cc/free_essays/f4/rsk249.shtml
http://www.gradesaver.com/ClassicNotes/Titles/othello/
http://www.hf.ntnu.no/engelsk/shakespeare/
http://www.mcauley.acu.edu.au/staff/simonr/othello.htm
http://www.theatredance.com/othello/
http://www.willamette.edu/~blong/ShakeO/Othello.html
http://www2.hn.psu.edu/faculty/jmanis/shake.htm
Microsoft Encarta 2004 Standard Edition
Gill, Roma (ed.), Oxford School Shakespeare series: Othello. Oxford: Oxford
University Press (2002).
Sanders, Norman (ed.), The New Cambridge Shakespeare series: Othello.
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press (2002).
Vaughan, Virginia Mason, Othello: A contextual history. Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press (1996).
Othellos quotes have been cited from the Oxford Edition, which is based on Q2.
23

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National and Kapodistrian University of Athens

William Shakespeare (6th Semester)

Alexander-Michael Hadjilyra (99362)

Othello: Colour, Race and Prejudice.

Alexander-Michael Hadjilyra, June 2005

Othello: Colour, Race and Prejudice.

Othellos colour and race

Alexander-Michael Hadjilyra, June 2005

Othello: Colour, Race and Prejudice.

Othello: The Moor of Venice

Alexander-Michael Hadjilyra, June 2005

Othello: Colour, Race and Prejudice.

Alexander-Michael Hadjilyra, June 2005

Othello: Colour, Race and Prejudice.

Alexander-Michael Hadjilyra, June 2005

Othello: Colour, Race and Prejudice.

Alexander-Michael Hadjilyra, June 2005

Othello: Colour, Race and Prejudice.

would be allowed to hold a position of nobility in a Christian society, especially

. A quintessential dogmatic difference between Catholicism and Protestantism is that Catholics

Alexander-Michael Hadjilyra, June 2005

Othello: Colour, Race and Prejudice.

What Othello is called

Alexander-Michael Hadjilyra, June 2005

Othello: Colour, Race and Prejudice.

Alexander-Michael Hadjilyra, June 2005

Othello: Colour, Race and Prejudice.

Emilias outlook - Desdemonas attitude

Othello: Colour, Race and Prejudice.

Entrenched Stereotypes: Language

Alexander-Michael Hadjilyra, June 2005

Othello: Colour, Race and Prejudice.

Alexander-Michael Hadjilyra, June 2005

Othello: Colour, Race and Prejudice.

Entrenched Stereotypes: Society & Culture

Alexander-Michael Hadjilyra, June 2005

Othello: Colour, Race and Prejudice.

Alexander-Michael Hadjilyra, June 2005

Othello: Colour, Race and Prejudice.

When asked by Othello to lend him her handkerchief (3.4.47), Desdemona,

Alexander-Michael Hadjilyra, June 2005

Othello: Colour, Race and Prejudice.

Othellos obsession with Desdemonas colour is to be found in the soliloquy he

Entrenched Stereotypes: Sexual Intercourse & Promiscuity

Alexander-Michael Hadjilyra, June 2005

Othello: Colour, Race and Prejudice.

Alexander-Michael Hadjilyra, June 2005

Othello: Colour, Race and Prejudice.

Othello: Colour, Race and Prejudice.

Shakespeares View of Othello

Alexander-Michael Hadjilyra, June 2005

Othello: Colour, Race and Prejudice.

Alexander-Michael Hadjilyra, June 2005

Othello: Colour, Race and Prejudice.

In my humble opinion, Shakespeare attempts to convey an intense anti-racist

Alexander-Michael Hadjilyra, June 2005

Othello: Colour, Race and Prejudice.

successfully mate does neither demonstrate an insurmountable cultural

Alexander-Michael Hadjilyra, June 2005

Othello: Colour, Race and Prejudice.

Alexander-Michael Hadjilyra, June 2005

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