IR BASED APPLICATION CONTROL SYSTEM

ABSTRACT
The most important thing he forgets to switch off the room lights wherever not required. With
this, even the power will be wasted up to some extent. This project gives the best solution for
reducing electrical power save. Also the manual operation is completely eliminated. The home
appliances can be switched on/off using IR without actually going near the switch boards or
regulators. The remote used in this project is IR remote.
The loads like lights, motors, heaters, power controlling system and also current through
the loads can be controlled in this project. We can control all loads at a time from one place
(control room) without connecting any physical wire between loads and control room.
IR remote acts as the transmitter in this project. When a button is pressed in the remote,
the signal will be passed and received by the IR receiver TSOP Receiver. This signal is sent to the
microcontroller which decodes the signal and performs the corresponding action in accordance
with the button pressed in the remote. For example, if number 1 is pressed in the remote, the load
1 will be switched on/off according to the user requirement. The other tasks will be performed in
the similar fashion using IR.
This project uses regulated 5V, 500mA power supply. 7805 three terminal voltage
regulator is used for voltage regulation. Bridge type full wave rectifier is used to rectify the ac
output of secondary of 230/12V step down transformer.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
An endeavor of a long period can be successful only with the advice of many well
wishers. We take this opportunity to express our deep gratitude and appreciation to those who
encouraged us for successfully completion of the project work.

We are much thankful to our Guide Sri N.HARIKRISHNA Lecturer in Electrical and
Electronics Engineering, Govt. Polytechnic, Kamalapuram for his valuable guidance and
suggestion in analyzing and testing throughout the period, till the end of project work completion.

We wish to express our thanks to Sri. G.V.RAMANAIAH, HEEES for his encouragement to
complete the project work.

Finally, we would like to express our thanks to faculty members of E.E.E department, friends and
lab technicians one and all that had helped to complete the project successfully.

As a gesture of respect for our family members and for the support we received from them we are
dedicating this work to them.

-Project associates

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CONTENTS
CHAPTER 1:-IR BASED APPLICTION CONTROL SYSTEM
CHAPTER 2:-MICRO CONTROLLER, IR RCEIVER AND VOLTAGE REGULATOR
2.1 MICRO CONTROLLER (89S52)
2.2 IR RECEIVER (TSOP1738)
2.3 RC5 FOR REMOTE CONTROL
2.4 LM7805/TO VOLTAGE REGULATOR
CHAPTER 3:-TRANSFORMERS, DIODES, CAPACITORS AND RESISTORS,
3.1 TRANSFORMER
3.2 DIODES
3.3 CAPACITORS
3.4 RESISTORS
CHAPTER4:-TRANSISTORS, RELAYS
4.1 TRANSISTERS (BC547)
4.2 RELAYS

CONCLUSIONS
BIBLOGRAPHY

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INTRODUCTION
In this competitive world human cannot spare his time to perform his daily activities manually
without any fail. The most important thing he forgets to switch off the room lights wherever not
required. With this, even the power will be wasted up to some extent. This project gives the best
solution for electrical power wastage. Also the manual operation is completely eliminated. The
home appliances can be switched on/off using IR without actually going near the switch boards or
regulators. The TV remote used in this project is IR remote.
The loads like lights, motors, heaters, power controlling system and also current through
the loads can be controlled in this project. We can control all loads at a time from one place
(control room) without connecting any physical wire between loads and control room.
IR remote acts as the transmitter in this project. When a button is pressed in the remote,
the signal will be passed and received by the IR receiver TSOP Receiver. This signal is sent to the
microcontroller which decodes the signal and performs the corresponding action in accordance
with the button pressed in the remote. For example, if number 1 is pressed in the remote, the load
1 will be switched on/off according to the user requirement. The other tasks will be performed in
the similar fashion using IR.
This project uses regulated 5V, 500mA power supply. 7805 three terminal voltage
regulator is used for voltage regulation. Bridge type full wave rectifier is used to rectify the ac
output of secondary of 230/12V step down transformer.
The programming language used for developing the software to the microcontroller is
Embedded/Assembly. The KEIL cross compiler is used to edit, compile and debug this program.
Micro Flash programmer is used for burning the developed code on Kiel in to the microcontroller
Chip. Here in our application we are using AT89C51 microcontroller which is Flash
Programmable IC.AT represents the Atmel Corporation represents CMOS technology is used for
designing the IC. This IC is one of the versions of 8051.
ORGANIZATION OF THE THESIS:This project is designed to describe the working of 4-channel remote control using IR.
Chapter 1 deals with the operation of IR based application control system.
Chapter 2 deals with the transformers, their types, diodes capacitors,& resistors.
Chapter 3deals with the micro controller, IR receiver, RC5 remote control .

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C H APT E R 1
CIRCUIT COMPONENTS:
TRANFORMER

230/12V

DIODES

IN4007

CAPACITORS

1000uf/25V
0.1uf,10V

MICRO CONTROLLER

89S52
87C51

RESISTORS

1K
10K
100

TRANSISTORS

BC547

RELAYS

5V

RC5REMOTE CONTROL _

38Hz

DC MOTER

12V

DC FAN

12V

BULBS

60W,230V

SOCKET

5A,230V

BLOCKDIAGAM:

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LOAD1
LOAD2

IR
RECEIVER

LOAD3
LOAD4
8
9
S
5
2
Crystal
Oscillator
Reset
Circuit

USB REMOTE
AS IR
TRANSMITTER

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MAIN COMPONENT:
It mainly comprises rectifier diodes(IN4007), A 5V regulator(LM7805/TO), micro controller
(89s52), ir receiver(TSOP1738), relayes, dc moter, dc fan , 60w/230v bulbs, socket and RC5
remote control.
WORKING PRINCIPLE:
In this competitive world human cannot spare his time to perform his daily activities
manually without any fail. The most important thing he forgets to switch off the room lights
wherever not required. With this, even the power will be wasted up to some extent. This project
gives the best solution for electrical power wastage. Also the manual operation is completely
eliminated. The home appliances can be switched on/off using IR without actually going near the
switch boards or regulators. The U S B remote used in this project is IR remote.
The loads like lights, motors, heaters, power controlling system and also current through
the loads can be controlled in this project. We can control all loads at a time from one place
(control room) without connecting any physical wire between loads and control room.
IR remote acts as the transmitter in this project. When a button is pressed in the remote,
the signal will be passed and received by the IR receiver TSOP Receiver. This signal is sent to the
microcontroller which decodes the signal and performs the corresponding action in accordance
with the button pressed in the remote. For example, if number 1 is pressed in the remote, the load
1 will be switched on/off according to the user requirement. The other tasks will be performed in
the similar fashion using IR.
This project uses regulated 5V, 500mA power supply. 7805 three terminal voltage
regulator is used for voltage regulation. Bridge type full wave rectifier is used to rectify the ac out
put of secondary of 230/12V step down transformer.

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CHAPTER 2
MICROCONTROLLER, IR RECEIVER, REGULATOR AND TIMERS
2.1 MICRO CONTROLLER
Microprocessors and microcontrollers are widely used in embedded systems products.
Microcontroller is a programmable device. A microcontroller has a CPU in addition to a fixed
amount of RAM, ROM, I/O ports and a timer embedded all on a single chip. The fixed amount of
on-chip ROM, RAM and number of I/O ports in microcontrollers makes them ideal for many
applications in which cost and space are critical.
The Intel 89S52 is a Harvard architecture, single chip microcontroller (C)
which was developed by Intel in 1980 for use in embedded systems. It was popular in the 1980s
and early 1990s, but today it has largely been superseded by a vast range of enhanced devices
with 8051-compatible processor cores that are manufactured by more than 20 independent
manufacturers including Atmen, Inline Technologies and Maxim Integrated Products.
89S52 is an 8-bit processor, meaning that the CPU can work on only 8 bits of data at a
time. Data larger than 8 bits has to be broken into 8-bit pieces to be processed by the CPU. 8051
is available in different memory types such as UV-EPROM, Flash and NV-RAM.
The microcontroller used in this project is AT89C51. Atmen Corporation introduced this 89S52
microcontroller. This microcontroller belongs to 89S52 family. This microcontroller had 128
bytes of RAM, 4K bytes of on-chip ROM, two timers, one serial port and four ports (each 8-bits
wide) all on a single chip. AT89S52 is Flash type 89S52
The present project is implemented on Kiel Vision. In order to program the device, Preload tool
has been used to burn the program onto the microcontroller.
The features, pin description of the microcontroller and the software tools used are discussed in
the following sections.

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Features : Compatible with MCS-51 Products
8K Bytes of In-System Programmable (ISP) Flash Memory Endurance:
10,000 Write/Erase Cycles
4.0V to 5.5V Operating Range
Fully Static Operation: 0 Hz to 33 MHz
Three-level Program Memory Lock
256 x 8-bit Internal RAM
32 Programmable I/O Lines
Three 16-bit Timer/Counters
Eight Interrupt Sources
Full Duplex UART Serial Channel
Low-power Idle and Power-down Modes
Interrupt Recovery from Power-down Mode
Watchdog Timer
Dual Data Pointer
Power-off Flag
Fast Programming Time
Flexible ISP Programming (Byte and Page Mode)
Green (Pb/Halide-free) Packaging Option.
DESCRIPTION:1. The AT89S52 is a low-power, high-performance CMOS 8-bit microcontroller with 8K bytes
of in-system programmable Flash memory. The device is manufactured using Atmels highdensity nonvolatile memory technology and is compatible with the indus-try-standard 80C51
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instruction set and pinout. The on-chip Flash allows the program memory to be
reprogrammed in-system or by a conventional nonvolatile memory pro-grammer. By
combining a versatile 8-bit CPU with in-system programmable Flash on a monolithic chip,
the Atmel AT89S52 is a powerful microcontroller which provides a highly-flexible and costeffective solution to many embedded control applications. The AT89S52 provides the
following standard features: 8K bytes of Flash, 256 bytes of RAM, 32 I/O lines, Watchdog
timer, two data pointers, three 16-bit timer/counters, a six-vector two-level interrupt
architecture, a full duplex serial port, on-chip oscillator, and clock circuitry. In addition, the
AT89S52 is designed with static logic for operation down to zero frequency and supports two
software selectable power saving modes. The Idle Mode stops the CPU while allowing the
RAM, timer/counters, serial port, and interrupt system to continue functioning. The Powerdown mode saves the RAM con-tents but freezes the oscillator, disabling all other chip
functions until the next interrupt or hardware reset. 8-bit Microcontroller with 8K Bytes
In-System Programmable Flash AT89S52.
2. PIN DIAGRAM:-

F
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PIN DESCRIPTION:
Vcc Pin 40 provides supply voltage to the chip. The voltage source is +5V.
GND

Pin 20 is the ground.

XTAL1 and XTAL2

XTAL1 and XTAL2 are the input and output, respectively, of an

inverting amplifier that can be configured for use as an on-chip oscillator, as shown in Figure 11.
Either a quartz crystal or ceramic resonator may be used. To drive the device from an external
clock source, XTAL2 should be left unconnected while XTAL1 is driven, as shown in the below
figure. There are no requirements on the duty cycle of the external clock signal, since the input to
the internal clocking circuitry is through a divide-by-two flip-flop, but minimum and maximum
voltage high and low time specifications must be observed.

Fig : Oscillator Connections

C1, C2 = 30 pF 10 pF for Crystals = 40 pF 10 pF for Ceramic Resonators

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Fig : External Clock Drive Configuration

RESET
Pin9 is the reset pin. It is an input and is active high. Upon applying a high pulse to this pin, the
microcontroller will reset and terminate all the activities. This is often referred to as a power-on
reset.
EA (External access)

Pin 31 is EA. It is an active low signal. It is an input pin and must be

connected to either Vcc or GND but it cannot be left unconnected.

The 8051 family members all come with on-chip ROM to store programs. In such cases, the EA
pin is connected to Vcc. If the code is stored on an external ROM, the EA pin must be connected
to GND to indicate that the code is stored externally.
PSEN (Program store enable) This is an output pin.
ALE (Address latch enable) This is an output pin and is active high.
I/O PORTS:
Ports 0, 1, 2 and 3
The four ports P0, P1, P2 and P3 each use 8 pins, making them 8-bit ports. All the ports upon
RESET are configured as input, since P0-P3 have value FFH on them.
Port 0(P0)

Port 0 is also designated as AD0-AD7, allowing it to be used for both address and

data. ALE indicates if P0 has address or data. When ALE=0, it provides data D0-D7, but when
ALE=1, it has address A0-A7. Therefore, ALE is used for demultiplexing address and data with
the help of an internal latch.
When there is no external memory connection, the pins of P0 must be connected to a 10K-ohm
pull-up resistor. This is due to the fact that P0 is an open drain. With external pull-up resistors
connected to P0, it can be used as a simple I/O, just like P1 and P2. But the ports P1, P2 and P3
do not need any pull-up resistors since they already have pull-up resistors internally. Upon reset,
ports P1, P2 and P3 are configured as input ports.
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Port 1 and Port 2

With no external memory connection, both P1 and P2 are used as simple

I/O. With external memory connections, port 2 must be used along with P0 to provide the 16-bit
address for the external memory. Port 2 is designated as A8-A15 indicating its dual function.
While P0 provides the lower 8 bits via A0-A7, it is the job of P2 to provide bits A8-A15 of the
address.
Port 3:

Port 3 occupies a total of 8 pins, pins 10 through 17. It can be used as input or output.

P3 does not need any pull-up resistors, the same as port 1 and port 2. Port 3 has an additional
function of providing some extremely important signals such as interrupts.

Table : Port 3 Alternate Functions

PROGRAMMING THE FLASH:
The AT89C51 is normally shipped with the on-chip Flash memory array in the erased state (that
is, contents = FFH) and ready to be programmed. The programming interface accepts either a
high-voltage (12-volt) or a low-voltage (VCC) program enable signal. The low-voltage
programming mode provides a convenient way to program the AT89C51 inside the users system,
while the high-voltage programming mode is compatible with conventional third party Flash or
EPROM programmers. The AT89C51 is shipped with either the high-voltage or low-voltage
programming mode enabled. The respective top-side marking and device signature codes are
listed in the following table. array is programmed byte-byte in either programming mode.

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To program any nonblank byte in the on-chip Flash Memory, the entire memory must be erased
using the Chip Erase Mode.
Programming Algorithm: Before programming the AT89C51, the address, data and control
signals should be set up according to the Flash programming mode table. To program the
AT89C51, the following steps should be considered:
1. Input the desired memory location on the address lines.
2. Input the appropriate data byte on the data lines.
3. Activate the correct combination of control signals.
4. Raise EA/VPP to 12V for the high-voltage programming mode.
5. Pulse ALE/PROG once to program a byte in the Flash array or the lock bits. The byte-write
cycle is self-timed and typically takes no more than 1.5 ms.
Repeat steps 1 through 5, changing the address and data for the entire array or until the end of the
object file is reached.
Data Polling:
The AT89C51 features Data Polling to indicate the end of a write cycle. During a write cycle, an
attempted read of the last byte written will result in the complement of the written datum on
PO.7. Once the write cycle has been completed, true data are valid on all outputs, and the next
cycle may begin. Data Polling may begin any time after a write cycle has been initiated.
Ready/Busy: The progress of byte programming can also be monitored by the RDY/BSY output
signal. P3.4 is pulled low after ALE goes high during programming to indicate BUSY. P3.4 is
pulled high again when programming is done to indicate READY.
Chip Erase:
The entire Flash array is erased electrically by using the proper combination of control signals
and by holding ALE/PROG low for 10 ms. The code array is written with all 1s. The chip erase
operation must be executed before the code memory can be re-programmed.
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Reading the Signature Bytes:
The signature bytes are read by the same procedure as a normal verification of locations 030H,
031H, and 032H, except that P3.6 and P3.7 must be pulled to a logic low. The values returned are
as follows.
(030H) = 1EH indicates manufactured by Atmel
(031H) = 51H indicates 89S52
(032H) = FFH indicates 12V programming
(032H) = 05H indicates 5V programming
Programming Interface:
Every code byte in the Flash array can be written and the entire array can be erased by using the
appropriate combination of control signals. The write operation cycle is self timed and once
initiated, will automatically time itself to completion. All major programming vendors offer
worldwide support for the Atmel microcontroller series.
Table : Flash Programming Modes

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2.2 IR RECEIVER (TSOP)

Photo Modules for PCM Remote Control Systems
Available types for different carrier frequencies
TYPE

To

Type

fo

TSOP1730

30HKZ

TSOP1733

33KHZ

TSOP1736

36KHZ

TSOP1737

36.7KHZ

TSOP1738

38KHZ

TSOP1740

40KHZ

TSOP1756

56KHZ

Description:The TSOP17.. series are miniaturized receivers for infrared remote control systems. PIN diode
and preamplifier are assembled on lead frame, the epoxy package is designed as IR filter. The
demodulated output signal can directly be decoded by a microprocessor. TSOP17.. is the standard
IR remote control receiver series, supporting all major transmission codes. 94.
Features: Photo detector and preamplifier in one package
Internal filter for PCM frequency
Improved shielding against electrical field
disturbance
TTL and CMOS compatibility
Output active low
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Low power consumption
High immunity against ambient light

Continuous data transmission possible

(up to 2400 bps)

Suitable burst length .10 cycles/burst

BLOCK DIAGRAM:-

INPUT

GGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGG

CONTROL

GGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGG
CIRCUIT
G
BBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBB
BBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBB

AG C

BAND

DEMODUL

BBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBB
PASS
ATOR
BBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBB
BBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBB
BBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBB
3.3 555 TIMERS
GENERAL PURPOSE SINGLE BIPOLAR TIMERS:-

DESCRIPTION:The NE555 monolithic timing circuit is a highly stable controller capable of producing
accurate time delays or oscillation. In the time delay mode of operation, the time is
precisely controlled by one external resistor and capacitor. For a stable operation as an
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oscillator, the free running frequency and the duty cycle are both accurately controlled
with two external resistors and one capacitor. The circuit may be triggered and reset on
falling waveforms, and the output structure can source or sink up to 200mA. The NE555
is available in plastic and ceramic mini dip package and in a 8-lead micro package and
in metal can package version.
LOW TURN OFF TIME MAXIMUM OPERATING FREQUENCY
GREATER THAN 500kHz .
TIMING FROM MICROSECONDS TO HOURS OPERATES IN BOTH ASTABLE
AND
MONOSTABLE MODES HIGH OUTPUT CURRENT CAN SOURCE OR
SINK 200mA .ADJUSTABLE DUTY CYCLE .TTL COMPATIBLE TEMPERATURE
STABILITY OF 0.005%
2.4 VOLTAGE REGULATOR (LM 7805)
(3-Terminal 1A Positive Voltage Regulator.)
Description:The KA78XX/KA78XXA series of three-terminal positive regulator are available in the
TO-220/D-PAK package and with several fixed output voltages, making them useful in a wide
range of applications. Each type employs internal current limiting, thermal shut down and safe
operating area protection, making it essentially indestructible. If adequate heat sinking is rovided,
they can deliver over 1A output current. Although designed primarily as fixed voltage regulators,
these devices can be used with external components to obtain adjustable voltages and currents.
Features: Output Current up to 1A
Output Voltages of 5, 6, 8, 9, 10, 12, 15, 18, 24V
Thermal Overload Protection
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Short Circuit Protection
Output Transistor Safe Operating Area Protection

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CHAPTER 3
TRANSFORMERS, DIODES, CAPACITORS AND RESISTORS
3.1 TRANSFORMER
Introduction:
Electrical energy is generated at place where it is easier to get water head and coal for
coal hydro and thermal power stations respectively. The energy is to be transmitted at
considerable distance for use in town, cites and village located at distant places. Transmission of
electrical energy at high voltages is economical, therefore, some means are required for stepping
up the voltages at generating stations and stepping down the same at the place where it is to be
used. Electric machine used for this purpose is known as TRANSFORMER.
Definition:
A transformer is a static A C machine which transformer the electric power fron one electric
circuit to another electric circuit with same frequency. It works on MUTUAL INDUDTION
principle.
Construction:
A transformer essentially consists of magnetic circuits linked with two distinct windings
primary and secondary. The two windings are insulated from each other.
In all types of transformer the core is constructed steel lamination. The steel used is of high
silicon content, sometimes heat treated to produce a high permeability and low hysteresis loss.
The eddy current loss is minimized by laminating the core, the lamination being insulated from
each other by a light coat of core plate varnish or by oxide layer on the surface. The average
thickness of laminations of 0.35 mm for a frequency of 50Hz and 0.5mm for frequency of 25Hz.

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Classification of transformer:The transformer is classified as under according to:

Number of Phases: Single phase transformer
Poly phase transformer
Two phase
Three phase
Construction: Core type
Shell type
Berry type
Function:Power transformer
step up transformer(k>1)
step down transformer(k<1)
distribution transformer(always step down)
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Instrument transformer
Current transformer (C T)
Potential transformer (P T)
Number of winding: Single winding transformer
of Multi winding transformer
Type cooling: Air cooled transformer
Oil cooled transformer

Location: Indoor transformer

Outdoor transformer
Working principle of transformer:It mainly consists of two inductively coils which are electrically separated but
magnetically linked through a path of two reluctance. When one coil of transformer is connected
to an A C supply mains, an alternating flux is setup in the laminated core, most of this flux links
with the other coil and produces mutually induced e.m.f. the coil connected to supply mains, is
called primary winding and the coil connected to the is called secondary winding.
When the transformer raises the voltage that is when the output voltage of
transformer is higher than its input voltages, it is called the step-up transformer. And when it
lowers the voltages, that is output voltages is less than input voltages it is called step-down
transformer.
3.2 DIODES

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When a piece of P-Type material is suitable joined to a piece of N-type material is formed.
Such a PN-junction makes a very useful device and is called a semiconductor diode.
A PN-junction be made by simply joining the two pieces together. Special fabrication
techniques are needed to from a PN-junction. The various method of PN-junction diode and its
circuit symbol. In the circuit symbol the arrow mark indicates the direction of conventional
current direction in the diode. i.e from P-type to N-type

The figure shows A P-N junction which is just formed. Its sis single crystal with its left
half P-type and right half N-type, p-region has holes and relatively charged impunity ions. The Nregion has free electrons and positively charged impurity ions.

Holes from the P-region diffuse in to the N-region. They then combine with the
free electrons in the N-region, free electrons from the, N-region diffuse in to the P-region. The
diffusion of holes and free electrons across the junction occurs for a very short time. After a new
recombinations of holes and electrons in the immediate neighborhoods of the junction, a
restraining force is setup automatically. This force is called barrier. This barrier (or) depletion

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region as show in the figure stops further diffusion of holes and electrons from one side to the
other
V-I characteristic of P-N junction diode:The relation between the current of P-N junction diode is known as Volt-Ampere or V-I
characteristics. Usually the voltage is taken along X-axis and current taken along Y-axis. The
performance characteristics of P-N junction can be under three heads given below.
No Bias
Forward bias
Reverse bias
No bias:+++++++
P
(POSITIVE CHARGES
DOMINATE)

N
(negative charges dominate)

Forward Bias:With forward bias to PN-junction the following points to be noted

1.with the increase in external voltage the barrier, potential decreases and at some voltage(0.3to
0.7)
2.The junction offers low resistance almost zero resistance to the current flow
3. Forward current (If)flows in the current depending on the forward voltage.
PN-JUNCTION FORWARD BIAS:-

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Reverse Bias:With the reverse bias to PN junction the following points to be noted
1.with the increase in external voltage the barrier potential increase
2. The junction offers very high resistance, almost infinite resistance to the current flow
3. very little amount if current flows which can be treated as o current for all practical purpose
before breakdown occurs.
PN-JUNCTIONREVERSE BIAS:-

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SPECIFICATIONS OF DIODES: Maximum forward voltage drop(If).
Maximum forward current(If).
Peak inverse voltage(PIV).
Reverse breakdown voltage(Vb)
Reverse saturation current(Irs)
3.3 CAPACITORS
Introduction:Capacitors is an electrical device which stores electricity by accumulating free electrons
on a metal surface and then releases them as a current in the circuit, of which capacitor is a part.
Capacitance:
Capacitance may be defined as the ability of a capacitor to store the electric charge per
unit potential difference
It is represented by the letter C.
The unit of capacitance is FARAD(F).
The circuit Symbol is

Factors affecting the capacitance: Directly proportional to the are of plates(A).

Inversely proportional distance between the plates(D).
Varies directly with dielectric constant(orA)D
C=(orA)/D
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Classifications of Capacitor: Fixed capacitors
Variable capacitors
Fixed Capacitors:Fixed capacitors are those whose capacitors is constant and we cannot change its value.
Type of fixed capacitors based on the type of dielectric used: Paper Capacitor
Mica capacitor
Glaze capacitor
Polyster capacitor
Polystyrene capacitor
Ceramic Capacitor
Variable capacitors: Turning capacitors
Trimming capacitors
Specifications: Value of capacitance
Tolerance
Voltage raatings
Temperature coefficient
Leakage resistance
Frequency range
Dielectric constant
Power factor
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Functions of capacitors: It stores the dielectric charge when the source is connected to it.
It opposes changes in voltage.
It blocks direct current and allows alternating current.
Applications:These capacitors are used for direct voltage working applicator.
In electrical engineering field improve power factor.
In electrical field bypass, filter coupling etc.
3.4. RESISTORS
Introduction:Resistors are one of the basic electronic found in almost all electronic circuits. The
Function of resistors is to limit the amount of current (or) divide the voltage in a circuit. Resistors
exhibit the property of resistance.
It shows constant relation between the voltage across it to the current through it. The
value range form ohms to mega ohms.
Basically resistance is classified into three main groups as under.
Low Resistance 0<R<100 k Ohms.
Medium Resistance 0<R<100 K Ohms.
High Resistance 100K<R<Infinity.
Resistance:Resistance may define as the opposition to the flow of current in the substance.
The unit of resistance(R) is Ohm().
Features of resistors:These are two terminal, passive bilateral element.
The effect of resistance is same for both A.C and D.C.
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Basically resistors are divided into two types.
Fixed Resistors: Moulded resistors
Insulated moulded resistors
Metal film resistors
Cracked Carbon resistors
Metal oxide film resistors
Wire Wound Resistors:
These are following types.
Open wound resistors.
Vitreous enamelled resistors.
Cement coated resistors.
Lacquered resistors.
Variable Resistors: Open Type
Vitreous enamel type
Cement coated
Silicon lacquered
Specification of resistors:All resistors will have three main specifications that are to be considered, they are
Resistance value
Tolerance
Power rating
Resistance Value:- It gives the value of resistors in Ohms its value either printed or colour coded
over the body depending upon the type of resistor from 1 to many Mega are available.
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Tolerance:-It gives the variation of resistance value from the indicated value. It is generally
expressed in percentage. It typical are ranging from 1% to 2%.
Power rating:- It is very important specification because it determines the maximum current that
resistor can with stand without being destroyed. It expressed in WATTS. The resistor with power
rating ranging from 0.1W to Hundred of Watt are available. The power rating depends on the size
and the material used for the resistor.
Resistor colour coding:The value of resistance can be known from the colour on the body of resistors. Normally resistors
have four colour bands which indicate the value. Colour coding is the process in which colour are
used to indicate numerical value of the resistor. The used of bands or strips is the most common
system for colour coding the fixed resistors.
The colour bands are read from left from the which has the band closest to it. As the first
and second bands indicate the first and second significant digits, while the third band indicates
decimal multiplier. The fourth band indicates the tolerance; the amount by which the actual
resistance R can be different from the printed value.
Variable resistors:-In most of the associations fixed resistors serve majority of the requirement
but in some cases the value of resistance has to be adjusted this has lead to the manufacture of
variable resistors. These resistors are manufactures to follow linearity. These resistors are called
variable resistors.
Variable resistors are the resistors whose resistance value can be varied. Different types of
variable resistors are Potentiometer Rheostat

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C H APT E R 4
TRANSISTORS RELAYS AND LCD
4.1 TRANSISTERS
A Transistor consists of two PN-Junction formed by sandwiching either P-type or N-type
semiconductor between a pair of opposite types.
Hence there are two types of transistors possible, namely.
(i) n-p-n transistor

(ii) p-n-p transistor.

An n-p-n transistor is composed of two n-type semiconductor separated by a thin section of

P-type. A p-n-p transistor is formed by two p-section separated by a then section of n-type as
shown in fig.
B

A transistor has two PN junctions. As discussed later on junction is forward biased and the other
is reverse biased. The forward biased junction has a high resistance path. The weak signal is
introduced in the low resistance circuit and output is taken from the high resistance circuit
therefore a transistor transfers a signal from a low resistance to high resistance, the perforce,
trans means the signal transfer property of the device while istor classifies it as a solid element
in the same general family with resistors.
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A transistor (NPN or PNP) has three sections of doped semiconductors these are named as
emitter, Base and collector.
Emitter:-The section of one side that supplies charge carriers is called emitter is always forward
bias with respect to base so that is can supply large number of majority carries.
Collector:-The section on the other side that collects the charge is called the collector, the
collector is always reverse biased.
Base:- The middle sections which form is two Pn-Junctions between the emitter and collector is
called the base. The Base-Emitter junction is forward biased and the base-collector is reverse
biased.
PNP & NPN COMMON BASE CONFIGURATION:E

P
Forward bias

Reverse bias

P
Forward bias

Reverse bia

The base is much thinner then the emitter while collector is wider then both however for sake of
convenience, it is customary to show emitter and collector t90be of equal sizes.
The transistor has tow PN-junction i.e.it is like tow diodes .The junction between emitter and
base may be called emitter base diode or simply emitter code. The junction between base and
collector may be called collector base diode or simply collector diode. The emitter diode always
forward biased where as collector diode is reverse biased.

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Transistor action:The action of transistor (NPN) is explained from the following figure.
n++

n+

electrons
R
holes

recombination

IN the NPN transistor emitter base Junction is forward biased and collector base junction is
reverse biased. The forward bias causes the electrons in the N-type emitter to flow towards the
base. This constitutes the emitter current

. As the electrons flow through the P-Type base they

tend to combine with holes. As the base is lightly doped and very thin, therefore, only few
electrons (5%) combined with the holes to constitute base current

. The remaining (95%) of

the electrons cross-over into the collector region to constitute collector current

. In this way,

almost the entire emitter current flows in the collector circuit. It is clear that sum of collector and
base currents.
i.e.

Transistors symbol:C

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E

The Conventional current flows into the emitter are indicated by the direction of arrows.
Transistor configurations:When a transistor is to be connected in a circuit, we require 4-terminals, 2-for input and 2for output. The difficult is over-come by making one terminal of the transistor common to both
input and output terminals.
Accordingly, transistor can be connected in a circuit in the following three ways.
1. Common Base (CB) connection
2. Common Emitter (CF) connection
3. Common Collector (CC) connection
Common Base Connection:IE

IC

Signal

VEB (or)VEE

VCB(or)VCC

In this circuits arrangement, input is applied between emitter and base and output is taken from
collector and base, Here, base of transistor is common to both input and output circuits and hence
to name common base connection. The above figure show. The common base NPN transistor
circuit.

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Common Emitter connection:-

IB

IC

VBE(or)VBB

VCE(or)VCC

In this circuit arrangement, input is applied between base and emitter and output is taken from the
collector and emitter. Here emitter of transistor is common to both input and output circuits and
hence the name common emitter connection. The above figure show common emitter NPN
transistor circuit.
Common collector connection:IE
IB

Ic

VEC(or)VEE
In this circuit arrangement, input is applied between base and collector while output is taken
between. The emitter and collector. Here collector of the transistor is common to both input and

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output circuits and hence the name common collector connection. The above figure show
common collector NPN transistor.

TRANSISTOR AS A SWITCH:The figure shows the transistor switching circuit as driven by a voltage step. When
the input voltage is zero, the transistor is cut-off. In this case is appears like open switch, with no
current through the collector resistor, the output voltage equals +15V. When the v oltage is +5V,
the base current,
Visualize the transistor
Shorted between the collector and emitter. Then the output voltage ideally drops to zero and saturation

current,

. This is approximately 10 times the base current: easily enough to produce

hard saturation in almost any small single transistor this means that the transistor acts like a closed switch and
is approximately zero.
TRANSISTOR AS A AMPLIFIER:A transistor raises the strength of a weak signal and thus acts as an amplifier. The weak signal is applied
between emitter-base junction and output is taken across the load RC connected in the collector circuits in
order to achieve faithful amplification. The input circuit should always remain forward biased to do so a dc
voltage VEE is applied in the ill put circuit in addition to the signal.
As the input circuit has low resistance, therefore, a small change in signal voltage causes an appreciable
change in emitter current. The causes, almost the same change in collector current due to transistor actions. The
collector current flowing through high load resistance

produces a large voltage across it thus, a weak signal

applied in the input circuit appears in the amplified form in the circuit. It is in this way that a transistor acts as
an Amplifier.

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4.2 RE LAYS
Relay is an electrically operated switch. Relay can be defined as A device that opens or auxiliary
circuit under some predetermined condition in the main circuit. The object of the relay is to act as a sort of
electric magnifier that is it enables a comparatively weak current to bring in to operation the much.
CLASSIFICATION OF RELAYS:Based on the principle of operation:
Electro thermal relay
Electro magnetic relay
Solid state relay
Hybrid relay
Electromagnetic relay:The construction of general purpose electromagnetic relay. It contains core surrounded by coil
of copper wire the made of plastic or Bakelite which enameled copper wire. The coil is impregnated by vantsh
in order to remove air pockets from coil. The core mounted on metal frame. The movable part of relay is called
armature. When a current flowing through it produces a magnetic field in the core. In other words, the core
acts as electromagnet and attracts the metal armature when the armature is attracted ti the core, the magnetic
path is from the core through the armature , through the armature through the frame and back to the core. On
removing the voltage the armature returns to its original position.
When on current flows through relay coil, the contact arm touches the top contact. When coil is
achieve by the flow of current armature along with the contact arm assembly moves downwards so that the
contact arm youches the bottom contact
Performance characteristic of relay:
Operation time:-This is the time interval beteen the closing of energizing circuit and instant first closing of
make contact of first operating of abreak contact.

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Release time:-This is the time interval between the energizing circuit after switch off and instant of first
operating of make contact are the first closing of break contact.
Reverse operate time:- This time is interval between the closing of energizing circuit and instant of the first
operating of make contact or first closing of a break contact.
Operate current:-The maximum current at which the relay is just operated is known as the operate current.
Release current:-The maximum current at which the relay is just released is known is the release cureent.
Non operate current:-It is the maximum current at which the relay remains un-operated.
Hold cureent:- It is maximum current at which the operated relay remains held up.
Characteristic of relay:The following are the relay characteristics.
Contacts
Contact rating
Contact materials
Maximum operating temperature
Voltage and current requirement
Operate and release time
Application of relay: It is used in generating station.
It is used in substations.
It is used to protect the costly equipments.

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CONCLUSION
The most important thing he forgets to switch off the room lights wherever not
required. With this, even the power will be wasted up to some extent. This project gives the
best solution for electrical power save.Also the manual operation is completely eliminated.
The home appliances can be switched on/off using IR without actually going near the switch
boards or regulators. The remote used in this project is IR remote.
The loads like lights, motors, heaters, power controlling system and also
current through the loads can be controlled in this project. We can control all loads at a
time from one place (control room) without connecting any physical wire between loads
and control room.
FUTURE SCOPE:The design with same modification RFD can also used control all load at a time from one
please to another without connecting any physical wire between loads and control room.

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BIBLOGRAPHY
Electrical power by

: Sony, Gupta, Bhatnagar

Electrical machines by

: M.V. Desh Pande

Electrical technology by : VOL-1-B.L.Theraja

VOL2-B.L.Theraja
Digital electronics

: Tokhem TMH

ELECTRONIC COMPONENTS.COM

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