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Computeraideddesign
FromWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia

Computeraideddesign(CAD)istheuseofcomputersystems
toassistinthecreation,modification,analysis,oroptimizationof
adesign.[1]CADsoftwareisusedtoincreasetheproductivityof
thedesigner,improvethequalityofdesign,improve
communicationsthroughdocumentation,andtocreateadatabase
formanufacturing.[2]CADoutputisoftenintheformof
electronicfilesforprint,machining,orothermanufacturing
operations.
Computeraideddesignisusedinmanyfields.Itsusein
designingelectronicsystemsisknownaselectronicdesign
automation,orEDA.Inmechanicaldesignitisknownas
mechanicaldesignautomation(MDA)orcomputeraided
drafting(CAD),whichincludestheprocessofcreatinga
technicaldrawingwiththeuseofcomputersoftware.[3]
CADsoftwareformechanicaldesignuseseithervectorbased
graphicstodepicttheobjectsoftraditionaldrafting,ormayalso
producerastergraphicsshowingtheoverallappearanceof
designedobjects.However,itinvolvesmorethanjustshapes.As
inthemanualdraftingoftechnicalandengineeringdrawings,the
outputofCADmustconveyinformation,suchasmaterials,
processes,dimensions,andtolerances,accordingtoapplication
specificconventions.

Example:2DCADdrawing

Example:3DCADmodel

CADmaybeusedtodesigncurvesandfiguresintwo
dimensional(2D)spaceorcurves,surfaces,andsolidsinthree
dimensional(3D)space.[4]
CADisanimportantindustrialartextensivelyusedinmany
applications,includingautomotive,shipbuilding,andaerospace
industries,industrialandarchitecturaldesign,prosthetics,and
manymore.CADisalsowidelyusedtoproducecomputer
CADrenderingofSialkziggurat
animationforspecialeffectsinmovies,advertisingandtechnical
basedonarcheologicalevidence
manuals,oftencalledDCCdigitalcontentcreation.Themodern
ubiquityandpowerofcomputersmeansthatevenperfume
bottlesandshampoodispensersaredesignedusingtechniquesunheardofbyengineersofthe1960s.
Becauseofitsenormouseconomicimportance,CADhasbeenamajordrivingforceforresearchin
computationalgeometry,computergraphics(bothhardwareandsoftware),anddiscretedifferential
geometry.[5]
Thedesignofgeometricmodelsforobjectshapes,inparticular,isoccasionallycalledcomputeraided
geometricdesign(CAGD).[6]

Contents
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1Overview
2Uses
3Types
4Technology
5History
6Seealso
7References
8Externallinks

Overview
Startingaroundthemid1970s,ascomputeraideddesignsystemsbegantoprovidemorecapabilitythan
justanabilitytoreproducemanualdraftingwithelectronicdrafting,thecostbenefitforcompaniesto
switchtoCADbecameapparent.ThebenefitofCADsystemsovermanualdraftingarethecapabilities
oneoftentakesforgrantedfromcomputersystemstodayautomatedgenerationofBillofMaterial,auto
layoutinintegratedcircuits,interferencechecking,andmanyothers.EventuallyCADprovidedthe
designerwiththeabilitytoperformengineeringcalculations.Duringthistransition,calculationswere
stillperformedeitherbyhandorbythoseindividualsthatcouldruncomputerprograms.CADwasa
revolutionarychangeintheengineeringindustry,wheredraftsmen,designersandengineeringroles
begintomerge.Itdidnoteliminatedepartments,asmuchasitmergeddepartmentsandempowered
draftsman,designersandengineers.CADisjustanotherexampleofthepervasiveeffectcomputerswere
beginningtohaveonindustry.
Currentcomputeraideddesignsoftwarepackagesrangefrom2Dvectorbaseddraftingsystemsto3D
solidandsurfacemodelers.ModernCADpackagescanalsofrequentlyallowrotationsinthree
dimensions,allowingviewingofadesignedobjectfromanydesiredangle,evenfromtheinsidelooking
out.SomeCADsoftwareiscapableofdynamicmathematicalmodeling,inwhichcaseitmaybe
marketedasCADD.
CADisusedinthedesignoftoolsandmachineryandinthedraftinganddesignofalltypesof
buildings,fromsmallresidentialtypes(houses)tothelargestcommercialandindustrialstructures
(hospitalsandfactories).
[7]CADismainlyusedfordetailedengineeringof3Dmodelsand/or2Ddrawingsofphysical

components,butitisalsousedthroughouttheengineeringprocessfromconceptualdesignandlayoutof
products,throughstrengthanddynamicanalysisofassembliestodefinitionofmanufacturingmethods
ofcomponents.Itcanalsobeusedtodesignobjects.FurthermoremanyCADapplicationsnowoffer
advancedrenderingandanimationcapabilitiessoengineerscanbettervisualizetheirproductdesigns.4D
BIMisatypeofvirtualconstructionengineeringsimulationincorporatingtimeorschedulerelated
informationforprojectmanagement.
CADhasbecomeanespeciallyimportanttechnologywithinthescopeofcomputeraidedtechnologies,
withbenefitssuchaslowerproductdevelopmentcostsandagreatlyshorteneddesigncycle.CAD
enablesdesignerstolayoutanddevelopworkonscreen,printitoutandsaveitforfutureediting,saving
timeontheirdrawings.

Uses
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Computeraideddesignisoneofthemanytoolsusedbyengineersanddesignersandisusedinmany
waysdependingontheprofessionoftheuserandthetypeofsoftwareinquestion.
CADisonepartofthewholeDigitalProductDevelopment(DPD)activitywithintheProductLifecycle
Management(PLM)processes,andassuchisusedtogetherwithothertools,whichareeitherintegrated
modulesorstandaloneproducts,suchas:
Computeraidedengineering(CAE)andFiniteelementanalysis(FEA)
Computeraidedmanufacturing(CAM)includinginstructionstoComputerNumericalControl
(CNC)machines
Photorealisticrendering
DocumentmanagementandrevisioncontrolusingProductDataManagement(PDM).
CADisalsousedfortheaccuratecreationofphotosimulationsthatareoftenrequiredinthepreparation
ofEnvironmentalImpactReports,inwhichcomputeraideddesignsofintendedbuildingsare
superimposedintophotographsofexistingenvironmentstorepresentwhatthatlocalewillbelikewere
theproposedfacilitiesallowedtobebuilt.Potentialblockageofviewcorridorsandshadowstudiesare
alsofrequentlyanalyzedthroughtheuseofCAD.
CADhasbeenproventobeusefultoengineersaswell.Usingfourpropertieswhicharehistory,
features,parameterization,andhighlevelconstraints.Theconstructionhistorycanbeusedtolookback
intothemodel'spersonalfeaturesandworkonthesinglearearatherthanthewholemodel.Parameters
andconstraintscanbeusedtodeterminethesize,shape,andotherpropertiesofthedifferentmodeling
elements.ThefeaturesintheCADsystemcanbeusedforthevarietyoftoolsformeasurementsuchas
tensilestrength,yieldstrength,electricalorelectromagneticproperties.Alsoitsstress,strain,timingor
howtheelementgetsaffectedincertaintemperatures,etc.

Types
ThereareseveraldifferenttypesofCAD,[8]eachrequiringthe
operatortothinkdifferentlyabouthowtousethemanddesign
theirvirtualcomponentsinadifferentmannerforeach.
Therearemanyproducersofthelowerend2Dsystems,
includinganumberoffreeandopensourceprograms.These
provideanapproachtothedrawingprocesswithoutallthefuss
overscaleandplacementonthedrawingsheetthataccompanied
handdrafting,sincethesecanbeadjustedasrequiredduringthe
creationofthefinaldraft.

Asimpleprocedure

3Dwireframeisbasicallyanextensionof2Ddrafting(notoften
usedtoday).Eachlinehastobemanuallyinsertedintothedrawing.Thefinalproducthasnomass
propertiesassociatedwithitandcannothavefeaturesdirectlyaddedtoit,suchasholes.Theoperator
approachestheseinasimilarfashiontothe2Dsystems,althoughmany3Dsystemsallowusingthe
wireframemodeltomakethefinalengineeringdrawingviews.
3D"dumb"solidsarecreatedinawayanalogoustomanipulationsofrealworldobjects(notoftenused
today).Basicthreedimensionalgeometricforms(prisms,cylinders,spheres,andsoon)havesolid
volumesaddedorsubtractedfromthem,asifassemblingorcuttingrealworldobjects.Twodimensional
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projectedviewscaneasilybegeneratedfromthemodels.Basic3Dsolidsdon'tusuallyincludetoolsto
easilyallowmotionofcomponents,setlimitstotheirmotion,oridentifyinterferencebetween
components.
SolidModelingTherearetwotypesofsolidmodeling
1).3Dparametricsolidmodelingallowstheoperatortousewhatisreferredtoas"designintent".The
objectsandfeaturescreatedaremodifiable.Anyfuturemodificationscanbemadebychanginghowthe
originalpartwascreated.Ifafeaturewasintendedtobelocatedfromthecenterofthepart,theoperator
shouldlocateitfromthecenterofthemodel.Thefeaturecouldbelocatedusinganygeometricobject
alreadyavailableinthepart,butthisrandomplacementwoulddefeatthedesignintent.Iftheoperator
designsthepartasitfunctionstheparametricmodelerisabletomakechangestothepartwhile
maintainingdesignedinrelationships.
2).ExplicitModellersorDirect3DCADModelersprovidetheabilitytoeditgeometrywithoutahistory
tree.Withdirectmodelingonceasketchisusedtocreategeometrythesketchisincorporatedintothe
newgeometryandthedesignerjustmodifiesthegeometrywithoutneedingtheoriginalsketch.Aswith
Parametricmodeling,Directmodelinghastheabilitytoincluderelationshipsbetweenselectedgeometry
(e.g.,tangency,concentricity).
Topendsystemsofferthecapabilitiestoincorporatemoreorganic,aestheticsandergonomicfeatures
intodesigns.Freeformsurfacemodelingisoftencombinedwithsolidstoallowthedesignertocreate
productsthatfitthehumanformandvisualrequirementsaswellastheyinterfacewiththemachine.

Technology
OriginallysoftwareforComputerAidedDesignsystemswas
developedwithcomputerlanguagessuchasFortran,ALGOLbut
withtheadvancementofobjectorientedprogrammingmethods
thishasradicallychanged.Typicalmodernparametricfeature
basedmodelerandfreeformsurfacesystemsarebuiltarounda
numberofkeyCmoduleswiththeirownAPIs.ACADsystem
canbeseenasbuiltupfromtheinteractionofagraphicaluser
interface(GUI)withNURBSgeometryand/orboundary
representation(Brep)dataviaageometricmodelingkernel.A
geometryconstraintenginemayalsobeemployedtomanagethe
associativerelationshipsbetweengeometry,suchaswireframe
geometryinasketchorcomponentsinanassembly.

ACADmodelofacomputermouse.

Unexpectedcapabilitiesoftheseassociativerelationshipshaveledtoanewformofprototypingcalled
digitalprototyping.Incontrasttophysicalprototypes,whichentailmanufacturingtimeinthedesign.
Thatsaid,CADmodelscanbegeneratedbyacomputerafterthephysicalprototypehasbeenscanned
usinganindustrialCTscanningmachine.Dependingonthenatureofthebusiness,digitalorphysical
prototypescanbeinitiallychosenaccordingtospecificneeds.
Today,CADsystemsexistforallthemajorplatforms(Windows,Linux,UNIXandMacOSX)some
packagesevensupportmultipleplatforms.
Rightnow,nospecialhardwareisrequiredformostCADsoftware.However,someCADsystemscan
dographicallyandcomputationallyintensivetasks,soamoderngraphicscard,highspeed(andpossibly
multiple)CPUsandlargeamountsofRAMmayberecommended.
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Thehumanmachineinterfaceisgenerallyviaacomputermousebutcanalsobeviaapenanddigitizing
graphicstablet.Manipulationoftheviewofthemodelonthescreenisalsosometimesdonewiththeuse
ofaSpacemouse/SpaceBall.Somesystemsalsosupportstereoscopicglassesforviewingthe3D
model.Technologieswhichinthepastwerelimitedtolargerinstallationsorspecialistapplicationshave
becomeavailabletoawidegroupofusers.TheseincludetheCAVEorHMD`sandinteractivedevices
likemotionsensingtechnology

History
Designers[9][10][11][12]havelongusedcomputersfortheircalculations.Digitalcomputerswereusedin
powersystemanalysisoroptimizationasearlyasproto"Whirlwind"in1949.Circuit[13]designtheory,
orpowernetworkmethodologywouldbealgebraic,symbolic,andoftenvectorbased.Examplesof
problemsbeingsolvedinthemid1940sto50sinclude,Servomotorscontrolledbygeneratedpulse
(1949),Thedigitalcomputerwithbuiltincomputeoperationstoautomaticallycoordinatetransformsto
computeradarrelatedvectors(1951)andtheessentiallygraphicmathematicalprocessofforminga
shapewithadigitalmachinetool(1952).[14]Thesewereaccomplishedwiththeuseofcomputer
software.ThemancreditedwithcoiningthetermCAD.[15]DouglasT.Rossstated"AssoonasIsawthe
interactivedisplayequipment,[beingusedbyradaroperators1953]Isaid"Gee,that'sjustwhatwe
need"".Thedesignersoftheseveryearlycomputersbuiltutilityprogramssothatprogrammerscould
debugprogramsusingflowchartsonadisplayscopewithlogicalswitchesthatcouldbeopenedand
closedduringthedebuggingsession.Theyfoundthattheycouldcreateelectronicsymbolsand
geometricfigurestobeusedtocreatesimplecircuitdiagramsandflowcharts.[16]Theymadethe
pleasantdiscoverythatanobjectoncedrawncouldbereproducedatwill,itsorientation,Linkage[flux,
mechanical,lexicalscoping]orscalechanged.Thissuggestednumerouspossibilitiestothem.Ittook
tenyearsofinterdisciplinarydevelopment[17]workbeforeSKETCHPADsittingonevolvingmath
librariesemergedfromMIT`slabs.Additionaldevelopmentswerecarriedoutinthe1960swithinthe
aircraft,automotive,industrialcontrolandelectronicsindustriesintheareaof3Dsurfaceconstruction,
NCprogramminganddesignanalysis,mostofitindependentofoneanotherandoftennotpublicly
publisheduntilmuchlater.Someofthemathematicaldescriptionworkoncurveswasdevelopedinthe
early1940sbyRobertIssacNewtonfromPawtucket,RhodeIsland.RobertA.Heinleininhis1957
novelTheDoorintoSummersuggestedthepossibilityofaroboticDraftingDan.However,probablythe
mostimportantworkonpolynomialcurvesandsculpturedsurfacewasdonebyPierreBzier,Paulde
Casteljau(Citroen),StevenAnsonCoons(MIT,Ford),JamesFerguson(Boeing),CarldeBoor(GM),
Birkhoff(GM)andGaribedian(GM)inthe1960sandW.Gordon(GM)andR.Riesenfeldinthe1970s.
Theinventionofthe3DCAD/CAMisattributedtoaFrenchengineer,PierreBezier(ArtsetMtiers
ParisTech,Renault).Afterhismathematicalworkconcerningsurfaces,hedevelopedUNISURF,
between1966and1968,toeasethedesignofpartsandtoolsfortheautomotiveindustry.Then,
UNISURFbecametheworkingbaseforthefollowinggenerationsofCADsoftware.
ItisarguedthataturningpointwasthedevelopmentoftheSKETCHPADsystematMIT[18][19]byIvan
Sutherland(wholatercreatedagraphicstechnologycompanywithDr.DavidEvans).Thedistinctive
featureofSKETCHPADwasthatitallowedthedesignertointeractwithhiscomputergraphically:the
designcanbefedintothecomputerbydrawingonaCRTmonitorwithalightpen.Effectively,itwasa
prototypeofgraphicaluserinterface,anindispensablefeatureofmodernCAD.Sutherlandpresentedhis
paperSketchpad:AManMachineGraphicalCommunicationSystemin1963ataJointComputer
ConferencehavingworkedonitashisPhDthesispaperforafewyears.Quoting,Fordrawingswhere
motionofthedrawing,oranalysisofadrawnproblemisofvaluetotheuser,Sketchpadexcels.For
highlyrepetitivedrawingsordrawingswhereaccuracyisrequired,Sketchpadissufficientlyfasterthan
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conventionaltechniquestobeworthwhile.Fordrawingswhichmerelycommunicatewithshops,itis
probablybettertouseconventionalpaperandpencil.Overtimeeffortswouldbedirectedtowardthe
goalofhavingthedesignersdrawingscommunicatenotjustwithshopsbutwiththeshoptoolitself.
Thisgoalwouldbealongtimearriving.
ThefirstcommercialapplicationsofCADwereinlargecompaniesintheautomotiveandaerospace
industries,aswellasinelectronics.Onlylargecorporationscouldaffordthecomputerscapableof
performingthecalculations.Notablecompanyprojectswere,ajointprojectofGM(Dr.Patrick
J.Hanratty)andIBM(SamMatsa
(http://www.siggraph.org/publications/newsletter/v32n1/columns/machover.html),DougRoss`sMIT
APTresearchassistant)todevelopaprototypesystemfordesignengineersDAC1(DesignAugmented
byComputer)1964LockheedprojectsBellGRAPHIC1andRenault.
OneofthemostinfluentialeventsinthedevelopmentofCADwasthefoundingofMCS(Manufacturing
andConsultingServicesInc.)in1971byDr.P.J.Hanratty,[20]whowrotethesystemADAM
(AutomatedDraftingAndMachining)butmoreimportantlysuppliedcodetocompaniessuchas
McDonnellDouglas(Unigraphics),Computervision(CADDS),Calma,Gerber,AutotrolandControl
Data.
Ascomputersbecamemoreaffordable,theapplicationareashavegraduallyexpanded.Thedevelopment
ofCADsoftwareforpersonaldesktopcomputerswastheimpetusforalmostuniversalapplicationinall
areasofconstruction.
Otherkeypointsinthe1960sand1970swouldbethefoundationofCADsystemsUnitedComputing,
Intergraph,IBM,IntergraphIGDSin1974(whichledtoBentleySystemsMicroStationin1984).
CADimplementationshaveevolveddramaticallysincethen.Initially,with3Dinthe1970s,itwas
typicallylimitedtoproducingdrawingssimilartohanddrafteddrawings.Advancesinprogrammingand
computerhardware,[21][22]notablysolidmodelinginthe1980s,haveallowedmoreversatileapplications
ofcomputersindesignactivities.
Keyproductsfor1981werethesolidmodellingpackagesRomulus(ShapeData)andUniSolid
(Unigraphics)basedonPADL2andthereleaseofthesurfacemodelerCATIA(DassaultSystemes).
Autodeskwasfounded1982byJohnWalker,whichledtothe2DsystemAutoCAD.Thenextmilestone
wasthereleaseofPro/ENGINEERin1987,whichheraldedgreaterusageoffeaturebasedmodeling
methodsandparametriclinkingoftheparametersoffeatures.Alsoofimportancetothedevelopmentof
CADwasthedevelopmentoftheBrepsolidmodelingkernels(enginesformanipulatinggeometrically
andtopologicallyconsistent3Dobjects)Parasolid(ShapeData)andACIS(SpatialTechnologyInc.)at
theendofthe1980sandbeginningofthe1990s,bothinspiredbytheworkofIanBraid.Thisledtothe
releaseofmidrangepackagessuchasSolidWorksandTriSpective(laterknownasIronCAD)in1995,
SolidEdge(thenIntergraph)in1996andAutodeskInventorin1999.Anindependentgeometric
modelingkernelhasbeenevolvinginRussiasincethe1990s.[23]NikolayGolovanovjoinedASCON
Companyin1994fromtheKolomnaEngineeringDesignBureauandbegandevelopmentofC3Dthe
geometrickerneloftheRussianpopularCADsystem,KOMPAS3D.[24]Nowadays,C3D(C3DLabs)is
themostvaluedRussianCADproductinthecategoryofcomponents,i.e.productsdesignedfor
integrationintheenduserCADsystemsofRussianandglobalvendors.[25]

Seealso
3Dcomputergraphicssoftware
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3Dmodeling
3Dprinting
AdditiveManufacturingFileFormat
ArtofIllusion
Blender(software)
CADstandards
Comparisonof3Dcomputergraphicssoftware
*ComparisonofCADeditorsforAEC(architecture,engineeringandconstruction)
ComparisonofFreeEDAsoftware(ElectronicDesignAutomation)
Computeraidedindustrialdesign
Digitalarchitecture
DESIIII
Electronicdesignautomation
Integratingfunctionality
ISO128
ISO10303STEP
Modelbaseddefinition
Moleculardesignsoftware
Openhardware
PLaSMProgrammingLanguageofSolidModeling
Rapidprototyping
Virtualprototyping
Wings3D

References
1. ^Narayan,K.Lalit(2008).ComputerAidedDesignandManufacturing(http://books.google.com/books?
id=zXdivq93WIUC&printsec=frontcover).NewDelhi:PrenticeHallofIndia.p.3.ISBN812033342X.
2. ^Narayan,K.Lalit(2008).ComputerAidedDesignandManufacturing(http://books.google.com/books?
id=zXdivq93WIUC&printsec=frontcover).NewDelhi:PrenticeHallofIndia.p.4.ISBN812033342X.
3. ^Madsen,DavidA.(2012).EngineeringDrawing&Design(http://books.google.com/books?
id=qdtJDEPZrrkC&pg=PA2).CliftonPark,NY:Delmar.p.10.ISBN1111309574.
4. ^Farin,GeraldHoschek,JosefandKim,MyungSoo(2002).Handbookofcomputeraidedgeometricdesign
[electronicresource](http://books.google.com/books?id=0SV5G8fgxLoC).Elsevier.ISBN9780444
511041.
5. ^Pottmann,H.BrellCokcan,S.andWallner,J.(2007)"Discretesurfacesforarchitecturaldesign"
(http://www.geometrie.tuwien.ac.at/ig/sn/2007/pbw_surfaces_07/pbw_surfaces_07.html),pp.213234in
CurveandSurfaceDesign,PatrickChenin,TomLycheandLarryL.Schumaker(eds.),NashboroPress,
ISBN9780972848275.
6. ^Farin,Gerald(2002)CurvesandSurfacesforCAGD:APracticalGuide
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(http://www.farinhansford.com/books/cagd/),MorganKaufmann,ISBN1558607374.
7. ^JenniferHerron(2010)."3DModelBasedDesign:SettingtheDefinitionsStraight"
(http://www10.mcadcafe.com/nbc/articles/2/867959/3DModelBasedDesignSettingDefinitionsStraight).
MCADCafe.
8. ^"3DFeaturebased,ParametricSolidModeling"(http://engineershandbook.com/Software/cad2.htm#3dp).
engineershandbook.com.
9. ^"HistoryofCAD/CAM"(http://www.cadazz.com/cadsoftwarehistory.htm).CADAZZ.2004.
10. ^Pillers,Michelle(March1998)."MCADRenaissanceofthe90's"
(http://web.archive.org/web/20070422170613/http://www.edeinc.com/Cadence/98Mar/Article98Mar.html).
CadenceMagazine.Archivedfromtheoriginal(http://www.edeinc.com/Cadence/98Mar/Article98Mar.html)
on20070422.
11. ^Bozdoc,Martian(2003)."TheHistoryofCAD"(http://mbinfo.mbdesign.net/CADHistory.htm).iMB.
12. ^Carlson,Wayne(2003)."ACriticalHistoryofComputerGraphicsandAnimation"
(http://accad.osu.edu/~waynec/history/lesson10.html).OhioStateUniversity.
13. ^illustratedsymbolicdiagramFile:Biquadcircuit.gif
14. ^Susskind,AlfredK.McDonough,JamesO.(March1953)."NumericallyControlledMillingMachine"
(http://www.computer.org/csdl/proceedings/afips/1952/5041/00/50410133.pdf)(PDF).ReviewofInputand
OutputEquipmentUsedinComputingSystems.InternationalWorkshoponManagingRequirements
Knowledge(http://www.computer.org/csdl/proceedings/afips/1952/5041/00/index.html).NewYorkCity:
AmericanInstituteofElectricalEngineers.p.136.LCCN537874(http://lccn.loc.gov/537874).Retrieved
20150224.
15. ^Ross,DouglasT.(17March1961).ComputerAidedDesign:AStatementofObjectives
(http://images.designworldonline.com.s3.amazonaws.com/CADhistory/8436TM5.pdf).MITUSAF8436
TM4.
16. ^Hurst,J.(1989)RetrospectivesII:TheEarlyYearsinComputerGraphics(http://dl.acm.org/citation.cfm?
id=77280),pp.3973inSIGGRAPH89PanelProceedings,ACMNewYork,NY,USA,ISBN089791353
1doi:10.1145/77276.77280(https://dx.doi.org/10.1145%2F77276.77280)
17. ^LincolnWriter,Scopewriterpp.317Weisberg,DavidE.TheEngineeringDesignRevolution
(http://www.cadhistory.net/toc.htm).
18. ^Yares,Evan(February13,2013)50YearsofCAD(http://www.designworldonline.com/50yearsof
cad/#_).DesignWorld
19. ^"LookingBack:TheTX2ComputerandSketchpad82"
(http://web.archive.org/web/20121107151904/http://www.ll.mit.edu/publications/labnotes/LookingBack_19_1.
pdf).LincolnLaboratoryJournal19(1).2012.Archivedfromtheoriginal
(http://www.ll.mit.edu/publications/labnotes/LookingBack_19_1.pdf)on20121107.
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(http://web.archive.org/web/20050209155207/http://mcsaz.com/about/founder.htm).mcsaz.com.Archived
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diglib.eg.org.
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digital.com/designworld/april_2013#pg61).DesignWorld(WTWHMedia,LLC)8(4).ISSN19417217
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(https://www.worldcat.org/issn/19417217).
24. ^Golovanov,Nikolay(December24,2014).GeometricModeling:Themathematicsofshapes
(http://www.amazon.com/GeometricModelingThemathematicsshapes/dp/1497473195).CreateSpace
IndependentPublishingPlatform(December24,2014).p.Backcover.ISBN9781497473195.
25. ^Ershov,Alexey."C3DLabs:"Byexperiencewearecomparablewiththeleadersbutweworkfaster!" "
(http://isicad.net/articles.php?article_num=16765).LEDASLtd.RetrievedFebruary12,2014.

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