Computer Notes

Prepared by Azmat Afridi SAMS 07/12/2007---E-mail: azmat443@gmail.com----Mobile Pakistan: +92-333-9382107 Mobile U.A.
E+971-50-2380181 -1-
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BASIC CONCEPTS OF INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY
What is a Computer?
Computer is an electronic device that takes some Input, Process it and display
Output.
Input:
Any Work/Command given to computer is called input.
Processing:
Action of computer on given commands is called Processing.
Output:
Result of computer according to given input is called output.
INTRODUCTION TO INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY:
What is Information Technology (IT)?

IT is the use of modern technology to aid in Storage, Processing, Analysis and
Communication of information. Information can be of different forms.
a) Data:
Presents the information as string of characters (Letters and Numbers)
is called data. An item of data may be a Name, a Price, and a Quantity (etc).
An item of data has not much use. It makes sense when it is combined with
other information.
Examples:
Nasir, 2500, Karachi (etc).
b) Text:
Presents the information in form of Phrases and Sentences called text.
It has some meanings.
Examples:
The age of Nasir is 65.
c) Image:
Presents the information in pictorial form. This includes Charts,
Graphs, Pictures and Drawings. Information in this form is more meaningful
than data.
d) Voice:
Presents the information in Spoken Phrases and Sentences is called
Voice. It is more meaningful than data.
Often we use two or more forms of information to convey a message.
COMPUTER HARDWARE AND SOFTWARE:
Computer Hardware:
All parts of a computer which we can See and Touch are called Hardware.
OR
Prepared by Azmat Afridi SAMS 07/12/2007---E-mail: azmat443@gmail.com----Mobile Pakistan: +92-333-9382107 Mobile U.A.E+971-50-2380181
Prepared by Azmat Afridi SAMS 07/12/2007---E-mail: azmat443@gmail.com----Mobile Pakistan: +92-333-9382107 Mobile U.A.E+971-50-2380181 -2-
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All Physical parts of a computer are called computer hardware.
Examples:
Mouse, CD, Cables, Monitor, Keyboard (etc)
Computer Software:
“Computer programs are called software”. A computer program is a set of instructions
to solve a particular problem.
Firmware is the intermediate form between hardware and software, which consists of
software embedded in electronic chips.
Examples:
Ms-Paint, Ms-Excel, Win 98, UNIX (etc)
TYPES OF SOFTWARE:
Software is of two types.
1) System Software or Operating System:

 Collection of operative programs whose purpose is to make the use of
computer more effective.
 Without system software it’s impossible to operate computer.
 It deals with computer hardware.
Examples:
Win 98, Win Xp, Ms-DOS, Linux, UNIX (etc)
2) Application Software or Computer Programs:

 Fulfill the needs of a user.
 Such as Typing a Letter, Playing Games, Preparing Payroll.
 Application software is normally supplied as a package, consisting of the
following
 Software supplied on Floppy Disk or CD
 Manual, explain how to use software?
 Training material on CD or in a booklet.
Examples:
Ms-Paint, Ms-Excel, Internet Explorer (etc)
INPUT AND OUTPUT DEVICES:

The process of getting information into and out of computers is called Input/Output or
just I/O.
Devices used for Input/Output are called I/O devices.
INPUT DEVICES:
These are used to feed information into computer.
Keyboard:
 It is the most common input device.
 It has many keys on it so that’s why it is called keyboard.
 It is just like a typewriter.
 A standard keyboard has following special keys.
Function Keys:
These are from F1 to F12. These have special functions in each program.
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CTRL and ALT Keys:
CTRL (Control)
ALT (Alternate)
These are always used with other keys to issue commands.
BACKSPACE Keys:
Deletes the immediate left character of the cursor.
Four Arrow Keys:

Used for changing direction.
PageUp and PageDown Keys:

Move the cursor one page up or down.
Home Key:
Move the cursor to the left of the screen or beginning of the document.
End Key:
Move the cursor to the right of the screen or end of the document.
Esc Key:
Esc (Escape)
Use to exit from your currently selected option.
Numeric Keys:
These keys are from 0 to 9.
Alphabetic Keys:
These are A to Z or a to z.
Mouse:
 It is a pointing device.
 By using mouse we can perform required task in a quick time.
 It has a rubber ball in its base and two or three buttons on it.
 It is normally used for
 Picking some option
 Pointing some option
 Drawing
Microphone:
 Microphones are used to record speech.
 It makes communication (Voice chatting and Phone calls) very
easy.
 Microphones are also used in speech recognition (Voice
Recognition) programs.
 In speech recognition programs user can dictate to the computer
instead of typing.
Video Cameras:
 Used to capture images of any type.
 After that video camera will be attach with computer and store
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images in computer.
Scanners:
 Also used to capture images but only from paper.
 Accuracy is much better than video camera.
 Scanners are widely used to get Drawings, Diagrams and Photographs into
computer systems for required task.
OUTPUT DEVICES:
These devices are used to return back data.
Monitor:
 It is the most common output device.
 Shape of monitor is just like a T.V set.
 Function of monitor is to display output on its screen.
 Any picture is made up of small dots called Pixels.
 Two technologies used in monitor are
 Cathode Ray Tube (CRT)
 Liquid Crystal Display (LCD) or Flat Screens
Cathode Ray Tube (CRT):

 Most computer monitors are based on CRT.
 A beam of electrons emitted by electron gun makes an image on screen.
 In case of color monitor there are three electron guns one for each color
that are RED, GREEN and BLUE (RGB).
 In monochrome monitors displays text as either green on black
background or white on black background. The foreground and
background colors can be reversed by software.
Flat Screens or Liquid Crystal Display (LCD):

 Liquid crystal displays (LCD) are flat screen.
 Flat screen monitors having no electron gun.
 Image will made up with the help of liquid.
 This technology is very expensive.
PRINTERS:
 Printers are used to produce hard copy of output.
 Printers can print text and graphics.
 Printers are available in both color and black & white.
 The port of printer is called LPT1.
 Main difference in printers depends on
 Quality of output
 Ability to print graphics
 Printing speed
Character Printers:
 Print one character at a time.
 It has slow speed.
 It can print 30 to 300 characters per second (cps).
 It has low cost.
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 It makes a lot of noise while printing.
 Two types are
 Dot Matrix Printer
 Daisy Wheel Printer
Dot Matrix Printers:

 It has normally 9 or 24 pins in the form of a matrix.
 Pins hits the printer ribbon so that our required character will be print
on paper.
Daisy Wheel Printers:

 Print head of this printer is a circular wheel about 3-inches in diameter with arms.
 Character shapes are made at the outer end of arms.
 To print a character daisy wheel rotates so that required character is positioned in
front of printer ribbon. Now arm will hot by a hammer and strikes the ribbon leaving
an impression on paper.
 Print quality is better than dot matrix.
Line Printers:
 Print one complete line at a time.
 Speed is faster than character printers.
 Can print 200 lines per minute (LPM).
 Types are
 Chain Printers
 Drum Printers
Chain Printers:
 They use a rapidly moving chain.
 Characters are linked with chain.
 Required characters will be placed in front of paper then strike of hammer make
impression on paper.
Drum Printers:
 Characters are engraved along the drum.
 Drum rotates and required characters will be print on paper by strike of hammer.
 Character and line printers are also called impact printers.
Non-impact Printers:
 These are high speed and expensive printers.
 Types are
 Laser Printers
 Inkjet Printers
Laser Printers:
 Print one page at a time.
 Can print 8 pages per minute.
 Print quality is good.
 Laser light, Roller and Toner (ink) are responsible for printing.
Inkjet Printers:
 Print one page at a time.
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 Printing is possible due to spray of ink.
PLOTTERS:
 Just like printers but used to print large images such as Maps, Graphs, Charts.
 Two types are
 Flatbed Plotters
 Drum Plotters
Flatbed Plotter:
 Paper will fix over the flatbed table.
 Pen-holding technology is used for printing.
 Very slow method of printing.
Drum Plotters:
 Paper will place on drum, which rotates the paperback and front.
 Pen-holding technology is used for printing.
MEMORY:
 It is used to store large amount of data.
 Magnetic Tape and Magnetic Disk are very popular devices for storage.
 Memory can be temporary or permanent.
MEMORY TERMINOLOGIES:
Memory Cell:
It is an electrical circuit used to store a single bit (0 or 1).
Memory Word:
 Group of bits that represents information or data.
 Word size ranges from 4 to 64 bits.
Byte:
Combination of 8 bits is called Byte.
Memory Capacity:
Way of specifying, how many bits can be stored in memory.
Explanation:
Suppose that we have memory size which can store 4096-20 bits words. This
represents total capacity of 81,920 bits. This can be written as 4096x20.
Here,
4096= Number of words
20= Word Size
Units of Memory:
Unit of memory is byte. The larger units are Kilo Byte (KB), Mega Byte (MB), Giga
Byte (GB) and Tera Byte (TB).
1 Byte = 8 bits
1 Kilo Bytes = 1024 Bytes
1 Mega Bytes = 1024 Kilo Bytes
1 Giga Bytes = 1024 Mega Bytes
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1 Tera Bytes = 1024 Giga Bytes
Address:
 A location of words in memory is called address.
 Each word has unique address.
 Memory addresses are specified in binary numbers.
Read Operation:
Read operation is used to fetch data from memory.
Write Operation:
Write operation is used to store data in memory.
Access Time:
It is the amount of time required to perform Read operation.
Cycle Time:
It is the amount of time required to perform Read or Write operation and then return
to its original state ready for next operation.
Random Access Memory (RAM):

 Data will read randomly.
 Access time is same for any address. REVIEWED
Byuser
By Azmat
at Afridi 13/01/2010
1:01 pm, 1/13/10
 It is a temporary memory.
Sequential Access Memory:

 Access time is not constant.
 Access time is longer than random access time.
 If we want to read 5th record then we must read first 4 records.
 Example is Magnetic Tape.
Read/Write Memory (RWM):

Memory that can be read from or written into.
Read-Only Memory (ROM):

 It is a permanent memory.
 Data can read only.
 Instructions are written at the time of creation/manufacturing.
Static Memory Devices:

Stored data will remain permanent as long as power is supplied.
Dynamic Memory Devices:

Stored data will not remain permanent even with power applied.
INFORMATION SYSTEM DEVELOPMENT (ISD):

Information systems are design for those people who have very little knowledge of
information technology. The five phases of information system development are
 System Analysis
 System Design
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 System Development
 System Implementation
 System Maintenance
System Analysis:
Three task of this phase are
 Defining the problem
 Analyze current system
 Selecting the best solution
System Design:
Analysis will convert into Charts and making User Manuals.
System Development:
 Writing computer programs.
 Testing and debugging programs.
System Implementation:
 Install developed system on computers.
 Training of operators and users.
System Maintenance:
After implementation if any error occurs then it will remove in this phase.
EXERCISE
i Microprocessors
ii Firmware
iii Application
iv Optical Character Reader
v Dot Matrix
vi Plotter
vii Memory Cell
viii Memory Address
APPLICATION AND USE OF COMPUTERS

APPLICATION AND USE OF COMPUTER:
 Computer plays very important role in our lives.
 A computer is faster and more accurate than people.
 It can solve many problems of human life.
 Major areas of applications are
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Education:
 Computer is very useful tool in the field of education.
 Use of computer has become spread from primary to university level.
 A large variety of tutorial programs are available for students.
 Students can get online Certifications/Diplomas.
Word Processing:
 Word processing software’s are used for preparing documents and reports.
 These packages provide facilities to user
 Store
 Edit
 Format
 Spell Check
 Print (etc.)
Retail:
 Computer technology has good impact on retail stores.
 Many shops have replaced cash register with computer system.
 Modern retail stores use Bar Code Reader.
 A Bar Code Reader reads the bar code printed on each product which
contains price and brief description of product.
E-Commerce:
 Online Business is called E-Commerce.
 It provide facilities for sale of
 Goods
 Services such as Banking, Ticket Reservation, Stock Exchange (etc.)
Electronic Banking:
 Electronic banking has many benefits such as
 Deposits
 Withdrawals
 Bank Statement
 ATMs (Automated Teller Machine) are used world wide to get cash instantly.
Computer in Medical Field:

 Computers are used in modern hospitals to perform a variety of task, such as
 To keep up-to-date Records of Patients
 Monitoring Instruments
 Body scanners are used to diagnose patient for diseases
Weather Forecasting:
 Modern weather forecast is produced by using computer system.
 Computer used to collect data about
 Air Pressure
 Humidity
 Temperature
 Wind Speed
Prepared by Azmat Afridi SAMS 07/12/2007---E-mail: azmat443@gmail.com----Mobile Pakistan: +92-333-9382107 Mobile U.A.E+971-50-2380181 - 10 -
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 Cloud Cover
Computer Graphics:
 Computer graphics plays very important role in
 Printing products
 Scientific Research
 Advertisement
 Entertainment (etc.)
 Powerful graphics packages are available to draw, shade and manipulate
images.
Computer Integrated Manufacturing:

 Computers are widely used in manufacturing firms to perform design and
production of products.
 This technology is called CAD (Computer Aided Design).
 CAM (Computer Aided Manufacturing).
PARTS OF COMPUTER SYSTEM

Computer itself ----the hardware----has many parts, but the critical components falls
into four major categories.
1. Processor
2. Memory
3. Input or Output Devices
4. Storage unit
Processor
 It works just like a human brain.
 Transform raw data into useful information.
 Organizes and carries out instruction that come from either the user or the
software.
 Processing speed depends upon the size of Processor.
 In Personal Computers, the Processor usually consists of one or more
Microprocessor (some times called “chips”).
Memory
 Computer need’s a space to for launching a program or holding a data, that kind
of space is known as computer memory.
 Memory can be temporary or permanent.
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Two types are:
1. RAM (Random Access Memory)
2. ROM (Read Only Memory)
RAM (Random Access Memory)

 Also known as Primary memory.
 Is a volatile memory.
 It’s a Temporary storage device.
 Data will read randomly.
 Access time is same for any address.
 All the data or instructions were deleted when the power is switched off.
 Hold instructions or data.
 Enhance the performance of computer.
 Two types are
o Static RAM (SRAM)
o Dynamic RAM (DRAM)
Dynamic RAM (DRAM):

 Small in size.
 Less cost than SRAM.
 Constantly refreshed and recharged by CPU (Processor).
 Normally used in Personal Computers.
 Two types are
 SIMM (Single Inline Memory Module)
 DIMM (Double Inline Memory Module)
Static RAM (SRAM): REVIEWED

 Costly than DRAM. ByByuser at Afridi
Azmat 1:02 pm, 1/13/10
13/01/2010
 Faster than DRAM.

 Physically larger than DRAM.
ROM (Read Only Memory)

 Data can read only.
 It is a non – volatile memory.
 Holds data or instruction’s permanently.
 Data first-time recorded by the manufacturer.
 User can’t change it directly.
 All the data or instructions were not deleted when the power is switched off.
 Three types are
o PROM (Programmable Read Only Memory)
o EPROM (Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory)
o EEPROM (Electrical Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory)
Input / Output Devices

The input/out put devices are
INPUT Devices
 Accept data / instruction from the user.
Examples:
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Keyboard, Mouse, Scanner, Joystick, Touch pads, Microphones, Digital
cameras, etc.
OUTPUT Devices
 Shows results.
 Presents processed data to user.
Examples:
Monitors, Printers, Speakers, Projector, etc
Storage
 Saving records or information about any topic is known as data storage.
Examples:
Hard Disk, Floppy Disk, CD Rom, Magnetic Tap
Types of Input Devices

1. Keyboard
2. Mouse
3. Scanner
4. Joystick
5. Light Pen
6. Touch Screen
7. Optical Input
8. Audio Input
9. Video Input
Keyboard
 It is the most common input device.
 It has many keys on it so that’s why it is called keyboard.
 It is just like a typewriter.
 A standard keyboard has following special keys.
 Alphabetic (a…..z) or (A…..Z)
 Numeric Digits (0……….….9)
 Functions Keys (F1……...F12)
 Symbols (+, - , *, @, #, $,)
 Special Keys (Enter Backspace, Spacebar, Tab, Escape, Print Screen, and
Pause/Break…..)
Mouse
 Also known as pointing device
 By using mouse we can perform required task in a quick time.
 It has a rubber ball in its base and two or three buttons on it.
 It is normally used for
o Picking some option
o Pointing some option
o Drawing
Scanner
 Just like a photocopier
 Used to capture images but only from paper.
 Accuracy is much better than video camera.
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 Scanners are widely used to get Drawings, Diagrams and Photographs into
computer systems for required task.
Two main types are:
1- Handy Scanner
 Used in past,
 Only scan small image,
 Black & White,
 Low cost
 Result is not good.
2- Flat Bed Scanner

 Used in these days,
 Colored
 Expansive than Handy,
 Good results, Scan full page image.
Joystick
 Kind of Input device
 Used to play only games
 Work like a mouse or keyboard.
Light Pen
 Used to write notes or short messages
 Directly used on screen or on special pad.
 Also used as pointing device, like a mouse
 Not used to enter large amount of text.
 Also use to input signature or messages on graphic images such as a fax.
Touch Screen
 Device that allowing the user to place a fingertip directly on the computer screen to
make a selection
 Commonly used at
 Fast-food restaurants
 Departmental stores
 Drug store
 Supermarkets etc
Optical Input
Device that can read Numbers, Letters, Special Characters, and Marks
Different Types are:

 OMR (Optical mark recognition) Mark Sensing, Bank cheque,
etc
 OCR (Optical character reader) Light Source sales tags, credit
card slips
 BCR (Bar code reader) scanned and read, Known as Zebra
strip or UPC
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Audio Input
 Microphones are used to record speech.
 It makes communication (Voice chatting and Phone calls) very
easy.
 Microphones are also used in speech recognition (Voice
Recognition) programs.
 In speech recognition programs user can dictate to the computer
instead of typing.
 Translating voice to text using special software
Video Input
The common video inputs are:
Video camera
 Used for videoconferencing
 Attached with PC
Digital camera
 Work much like as video camera
 Portable
 Cost depends on type
Types of Output Devices

1. Monitor
2. Sound System
3. PC Projector (Data Show)
4. Printer
Monitor
 It is the most common output device.
 Shape of monitor is just like a T.V set.
 Function of monitor is to display output on its screen.
 Any picture is made up of small dots called Pixels.
 Two technologies used in monitor are
 Cathode Ray Tube (CRT)
 Liquid Crystal Display (LCD) or Flat Screens
CRT Monitor
 Most computer monitors are based on CRT.
 Relatively low in cost.
 Uses a large vacuum tube, called CRT (cathode ray tube).
 There are three electron guns one for each color that are RED, GREEN and BLUE
(RGB).
 A beam of electrons emitted by electron gun makes an image on screen.
 Monitor’s screen coated with phosphors chemical that glow when they are struck by
the electron beam.
 Phosphors dots known as Pixels.
LCD (Liquid Crystal Display)

 Also called Flat Screen monitors.
 Liquid crystal displays (LCD) are flat screen.
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 Better picture quality than CRT monitor.
 Flat screen monitors having no electron gun.
 Image will made up with the help of liquid.
 This technology is very expensive.
Comparing Monitor
Size
14-inch, 15-inch, 17-inch, etc
Refresh Rate
 Number of times the electron gun scan every pixel is called Refresh Rate.
 Measured in cycles per seconds (cps)
Resolution
640(H) X 480(V), 600 X 800, 1024 X 768,
1152 X 864, 1280 X 1024
Dot pitch
Distance between phosphor dots is known Dot pitch.
PC Projector
 Projects a video output onto an external surface.
 Typically weight less than 10 pounds.
 Can display 16 millions colors.
 Support up to 1024 X 768 resolution.
 Used to display still images, animated pictures or full video
Sound System
 Speakers (common Output device)
 Sound is defined as air pressure.
 Magnet produces the air pressure.
 Sound card translate digital sound into electric current that is sent to the speakers.
Printers
 Printers are used to produce hard copy of output.
 Printers can print text and graphics.
 Printers are available in both color and black & white.
 The port of printer is called LPT1.
 Main difference in printers depends on
 Quality of output
 Ability to print graphics
 Printing speed
 Printer are classified into two groups
1. Impact Printer
2. Non-Impact Printer
Impact Printer
 Prints the paper with the strikes of hammer, Pins or a ribbon
 Works like the typewriter
 Example are:
o Dot Matrix Printer, Electric Typewriter, Line Printer, Band Printer
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Dot Matrix Printer
 Print one character at a time.
 Typical matrix is 5x7 (5 wide, 7 high)
 Uses color or black magnetic ribbon to print data.
 Can print 200 to more than 1000 character/minute
 Less expensive
 Can also print charts, pictures, or different symbols
Non-Impact Printer
 Uses laser or inkjet technology.
 High in speed


Best in quality
High in cost REVIEWED
By user at 1:02 pm, 1/13/10
 Example are:
o Laser Printer
o inkjet Printer
Inkjet Printer
 Is a non-impact printer
 It creates output on paper by a spray of ink
 Electric field control the spraying jet
 Produce one character at a time
 Quality is higher than dot matrix
 Can print 1 page to 8 pages per minute
 Color inkjet printers are also available
Laser Printer
 Is a non-impact printer, also called page printer
 LASER stands for Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation
 Can print one page at a time
 Buffer holds the data and print
 Can print 5 to 300 pages per minute
 Very high in cost or quality
Storage Devices
Two major types are
1. Magnetic Storage
2. Optical Storage
Magnetic Storage
Three major types of magnetic storage are
1. Diskettes
2. Hard disk
3. Magnetic Tap
Diskettes
 Magnetic disk is a thin, circular Mylar or metal plate coated with magnetic material.
 The preparation of a disk for data storage is known as formatting.
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 Formatting divides the disk in to different tracks and sectors.
 Operating systems label each sector of each track with an address.
 All the data is stored in sectors.
 Group of sectors are called cluster.
 In one sector 512 bytes (0.5 KB) are stored.
 Main Advantage
 Data can accessed directly or randomly
 A large amount of data can be stored
 Fastest data accessing speed.
Different Types are

 inch Floppy Disk
 inch Floppy Disk
 ZIP Disk
 Hard Disk
5.25 Floppy Disk

 Also called Mini Floppy Disk
 Introduce by IBM in early 1960s
 Very flexible plastic jacket
 Damage due to dust, hard pressing or hot/cold environment
3.5 Floppy Disk

 Also called micro floppy disk
 Little hard plastic jacket
 Uses single magnetic disk
 Uses read/write window called metal shutter
 Uses write protection button
 Disk drive rotates disk 300 to 400 revolution per minute
 Storage capacity is 1.44mb
 Not reliable
 Damage due to misusage
Zip Disk
 Also called magnetic disk
 Looks like a micro floppy, but works like a hard disk
 Uses its own special drive
 Very hard outer jacket
 Uses a single metal disk
 Can store about 100mb to 1000mb of data
 Use to move data from one place to another, normally used by the
professional
 For Example: advertisements ageneses
Hard Disk
 Also called fixed disk
 First hard disk had the capacity of 10mb.
 Consist of more then one metal disk
 All disks are fixed permanently in the drive
 Data accessing speed is much faster as compare to other floppy disks
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 Hard drive is sealed, so less chances of disk damage occur due to dust or
mishandling.
 All application or system software are stored in the hard disk
Magnetic Tap
 Magnetic is the oldest device, like a music cassettes tap.
 Made of plastic (Mylar) coated with magnetic material
 The amount of data is measured in cpi (character per inch) or bpi (bytes per
inch)
 Tape contain tracks on which data is stored
 Special unit (Tap Drive) is used to read/write on tape.
 Unit manufacturer are Sony, TDK, Maxell.
 Speed of some unit is up to 200 inch per second.
 Usually ½ inch or ¼ inch wide tapes are available.
 Data stored in the form of magnetic spots.
 Reading or writing data on tap is very slow.
 Data stored in the shape of records.
 Blanks spaces are given after every record
 Capacity of magnetic tap is depend on the length of the magnetic tap.
 Different sizes are 200, 600, 1200, 2400 feet
 Use to store data as backup
 Data can’t be access randomly
Optical Disk
 Also called Compact Disk (CD)
 Uses laser technology to store data
 Laser stand for Light Amplification through Stimulated Emission of Light.
 Storage range is up to 700 MB.
 Laser make tiny holes on the surface of disk
 These holes represent digital or binary data
 Presence of hole represent 1 and its absence represents 0
 Data store on Compact Disk is save as compare to Magnetic Disk
 Data does not damage due magnetic disturbance
 First CD ROM Drive read data at 150kb/Sec or known as single speed drive.
 Normally once writeable
 Normally used to store, Application software, System software, Office files as
backup
************************************************************
COMPUTER ARCHITECTURE
BLOCK DIAGRAM OF A COMPUTER:
Computer contains five basic units
1) Memory Unit
2) Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU)
3) Input Unit
4) Output Unit
5) Control Unit (CU)
CENTRAL PROCESSING UNIT (CPU):

 CPU is the brain of a computer.
 CPU is responsible for all Processing.
 It has two parts
 Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU)
 Control Unit (CU)
Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU):

 It is the part where actual processing takes place.
 It can perform Addition, Subtraction, Multiplication, Division,
Square Roots (etc) and logic operations such as AND, OR (etc)
on binary numbers.
Control Unit (CU):

 It tells the computer that, “What specific sequence of operations it must perform”.
 It also specifies timing of the instructions.
 Its function is to Fetch, Decode and Execute instructions that are stored in memory.
 It controls
 Memory Devices
 Arithmetic Logic Unit
 All Input/Output Devices
Main Memory:
 Also called Primary memory or Internal memory.
 Memory is used to store data temporary or permanently.
 Data stored in memory can be used for required task.
 RAM and ROM are most commonly used as main memory.
RAM (Random Access Memory):

 Data can Read/Write randomly.
 RAM is used for storage of active programs and data.
 It is also called Volatile memory (it will lose all stored data if power is turned off).
 It increases the processing speed of a computer.
 RAM is available in different sizes.
************************************************************
ROM (Read Only Memory):
 Data can only Read.
 It is also called Non-Volatile memory (it will not lose stored data if power is turned
off).
 Instructions are stored on it during manufacturing.
 Types are
 PROM (Programmable Read Only Memory)
 EPROM (Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory)
Input Unit:
 Input unit is used to communicate with computer.
 Input unit is used to feed Instructions/Commands in computer.
 These devices are often called as “Peripherals”, because they are
separated physically from CPU.
 Input data Reads data from user, Converts it to machine code
(0 or 1) and then Store it into main memory.
 Some common input devices are
 Mouse
 Keyboard
 Joystick
 Microphone
 Scanner (etc).
Output Unit:
 These are also peripheral devices that transfer data from main
memory to user.
 Output unit receives data from main memory in binary form and
converts it into user readable form.
 Some common output devices are
 Monitors
 Printers
 Plotters
 Speaker
 Fax Machine (etc).
Buses:
 Buses are wires, which used to carry data from one location to
other inside the processor.
 Three main buses are
 Data Bus
 Address Bus
 Control Bus
Data Bus:
 It is 8-bit bus.
 It is Bi-Directional bus.
 Data sent from Processor to Memory (Write operation) or from
Memory to Processor” (Read operation).
Address Bus:
************************************************************
 It is 16-bit bus.
 It is Uni-Directional bus.
 It carries 16-bit address code from “Processor to Memory”, which is accessing for a
Read or Write operation.
Control Bus:
 It is grouping of timing and control signals of processor.
 Some control lines are output from Processor and some are input to the processor.
Ports:
 Ports are combination of wires through which data travels.
 Two types of ports are
 Parallel Port
 Serial Port
Parallel Port:
 Connection of 8 or more wires through which data bits can flow at once.
 It can handle large amount of data.
Serial Port:
 Data bits can flow one at a time.
 It can handle less data than Parallel port.
Registers:
 High-speed memory inside the CPU.
 Very small in size.
 Temporary storage for memory Addresses and Instructions during the execution of
the program.
 Read and execute the instructions.
 Processing speed depends upon the size of register.
 Some common registers are
 Instruction Register (IR)
 Stack Register (SR)
 Memory Address Register (MAR)
 Program Counter (PC)
 Memory Buffer Register (MBR)
Instruction Register (IR):

Holds an instruction that is being executed.
Stack Register (SR):

It is a part of CPU, in which data is store and retrieved.
Memory Address Register (MAR):

Holds the address of the active memory location.
Program Counter (PC):

Holds the memory address of the instruction that is next to be executed.
Memory Buffer Register (MBR):

Holds data on its way to and from memory.
************************************************************
SYSTEM SOFTWARE:
Three types of system software are
 Operating Systems
 Operating Environment
 Utilities
Operating Systems:
Main tasks of operating system are
 Disk Operations (Storing Programs and data on disk).
 Network Operations (Sharing of Hardware and Software Resources).
 Multi-tasking (Many tasks can be handle at same time).
 Multi-user (Many people can use computer at same time).
Operating Environment:
 Enable user to communicate with computer.
 Two common types are
 Command-Line Interfaces
 Graphical User Interfaces (GUI)
Command Line Interfaces:

 Commands are used to perform a task.
 Can perform only single task at a time.
 C:\> (Prompt)
 Every command must be written after Prompt.
 Not very common used today because it is very difficult to remember
commands.
Example:
MS-DOS
Graphical User Interface (GUI):

 Most Common used now a day.
 Apple Computers introduced first GUI in 1984.
 Advantages are
 User Friendly
 Multi-tasking
 Easy to learn and handle
 No need to Remember Commands
 A GUI have
 Desktop
 Icons
 Taskbar and Start Button
 Menus
 Dialog Boxes
 Program Running in Windows
Example:
MS-Windows, Linux (Red Hat)
Utilities:
 Carrying out operating system tasks in a more efficient and easier way.
 Examples are
************************************************************
 Windows Explorer
 All Control Panel programs (Data and Time, Add/Remove
Programs, installing new Hardware, Display, Sound etc.)
EXERCISE
ix Control Unit
x RAM
xi ROM
xii Peripherals
REVIEWED
xiii Communicate
xiv Program Counter
ByByuser at Afridi
Azmat 1:03 pm, 1/13/10
13/01/2010
xv Instruction Code
TOPICS:
 Types of Software
 RAM and ROM
 Types of Network
Types of Software
There are two types of software.
1) SYSTEM SOFTWARE OR OPERATING SYSTEM:

 Full fills the need of hardware.
 Enables to start computer.
 Provides CPU managements.
 Provides memory managements.
 Provides storage managements.
 Provides data, files, networking, or input / output devices management.
 Two common types are
 Command-Line Interfaces (CLI)
 Graphical User Interfaces (GUI)
Examples:
Win 98, Win Xp, Ms-DOS, Linux, UNIX (etc)
************************************************************
2) APPLICATION SOFTWARE OR COMPUTER PROGRAMS:
 Fulfill the needs of a user.
 This Software is specially designed according to user’s requirement.
 Such as Typing a Letter, Playing Games, Preparing Payroll.
 Application software is normally supplied as a package, consisting of the
following
 Software supplied on Floppy Disk or CD
 Manual, explain how to use software?
 Training material on CD or in a booklet.
Examples:
Ms-Paint, Ms-Excel, Internet Explorer (etc)
RAM and ROM
RAM:
 It stands for Random Access Memory.
 Data can Read/Write randomly.
 RAM is used for storage of active programs and data.
 It is also called Volatile memory (it will lose all stored data if power is turned off).
 It increases the processing speed of a computer.
 Hold instructions or data.
 RAM is available in different sizes.
32 MB, 64 MB, 128 MB, 256 MB (etc)
 Two types are
i. Static RAM
ii. Dynamic RAM
ROM:

It Stands for Read Only Memory.

Holds data or instructions permanently so it is also called permanent memory.

Data can only Read.

It is also called Non-Volatile memory (it will not lose stored data if power is turned
off).
 User can’t change it directly.
 Instructions are stored on it during manufacturing.
 Types are
 PROM (Programmable Read Only Memory)
 EPROM (Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory)
Examples:
BIOS (Basic Input/Output System)
Types of Network
LAN:
 It stands for Local Area Network.
 LAN normally operates within a compact area such as an Office Building or a
Campus.
 LAN is capable of interconnecting a large number of computers and other devices
within 1 Km.
 Speed of Data Transmission is 10/100 mbps.
************************************************************
 Cost is low.
 Success Rate of Data Transmission is almost 100%.
Examples:
Computer Labs of Institutions, Computer Network in an Office, etc.
WAN:
 It stands for Wide Area Network.
 WAN interconnects different Sites, User Terminals, and enable LANs to
Communicate with each other.
 Used to Communicate to Nationwide or Worldwide.
 Transmission medium used are Telephone Lines, microwave and Satellite links.
 Speed of Data Transmission is 1800 to 9600 bits per second.
 High Cost as Compare to LANs.
 Success Rate of Data Transmission is less than LAN.
Examples:
Internet, Network of all Branches of a Bank.
CLIENT/SERVER NETWORK or DEDICATED SERVER NETWORK:
 Used both in LANs and WANs.

 Clients (nodes) are attached to a Server via some medium (Cable, Telephone Lines,
Satellite Link, Microwave, etc.)
 Usually Used for Database Server.
 Common features are
 Receiving Data
 Storing Data
 Sending E-mail
 Printer Sharing
 Security
PEER-TO-PEER NETWORK:
 Usually used in LANs.
 Sometimes Called a Workgroup.
 No Central Computer (Server).
 All Computers having equal Functionality.
 A Single computer will be Server when it will serve to other computer and a Client
when it will request for some data to other computer.
************************************************************
INTRODUCTION TO MICROSOFT WINDOWS 2000

Operating System:
 It controls all activities (Hardware and Software) of computer.
 Enables to start computer.
 Provides CPU, memory, storage, data, networking, and input / output
devices management.
Examples:
Windows 98, Windows Xp, Windows NT, UNIX, Windows 2000, Windows
Vista, Linux, Servers (etc)
 Operating System or System Software has two types.
 Graphical User Interface (GUI) or Windows
 Command Line Interface (CLI) or DOS
Introduction to Windows 2000:

o Windows is the product of Microsoft (Ms).
o Windows is the interface between Hardware and Application software.
o Windows 2000 is also called NT 5.0.
o Microsoft officially launches it in 2000.
o Having both Server (Windows 2000 Server) and Client (Windows 2000
Professional) side operating systems.
o Normally used in network environment.
o Very powerful and popular than previous operating systems.
o Like Windows 98 it has Internet Explorer 4.0 into the operating system.
o Main feature are
 Impressive platform of Internet
 Data Encryption tools
 Management of Applications
 Management of Active Directory Services (ADS)
 Very powerful Security can be implemented on
 Users
 Groups
 Hard Drives
 Networks
 Some advanced features are
 Setup Virtual Private Networks (VPNs)
 Supports up to 2 processors (Dual Processor)
************************************************************
 Supports NTFS (New Technology File System) partition
 Windows 2000 is very useful for
 Network Server
 RIS (Remote Installation Services)
 DHCP Server(Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol)
 DNS Server (Domain Name Source)
 Proxy Server
Hardware Requirement for Windows 2000 Professional Installation:
Processor 133 MHz or Higher
RAM 64 MB Minimum-4 GB Maximum
Hard Disk 2 GB having free space of 650 MB
Desktop:
 After booting the very first screen, you will see is called desktop.
 By using desktop we can use every Program / Software installed in computer.
Wallpaper
or
Icons Background
or
Shortcuts
Start Menu
or
Program Menu
Taskbar
Clock
Task Bar:
It is the long gray bar at the bottom of computer screen. On its left side the “Start
Button” is used to access various programs in the computer. It also contains “Quick
Launch” and “Clock”. Currently running program’s name will display in the form of a
button in the taskbar.
************************************************************
Start Button:
It provides an entry point to begin using programs installed on the computer’s hard
drive.
Wallpaper:
It is a graphic file that forms the background of the desktop.
Screen Saver:
 If computer is idle for long time it may lose monitor’s resolution.
 To prevent monitors resolution we use screen saver.
Icons or Shortcuts of Desktop:

 Icons are placed on the desktop to provide easy access to program and files.
 Icons provide a quick way to start a program.
 Following are the default Icons of Windows 2000
o My Computer
o My Documents
o Recycle Bin
o My Network Places
My Computer:
It represents the different secondary storage devices of your computer. Like Hard
Disk Drive, Floppy Drive, CD-ROM and other I/O devices.
My Documents:
It is the default location of saved files.
Recycle Bin:
 When we will Delete Some File, it goes into Recycle Bin.
 We can Restore Files from Recycle Bin.
 After Deletion of Files from Recycle Bin, we can’t restore these Files.
My Network Places or Network Neighborhood:

If your computer in on network, It displays the accessible hardware and software
resources on the network.
Control Panel:
 Control Panel is the “Engine Room” of Windows 2000.
 It allows access to most of the programs that control how Windows 2000
functions.
 Following are the short list of options that can change via Control Panel
 Screen Colors and Resolutions
 Screen Saver
 Network Connections
 Date and Time
 Memory allocation and System Performance
 Accessibility Options
 System Administration (Administrative Tools)
 User Accounts management
 Regional and Language options
************************************************************
 Printer, Modem, Sound, Mouse, Keyboard, Internet setting
Name of some Built-In User Accounts of Windows 2000:

 Administrators
 Backup Operators
 Guests
 Power Users
 Replicator
 Users
Folder:
 Folder is a collection of Files.
 Color of Folder’s icon is Yellow, but we can change its icon.
 Two Folders can’t contain same name at same location.
 Folder names should be meaningful.
 User can’t write in Folder.
File:
 User will write some data in Files.
 File is a single thing.
 File’s icon is same as the program icon in which it will made.
 Two Files of same program can’t contain same name at same location.
 Files names should be meaningful.
File Extensions:
 Extension is used after Filename to identify the file.
 Some common extensions are
o .Doc
o .Xls
o .Bmp
o .Gif
o .Ppt (etc)
Dialog Box:
 It is Special types of windows use to communicate with software you are
running.
 Dialog boxes cannot be resized.
 (e.g.) Save, Open, Print, Find (etc)
Window Control Buttons:
Minimize and Restore Button Restore Button Close Button
HTML:
************************************************************
 HTML stands for “Hyper Text Markup Language”.
 It is used to construct web pages.
 Normally Notepad is used as HTML editor.
 Each command will be written in Tags.
 Extension of file is .html or just .htm.
(e.g.) First.htm
DHTML:
 DHTML stands for “Dynamic Hyper Text Markup Language”.
 It is enhanced form of HTML.
 It is also used for web page development.
HOMEPAGE:
First page of a web site is called homepage.
Web HOST or Web Server:

 It is the computer on Internet, which contains web site.
 It fulfills the needs of clients when it request for some resources.
HTTP:
 It stands for “Hyper Text Transfer Protocol”.
 It is a Protocol that makes possible to view web sites.
(e.g.) http://www.msn.com
PASSWORD:
 It is a secret code used to protect system.
 Password can apply on
 Files
 Folders
 Database
 Computer
 Web Sites (etc.)
MULTITASKING:
 Working on more than one Program at a time is called multitasking.
 (e.g.) working on Excel, Listening Music, Doing Chatting
Synchronous Transmission:
 Data transmission is in the form of blocks between two devices.
 Sender and Receiver clocks are synchronized.
Asynchronous Transmission:
 Data transmission is in the form of characters between two devices.
 Receiver use start and stop signal for data transmission.
ASCII:
 It stands for “American Standard Code for Information Interchange”.
 It is a 7-digit code in Binary form.
 Used to represent Alphabets, Symbols and Numbers.
(e.g.) 64 = 1000000
************************************************************
Data Protection
VIRUSES AND ANTI-VIRUS ISSUES:
Computer Virus:
 Virus is a small hidden program on a floppy disk or a hard disk.
 Virus can spread from computer to computer through infected floppy disk or over a
computer network.
 Virus can damages
 Computer Programs
 Files
 Hardware
How Virus Spread?

Virus spread through different ways
 If you get E-mail with a file attached to it (.Exe or .Com) that contains a virus and you
download that file and run it, your computer will be infected.
 If you download a file that contains a virus then your computer will be infected.
 Viruses are also spread by networks and by infected floppy disks.
 If you boot a computer with infected floppy (boot virus), your computer will be
infected.
How to protect your computer from virus?

Take following steps
 Never download an attached file on an E-mail from a stranger.
 Don’t set automatically run attached files.
 Never run executable file before updating anti-virus program.
 If your computer is on a network, make sure you have security features.
 Make sure you have got a good anti-virus program.
 Don’t use floppy disk before checking through anti-virus programs.
 Keep your E-mail software updated.
Anti-Virus Software:
 It is the software, which uses to check computer for virus.
 Most common are
 Mcafee
 Norton Anti-virus
 Dr. Solomon’s Anti-virus
 Thunderbyte
 Trend Micro
DATA PROTECTION AND PRIVACY ISSUES:
Data Protection Act:

 It is a law passed by the Government to protect against misuse of Personal
Information of Organizations.
 Protection act passed by the British Parliament in 1984.
 It has four main points.
1. Computers which process any personal data must be registered with the Data
Protection Registrar.
2. Personal Data must not be disclosed to anyone outside the department.
************************************************************
3. Only those people should have a right to view data about whom the
information is about.
4. Individuals are given rights to correct or erase data which has damage
through inaccuracy or loss of data.
Eight Data Protection Principles:

1. Obtained fairly and lawfully.
2. Held only for one or more lawful purposes specified in the data user’s register entry.
3. Used or disclosed only due to data user’s register entry.
4. Adequate, relevant and not excessive for those purposes.
5. Accurate and where necessary, up-to-date.
6. Not kept loner than necessary for the specified purpose.
7. Made available to data subjects on request.
8. Properly protected against loss or disclosed.
COPYRIGHT ISSUES:
What is Copyright?
 It is the branch of law, which protects creative works from unauthorized use by other
people.
 It allows creators to benefit financially.
 Original creator may be assigned copyright to another person.
 Copyright can protect
 Literacy
 Dramatic
 Musical
 Artistic works (etc).
 Owner of copyright has the right to
 Publish
 Reproduce
 Broadcast or
 Perform in Public
What is Copyright Infringement?

 Infringement can happen when original works are reproduced without permission
form copyright owners.
 Criminal actions can be brought against people or organizations that infringe
copyright.
 Action taken depends on the nature of infringement.
Computer Software and Copyright Law:

 A good software may take many years to develop and can cost millions of dollars.
 This investment can only be recovered by selling the software.
 Customers or organizations are not allowed to make illegal copies of original
software.
EXERCISE
i Computer Virus
ii Anti-Virus
************************************************************
iii Copyright
iv Infringement
v Virus Hoax
vi Hackers
WINDOWS OPERATING SYSTEM
GUI OPERATING SYSTEM:

 Most Common used now a day.
 Apple Computers introduced first GUI in 1984.
 Windows is the most common GUI Operating System developed by Microsoft
(Ms).
 Advantages are
 User Friendly
 Multi-Tasking
 Easy to learn and handle
 No need to Remember Commands
 A GUI have
 Desktop
 Icons
 Taskbar and Start Button REVIEWED
 Menus ByByuser at 1:04
Azmat Afridipm, 1/13/10
13/01/2010
 Dialog Boxes
 Program Running in Windows
OPERATING SYATEM COMPONENTS:

Operating System components are
 Desktop
 Taskbar
 Windows
 My Computer
 Recycle Bin
 My Documents
 Control Panel
Desktop:
 After booting the very first screen from where user can perform their
required task is called desktop.
 By using desktop we can use every Program / Software installed in computer.
 Desktop has
 Folder Icons
 Program Icons (Ms-Word, Ms-Excel, Ms-Paint)
 Document Icons
 Special Icons (My Computer, Recycle Bin)
************************************************************
Taskbar:
 Taskbar is a bar, which is usually placed at the bottom of the Desktop.
 Taskbar has
 Start Button
 Quick Launch Toolbar (it has Program Icons)
 Task Buttons (One button for each active program)
 Tray (It contain Clock and Program Icons)
Windows:
 Each program opens in its open window.
 You can Maximize, Minimize, Restore or Close window.
My Computer:
It contains information about
 Hard Disk
 CD-ROM
 Floppy Disk
 I/O Devices
Recycle Bin:
 When user deletes some file or data, it will go to the Recycle Bin.
 Deleted file can be restored until it remains in Recycle Bin.
My Documents:
 It contains all saved data.
 It is the Default location to save data but user can change location.
Control Panel:
 It has many Tools / Components, which are used for computer management
as per requirement.
 Some common components are
o Display
o Add or Remove Programs
o Mouse
o Keyboard
o Sound (etc).
FILES AND FOLDERS:
What is Folder?
 Folder is the collection of Files.
What is File?
************************************************************
File Name Conventions:

 Name can be 255 Character long.
 Name can include spaces and periods.
 Characters that can’t include are
* | < > ? / \ “ :
File Extensions:
o .Doc
o .Xls
o .Bmp
o .Gif
o .Ppt (etc)
INTERNET:
 Network of Networks is called an Internet.
 Seed of Internet were planted in 1969.
 Very huge medium for communication.
 Designed for Defense Purpose but now a day it is used for Business,
Communication, Study, etc.
 Very popular among all categories of Users.
 100 Million Users around the world used Internet today.
 “Host” is just like network server, providing services to other computers that
connect to it.
 Due to Internet World becomes a Global Village.
Emails (Electronic Mails):

 To create, Send, and receive e-mail you need an e-mail program and Internet
connection through LAN or ISP.
 E-mail is very popular communication tool used to share information among
users on internet.
 You can also attach some file with text message.
 You must have a unique E-mail address for Send and Receive E-mail.
 User must Enter Username and Password to use E-Mail options.
 When you want to send an E-mail to someone you just write E-mail address
of that person or organization.
(i.e.) rcccbest@yahoo.com
 Popular Search Engines are
 www.Yahoo.com
 www.Hotmail.com
 www.Google.com
 www.Altavista.com (etc.)
 When we will send E-mail it will store on Mail Server until the required person
can receive it.
 Many Mail Servers use POP (Post Office Protocol) and are called POP
Servers.
************************************************************
 Popular E-mail programs are
 Microsoft Outlook
 Outlook Express
 Eudora
 Yahoo
 Hotmail (etc.)
CHAT:
 Popular way to communicate with other users in the immediate present.
 Peoples join channels to talk publicly or privately.
 Channels are discussion groups where chat users convene to discuss a topic.
 Before chatting you should know E-mail address of other person.
 Chat can be
o Voice Chat
o Chat through typing text from keyboard
WORLD WIDE WEB:

 WWW or just Web was created in 1989.
 “HTML (Hyper Text Markup Language)” with embed “Hyperlinks” is used to
create Webpage.
 Collection of related WebPages called “Web Site”.
 Web Sites are housed / Stored on Web Servers.
 Copying a page onto a Web server is called “Posting a page or Uploading”.
 Copying a page from web server to client (our Computer) is called
“Downloading”.
 World Wide Web includes
Web Browsers:
 Web browsers or Internet browsers are used to access Internet.
 A browser includes E-mail features, Newsreaders and tools for Downloads
files.
 Two most popular Web Browsers are
 Internet Explorer
 Netscape Navigator.
HTML Tags:
To format a Webpage HTML Tags are used. Tags which are enclosed in
angle brackets <> tell the browser how to display elements on the page. Elements
are written between starting and closing tags.
(i.e.) <H1> First Web Page </H1>
After Creation of Web Page the file must be saved with the extension of
“HTML”.
This file will be run on Browser.
************************************************************
HTTP (Hyper Text Transfer Protocol):
The internal structure of World Wide Web is built on a set of rules called
HTTP.
HTTP uses internet addresses in special format called URL.
URL (Uniform Resource Locator):

Specifies the type of server in which the file is located, address of the
server and path of the required File / Web Page.
(i.e.) http://www.pu.edu.pk /results
Home Pages:
Personalized Home Page (Which page you want to see?)
Web Site Home Page (Primary Page or First Page or Main Page of a Web Site is
called Web Site Home Page).
Search Engine:
These are web sites helps you to find your desired information.
(i.e.) If you want to find information about Flowers. It will provide you a list of web
sites which will all contains information about our required topic.
ONLINE SERVICES:
 Online Service is a company that offers access to
– E-mail
– Discussion Groups
– Weather Information
– Newspapers Articles
– Chat Rooms
– Online Games
– Stock Information
– Electronic Banking and Business (etc.)
 Most popular are America Online, CompuServe and Prodigy.
Connection through MODEM:

 Modem is used to access Internet.
 ISPs provide these types of services for home users and businesses.
 Telephone line will be used to connect to the internet.
 Users computer will dial into the ISPs server identify it and gain access to the
Internet.
 ISPs Server assigned an assigned Dynamic IP address to the customer’s
computer.
 Usually a Modem has speed
– 28.8 Kbps, 33.6 Kbps, or 56 Kbps
INTERNET ADDRESSES:
Six primary domains for US Internet sites are
i. COM (Commercial)
************************************************************
ii. EDU (Education)
iii. GOV (Government)
iv. MIL (Military)
v. NET (Network)
vi. ORG (Organization)
INTRODUCTION TO BROWSING:
 A browser includes E-mail features, Newsreaders and tools for Downloads
files.
 Famous browsers are Netscape Communicator and Internet Explorer.
Address Bar:
You can enter the required URL into address bar of the browser or you can access a
web page by clicking on link.
Clicking Links:
 Every page on a web site has many links which are connected with specified
pages or topics.
 If you want to return previous page just click on “Back” button.
 After you have used a link, it changes color.
Home Button:
It takes you back to the very first page of site.
Back and Forward Buttons:

“Back” displays the last viewed page and “Forward” displays the next page.
Refresh Button:
“Refresh” button send a request to the ISP server for required link.
Stop Button:
“Stop” Button aborts the current transfer of information from the ISP to your
computer.
SEARCHING THE INTERNET:

 There are millions of sites on the web, so it’s very difficult to find your required
site.
 Search Engines are designed to help the users to find their required site or
topics.
 You just enter word related to your required stuff and click on button labeled
“Search”, “Go Get It” or “Seek”.
 Popular search engines are

 Alta Vista
 Excite
************************************************************
 Yahoo
 Google (etc.)
DOWNLOADING:
 Downloading is the process of saving data from internet to your computer.
 User can download
 Software’s
 Files attached with E-mails
UPLOADING:
 Copying a page onto a Web server is called “Posting a page or Uploading”.
NEWSGROUPS:
 Newsgroups are electronic discussion groups through which people can
exchange their ideas and information.
 Newsgroup articles are stored on a computer called a news server.
 To read the articles you need a program called newsreader.
 Newsreader shows you a list of current articles in any newsgroups you
choose to view.
INTERNET BROWSING AND E-MAIL
INTRODUCTION TO INTERNET:
 Internet is the network of networks.
 It is a very powerful communication tool.
 Internet was designed for U.S Department of Defense to safeguard military
information in 1960s.
 Now a days, internet becomes very popular among each categories of human.
 Millions of users are exchanging their ideas, thoughts and other information.
INTERNET ADDRESSES:
Six primary domains for US Internet sites are
vii. COM (Commercial) REVIEWED
ByByuser at Afridi
1:04 pm, 1/13/10
Azmat 13/01/2010
viii. EDU (Education)
ix. GOV (Government)
x. MIL (Military)
xi. NET (Network)
xii. ORG (Organization)
E-mail addresses versus URLs:

 E-mail stands for “Electronic Mail” and URL stands for “Uniform Resource Locators”.
 E-mail addresses are totally different form URL addresses.
************************************************************
 E-mail addresses are used to identify a particular user and URL addresses are used
to identify web server.
 Example of E-mail address is
rccc@yahoo.com
 Example of URL address is
www.yahoo.com
INTRODUCTION TO BROWSING:
 A browser includes E-mail features, Newsreaders and tools for Downloads files.
 Famous browsers are Netscape Communicator and Internet Explorer.
Getting to a web page:

You can enter the required URL into address bar of the browser or you can access a web
page by clicking on link.
Clicking Links:
 Every page on a web site has many links which are connected with specified pages
or topics.
 If you want to return previous page just click on “Back” button.
 After you have used a link, it changes color.
Home Button:
It takes you back to the very first page of site.
Back and Forward Buttons:

“Back” displays the last viewed page and “Forward” displays the next page.
Stop Button:
Stop Button aborts the current transfer of information from the ISP to your computer.
Print Button:
Used to print current page.
SEARCHING THE INTERNET:

 There are millions of sites on the web, so it’s very difficult to find your required site.
 Search Engines are designed to help the users to find their required site.
 You just enter word related to your required stuff and click on button labeled
“Search”, “Go Get It” or “Seek”.
 Popular search engines are
 Alta Vista
 Excite
 Yahoo
 Google (etc.)
DOWNLOADING:
 Downloading is the process of saving data from internet to your computer.
 User can download
 Software’s
 Files attached with E-mails
************************************************************
NEWSGROUPS:
 Newsgroups are electronic discussion groups through which people can exchange
their ideas and information.
 Newsgroup articles are stored on a computer called a news server.
 To read the articles you need a program called newsreader.
 Newsreader shows you a list of current articles in any newsgroups you choose to
view.
E-MAIL:
 E-mail stands for “Electronic Mail”.
 E-mail is very popular communication tool used to share information among users
on internet.
 User can Read, Write or Delete E-mail.
 User can also attach file with E-mail.
 Popular E-mail programs are
 Microsoft Outlook
 Outlook Express
 Eudora
 Yahoo
 Hotmail
 Google (etc.)
LANGUAGE:
 We need some language for Communication with others.
 Every language has its own Grammar, Rules and set of Words.
 Examples are
o English
o Arabic
o French
o Urdu (etc)
Programming:
Planning or scheduling the performance of a task of an event is called
Programming.
Computer Programming:
The process of planning a sequence of steps for a computer to follow is called
Computer Programming.
PROGRAMMING LANGUAGE:
 Computer language is a way of communication between user and computer.
 A set of rules, symbols and special words used to construct a computer
program.
************************************************************
 Each language has certain rules called syntax of language.
 Two main types are
o Low level language or Machine Language
o Assembly Language or Middle Level Language
o High level language or User Level Language
Low Level Languages:

 Binary code (0 and 1) is used in these languages.
 Also called Machine Language.
 These languages are normally used to control hardware.
 Advantages are
• Very fast execution speed
• Direct access on hardware
 Disadvantages are
• Long program
• Wastage of time
• Machine Dependent
• Difficult to learn and understand
• Difficult to detect and remove errors
• No support for graphics

• Limited functions
Assembly Language:
 Coding in the form of Symbols and binary code.
 Also called Middle Level Language.
 These languages are also used to control hardware.
 Assembler is used for conversion of Assembly code into machine code.
 Advantages are
o Easier than Machine Language
o Fast execution speed than High Level Language
o More control on hardware than High Level Language
o Difficult to learn and understand than High Level Language
o Difficult to detect and remove errors
o No supports for graphics
o Limited functions
High Level Languages:

 Computer programming which is very close to human languages are called
high level languages.
 Very commonly used now a day.
 Compiler or Interpreter is used as language translator.
 Used for writing application programs.
 Advantages are
o Very powerful than Machine and Assembly Languages
************************************************************
o Easier to Learn and Understand
o Easier to detect and remove errors
o Shorter coding
o Well defined syntax and standard
o Machine Independent
o Can perform multiple functions
o Having support for graphics
o Less execution speed than Machine and Assembly language
 Some examples are
 C / C++
 Visual Basic
 Oracle
 Java (etc)
 Types are
 Procedural Languages
 Non-procedural Languages
 Object Oriented Languages
 Database Query Languages
Procedural Languages:
 Also called Statement Oriented Languages.
 Program consists of sequence of statements.
 Tell the computer how to achieve a goal, by giving a sequence of instructions.
 Execution of statement is in sequence.
 Syntax of such language has the form
Statement 1;
Statement 2;
Non-procedural Languages:
 Also called Logical Based Languages.
 Tell the computer what goal to achieve, by giving a specification.
 Non-procedural Language executes by checking for the presence of a certain
conditions & when it is satisfied, they execute an appropriate action.
 Execution of these languages is similar to procedural languages except that
statements are not sequential.
 Syntax of such language has the form
Condition 1  action 1
Condition 2  action 2
Object Oriented Programming (OOP):

 Programming by using “Objects”.
 Can be procedural or non-procedural.
 The principles of object-oriented programming are
 Encapsulation
 Encapsulation means Information Hiding.
************************************************************
 What data and methods are accessible to other objects?
 What data and methods are inaccessible from other objects?
 Inheritance
 Deriving a new class from an existing one.
 Facility of reusability of the existing software.
 Polymorphism
 An object can perform multiple functions.
 Abstraction
 Empty classes for future use.
Database Query Languages:

 Can be procedural or non-procedural.
 These languages are used to fetch data from database.
 Most common Database Query Language is Structured Query Language

(SQL).
Compiler:
 Translate source code into object code as whole.
 Saves Compiled file called Object file.
 Computer will run object file.
 If there is any error in the source program, compiler tells about error at time of
compilation.
 All errors must be removed for successful compilation.
 Example
C / C++ Language use Compiler.
Interpreter:
 Translate source instructions one by one and executes them immediately.
 If any error occur program tells about error and stops program execution.
 Does not make object file.
 Slow and Time Consuming method.
 Example
Visual Basic Language use Interpreter.
Assembler:
************************************************************
 Assembly language use Assembler as language translator.
 Assembler converts Assembly program into computer or binary code.
Q) Define Data Processing? How many Levels of Data Processing Life

Cycle we have?
OR
What are the steps involved in Data Processing Cycles?
Data:
Data refers to any unorganized collection of raw facts and figures that can be
collected from different sources and from which information created. Data can be
Numerical or Non-Numerical.
Example:
Number of students in an examination, Name of goods, Addresses of
employees, Universities of a country (etc)
Information:
Organized and processed data is called information. Information is meaningful
and use to take intelligent decisions so that desired results can be generated.
Example:
Result analysis of B. COM class, Fee Record of each student (etc)
DATA PROCESSING INFORMATION
Difference between Data and Information:
DATA INFORMATION
 It is a collection of raw facts and  Information is the meaningful
figures. form of data.
 Data is used rarely.  Information is used frequently.
 Data has large size.  Information is small in size.
 Data is not available to people  Information is available to
for sale. people for sale.
Data Processing:
Data processing referred to operation carried out on data to convert it into
meaningful information.
LEVELS OF DATA PROCESSING:

We can divide data processing based on the amount of the work which is
done by the human beings with the amount of the work which are expected from the
computers. In order to get better results, we can divide it into three following levels.
************************************************************
1. Manual Data Processing
2. Mechanical Data Processing
3. Electronic Data Processing
Levels of Data
Processing
Manual Data Mechanical Electronic Data

Processing Data Processing
Processing
Manual Data Processing:

In manual data processing human beings converts data into information
without using any machinery. This method is very time consuming and there is a lot
of chances of errors.
Example:
If you want to calculate the total result of some numerical data instead of
using calculator you will use manual calculations to perform desired operation.
Mechanical Data Processing:

In this technique human beings use and control various machines in various
combinations to complete their work and to convert their data into information. This
method produces better results in quick time than manual data processing.
Example:
We can use calculator for our desired calculations instead of manual work.
Electronic Data Processing (EDP):

Now a day, computer becomes need of every person. Computers are used in
this method for data processing. In order to get correct results from computers we
must provide correct input to computer. This method is very efficient and having fast
processing speed than Manual and Mechanical data processing, so mostly used in
these days. Chances of errors can also be reduced by using this technique.
Example:
We can perform our desired results very quickly with the help of computer.
But we must select right software according to our task. If we want to type an
application then we should select Microsoft Word for this purpose. If we use
Microsoft Excel for this task then our output will be affected.
DATA PROCESSING CYCLE:

In order to provide complete information to the computers and drive accurate
results from that information the following steps should be considered
i. Collection:
************************************************************
First of all raw data should be collected properly without missing
anything.
ii. Input:
It describes the process of collecting data and getting it, into a form that
a computer can understand.
iii. Verification:
In this stage the collected data should be checked whether it is
complete and accurate.
iv. Coding:
This step translates the data into machine language so that computer
can process.
v. Processing:
Once the data is available, user will enter the data for processing
through keyboard or any other input device.
vi. Classification:
In this step data can be organized according to the characters that are
meaningful to the computer user.
vii. Sorting:
This stage involves arrangement of data into a particular sequence to
facilitate processing.
Example:
Sorting the bank deposits to account numbers will speed up the
processing.
viii. Calculating:
Mathematical calculation on data in needed.
Example:
Comparison of values
ix. Summarizing:
A large amount of data can be reduced to a concise and useable form.
Example:
Budget Report of a company in specific year.
x. Storing and Retrieve:

Data can be retained on storage mediums and can be retrieved from
storage medium (Hard disk, Flash Drive, Floppy drive, ZIP drive)
xi. Output:
************************************************************
Once the processing is complete the results are available for output that
will be displayed on different types of mediums which can be softcopy or
hardcopy.
xii. Feedback:
Feedback is a process of evaluating the output and adjusting the input
or processing in order to ensure that results in good information.
Q) Define Data Processing? Why data processing is important for

Business?
Data Processing:
Data processing referred to operation carried out on data to convert it into
useful information.
DATA PROCESSING AS A BUSINESS NEED:

Electronic data processing is growing because it is capable of handling a vast
amount of data efficiently and accurately.
Following are the demands faced by business that create this need and which
are as follow
Number of Transactions:
Big firms naturally have many transactions, so the computer with high speed
and capacity can process thousands of records of business within a minute.
Cost:
By using computers business companies can reduce their cost. If a company
hires 50 persons for any accounts job, same operation can be done by using 5 to 6
computers.
Accuracy:
The use of computers in business will not only save the time but also it will
help to produce the accurate results without errors. If there are any errors they are
automatically highlighted at initial stages and computer user can correct them.
Speed:
Every company wants that the flow of data should be very fast. The computer
technology is also increasing fastly. Pentium-IV is very Fast, Accurate and giving
more facilities to computer in comparison with 486 or P-I.
Selectivity:
The business people demand selectivity in the ways that data are reported
specially computers can reorder a collection of data into many different forms.
(e.g) Data can be arrange Ascending or Descending before processing
************************************************************
Information:
Organized and processed data is called information. Information is meaningful
and use to take intelligent decisions so that desired results can be generated.
Computer technology is very helpful to convert raw data into useful information in
business organizations.
Record Keeping:
It is very important to have a complete record of data which is going to be
processed by the computer. To achieve 100% results and after achieving those
results the organization will save that Information & Data for future decision making
and also will compare it with previous year results.
Service:
It is important to maintain that the computer users have to take care of those
computers in order to generate better results in future also and increase their
efficiency by giving in time maintenance.
Allocation of Job:
It has been said
“Machine should work and People should think”
Many business people believe that human resources should be applied to those
tasks for which humans are qualified for them. In other words we can say “The right
person for right job”.
(e.g) If a person is hired in any organization for the job of “Data Entry” but after
joining the company aspects from to manage Lab and Networking, it will be wrong
job allocation.
Internet:
Internet is also becoming the need of business environment. Especially now a
days, when the business transactions is done online, most of the business
organizations have their own websites.
REVIEWED
ByByuser at Afridi
Azmat 1:04 pm, 1/13/10
13/01/2010
************************************************************
MS Word
INTRODUCTION:
Word Processing software’s are used for Typing/Composing a Document.
(e.g.) Ms-Word
INTERFACE OF WORD PROCESSING:

Interface means Layout / Shape.
 Title Bar
 Menu Bar
 Tool Bar
 Ruler
 Horizontal Scroll Bar
 Vertical Scroll Bar
 Status Bar
 Cursor
FEATURES OF WORD PROCESSING:

Main features are
 Deleting and Inserting Characters
 Moving Text
 Undo and Redo
 Page Setting and Printing a Document
 Searching and Replace Characters
 Aligning Text
 Page Numbers
 Headers and Footers
 Footnotes
 Columns
 Spell and Grammar Checking
 Thesaurus
 Text Styles
 Formatting
 Adding Graphics
 Formulas
 Charts and Graphs
 Tables
INTRODUCTION:
 Word Processing software’s are used for Typing / Composing a Document.
 Main Features are
o Preparation of Applications, Letters
o Documentation
o Tables
o Changing Writing Styles, Size, Color (etc)
************************************************************
(e.g.) Ms-Word
INTERFACE OF WORD PROCESSING:

 Title Bar  Horizontal Scroll Bar
 Menu Bar  Vertical Scroll Bar
 Tool Bar  Status Bar
 Ruler  Cursor
Title Bar
Menu Bar Ruler Vertical Scroll
Bar
Tool Bar
Page
Cursor
Horizontal
Scroll Bar Status Bar
FEATURES OF WORD PROCESSING:
Main features of word processor are

Save and Save As Zoom
Page Setup Aligning Text
Print Preview Page Numbers
Print Date and Time
Undo and Redo Auto Text and Auto Correct
Cut, Copy and Paste Footnotes
Searching and Replace Columns
Characters Symbol
Headers and Footers Clip Art and WordArt
Prepared by Azmat Afridi SAMS 07/12/2007---E-mail: azmat443@gmail.com----Mobile Pakistan: +92-333-9382107 Mobile U.A.E+971-50-2380181 52
************************************************************
Book Mark
Hyper Link
Bullets and Numbering
Border and Shading
Drop Cap
Change Case
Spell and Grammar Checking
Thesaurus
Track Changes
Font
Paragraph
Macro
Adding Graphics
Formulas
Charts and Graphs
REVIEWED
By
Byuser at Afridi
Azmat 1:04 13/01/2010
pm, 1/13/10
Tables
Merge Cells and Split Cells
Heading Rows Repeat
Prepared by Azmat Afridi SAMS 07/12/2007---E-mail: azmat443@gmail.com----Mobile Pakistan: +92-333-9382107 Mobile U.A.E+971-50-
2380181
COMMANDS OF MS-WORD WITH THEIR FUNCTIONALITY:
FILE MENU:
New (Create a New File)
Open (Open a Saved File)
Close (Close Current File)
Save (Save a File)
Save As (Save File With New Name or into other location)
Versions (It will Save the Current Status of File)
Page Setup (We can Change margins of page)
Print Preview (This command shows that who page looks like Before
Printing)
Print (Print a File)
Send To (Send File to Another Location)
Properties (It Contain information about File)
Exit (Close the Program)
EDIT MENU:
Undo (Remove the last work)
Redo (Redo last work)
Cut (Remove Selected text form its location into Clipboard)
Copy (Copy selected text into Clipboard, but text will not remove from
its location).
Paste (After Copy or Cut ,Paste Command is use to insert text from
clipboard)
Paste Special (Text can be insert in different Format)
Clear ( Remove Selected Text)
Select All (You can Select All Text)
Find (We can Find Required Word, Letter or Sentence)
Replace (Replace undesired word with new word )
Go To (Cursor will move on Required Place in current document)
VIEW MENU:
Normal (Normal View of Page)
Web Layout (Web View of Page)
Print Layout (Print View of Page)
Outline (Outline View of Page)
Toolbars ( Toolbars can be Added and Removed due to
Requirements)
Ruler (Ruler is used for measurement of page)
Document Map (All Heading of Document will be shown in Left side of
the page)
Header and Footer (Header Text will be displayed on top of Each
Page and Footer Text will be displayed on Bottom of Each Page)
Footnotes (Meanings of difficult words)
Comments (Explanation about something)
Full Screen (Text will be Shown on Full Screen)
Zoom (Large Size of Text Due to Requirement)
INSERT MENU:
Break (We can Insert Page break, Column break, Text wrapping break
and section breaks)
Page Numbers (Can Apply numbering on Pages)
Date and Time (Date and Time can be Inserted)
Auto Text (Text can be inserted automatically)
Symbol (Insert a Symbol)
Cross-Reference (It is the Reference Text to other location)
Caption (It is just like Heading of Selected Text)
Picture (We can insert Picture, Stylish Text, Draw Chart and Required
Shapes)
Text Box (Just like a box in which we can write something)
File (Add already saved file in current file)
Object (By using Object you can open and create document of some
other application)
Book Mark (It’s a shortcut to access your required place)
Hyper Link (It is the reference text to access other location)
FORMAT MENU:
Font (Can Change Text style, size, Effects and Character Spacing)
Paragraph (Formatting of Paragraph)
Bullets and Numbering (Outlines can be applied to text)
Border and Shading (we can apply border and shading to text, page
and paragraph)
Columns (Text can be written in multiple columns)
Tabs (Set Blank Spaces)
Drop Case (First letter of paragraph will display in large size)
Text Direction (Direction of text can be changed)
Change Case (Text can be changed in Capital, Small, Sentence style,
Toggle)
Background (It will change Background color of page)
Theme ( Background style )
Frame ( Used for Web Pages)
AutoFormat (Automatically Formatting of text)
Style (Different styles of text can also be applied)
TOOLS MENU:
Spelling and Grammar (It will check Spelling and Grammar mistakes)
Language ( Language and words can be changed )
Word Count (It will show the summary of Current Document)
AutoSummarize (This command will generate Summary of document
automatically)
Auto Correct (Wrong Word will correct automatically)
Track Changes (Highlights the Track Changes in File)
Envelopes and Labels (Prepare a letter cover)
Letter Wizard (Write Letter in different styles)
Macro (Text can be recorded for future use)
Customize (Toolbars can be added and different setting of Toolbar
can be possible)
TABLE MENU:
Draw Table (It will draw Table due to requirement)
Insert (It will insert Table, Columns, Rows, Cells)

Delete (Remove Table, Columns, Rows, Cells)
Select (This command will Select Table, Columns, Rows, Cells)
Merge Cells (This command will merge selected cells and make a
single cell)
Split Cells (A Cell can be divided in to multiple Columns and Rows)
Split Table (A Single Table can be divided into Multiple Tables)
Table AutoFormat (Different Text / Font colors and size can be
applied)
AutoFit (Text will Fit according to column and row height )
Heads Row Repeat (Heading of table will show on first row of every
page)
Convert (Text can be changed into Table and Table can be changed
into Text)
Sort (Text of Table can be Arrange into Ascending or Descending
order)
Formula ( Different Functions can be Applied to Table Entries)
Gridlines (Gridlines are the grey lines which we can see on computer
screen but can’t see in printout)
Table Properties (All Possible Function of table can be edited)
WINDOW MENU:
New Window (This Command will made similar copy to Current
Document)
Arrange All (All Files will be Shown on monitor’s screen)
Split (We can View Complete / Full Page)
HELP MENU:
Microsoft word Help (Help about any topic)
Show the Office Assistant (Assistant means Helper which provide
ms-word’s help)
What’s This? (Give Information about Required Thing)
Detect and Repair (Find Error and Repair from CD)
About Microsoft Word (Information about word)
Microsoft Excel
INTRODUCTION:
 Spreadsheet is a grid of rows and columns which is used to enter
numbers and text.
 It is very powerful tool normally used for calculation.

 (e.g.) Ms-Excel
INTERFACE OF SPREADSHEET:
 Title Bar
 Tool Bar
 Menu Bar
 Formula Bar
 Horizontal Scroll Bar
 Columns
 Rows
 Sheet Tabs
 Cell
 Status Bar
FEATURES OF SPREADSHEET:
Main features are
 Formulas and Functions
 Charts
 Print Area
 Formatting
 Validation
 Subtotals
 Filter
 Goal Seek
 Excel is very important tool of Microsoft office.

 Excel is used to Create Huge tables.
 Key Features of Excel are
o Presents the data into tabular form
o Can apply Formula and Functions
o Can Insert Charts and Graphs according to our requirement
(e.g) Ms-Excel
INTERFACE OF MICROSOFT EXCEL:

Interface means Layout / Shape. How Program Looks Like?
 Title Bar  Columns
 Tool Bar  Rows
 Menu Bar  Worksheets
 Formula Bar  Cell
 Horizontal Scroll Bar  Status Bar
Title Bar
Menu Bar Formula
Bar
Vertical Scroll Bar
Tool Bar
Columns Cell Worksheet
Rows
Sheet Tabs
Horizontal Scroll Bar
Status Bar
Book, Worksheet, Cells:

 Book is a collection of worksheets.
 A Book can have many worksheets.
 Worksheet consists of Columns and Rows.
 Cell is a unit area of Column or Row.
 Columns are 256.
 Rows are 65536.
FEATURES OF MICROSOFT EXCEL:
Main features of Microsoft excel are

Print Area Filter
Paste Special Subtotals
Fill Validations
Move or Copy Sheet Group and Outline
Page Break Preview Import External Data
Formulas and Functions
Custom Views
Name
Charts
Conditional Formatting
Protection
Goal Seek
Sort
CHOICES AND DECISIONS
CHOICES AND DECISION STATEMENTS:

 Selection Structures allow a choice among various alternatives.
 C has following decision statements
 IF-Statement
 IF-ELSE Statement
 ELSE-IF Statement
 SWITCH Statement
 CONDITIONAL Operator
IF Statement:
 It will check a given condition, if condition is true then statements will
be executed.
 If condition is false then statements will not executed.
 Syntax of IF statement is
if (condition)
{
statement 1;
statement 2;
…………..
}
Example:
#include <stdio.h>
#include <conio.h>
Void main ( )
{
int a=10;
int b=15;
if (a<=b)
{
printf (“A is less than B”);
printf (“C Language”);
}
getche( );
}
IF-ELSE Statement:
 In this statement, one condition and two blocks of statements are given.
 Either one of the two blocks of statements is executed after checking the
condition.
 If condition is True, First block will be executed and if condition is
False, the Second block will be executed.
 Syntax is
if (Condition)
{
Statement (s);
}
else
{
Statement (s);
}
REVIEWED
Example:
#include <stdio.h> ByByuser at Afridi

Azmat 1:05 pm, 1/13/10
13/01/2010
#include <conio.h>
Void main ( )
{
int a=15;
int b=10;
if (a<=b)
{
printf (“A is less than B”);
}
else
{
printf (“ A is greater than B”);
}
getche( );
}
ELSE-IF Statement:
 Syntax of ELSE-IF Statement is
if (Condition1)
{
Statement (s);
}
else if (Condition2)
{
Statement (s);
}
else if (Condition3)
{
Statement (s);
}
else
{
Statement (s);
}
Example:
#include <stdio.h>
#include <conio.h>
Void main ( )
{
int a=10;
int b=15;
if (a>b)
{
printf (“A is greater than B”);
}
else if (a= =b)
{
printf (“A is equal to B”);
}
else
{
printf (“B is greater than A”);
}
getche( );
}
SWITCH Statement:
 Works similar like “ELSE-IF” Statements.
 Multiple choices are given and one choice is to be selected.
 Break statement is used at the end of statements in each CASE.
 It exits the control from the body of switch structure.
 Syntax of SWITCH Statement is
Switch (expression)
{
case const1:
statement;
break;
case const2:
statement;
break;
case constn:
statement;
break;
default:
statement;
}
Example:
#include <stdio.h>
#include <conio.h>
Void main( )
{
int n;
scanf (“%d”,&n);
switch (n)
{
case 1:
printf(“One”);
break;
case 2:
printf(“Two”);
break;
case 3:
printf(“Three”);
break;
default:
printf(“Invalid Value”);
}
getche( );
}
CONDITIONAL Operator:
 It is the alternate to a simple if-else statement.
 It consists of “?” (question-mark) and a “:” (colon).
 Its syntax is
{condition} ? {exp1} : {exp2}
Example:
#include <stdio.h>
#include <conio.h>
Void main ( )
{
int a=10, b=84, c;
c=(b>a) ? a : b;
printf (“%d”, c );
getche( );
}
DATABASE
Data:
 Facts in raw form are called data.
 Data have no meaning.
 (i.e.) 65, Farooq , age
Information:
 Meaningful / Organized form of data is called information.
 (i.e.) The age of Nasir is 65.
DRAWBACKS OF FILE SYSTEM / MANUAL SYSTEM:

Drawbacks of File System are
 Data Redundancy (Same data was duplicated in many different
files)
 Data Inconsistency (When same data are held in different files,
the data has to be updated in all files. If any file may fail to update
it will produce wrong output)
 Program-data Dependence (If we want to change/modify
structure of file, that means every program which uses that file
has to be changed)
 Lack of Flexibility (When non-routine information is needed, it
takes many week to collect data from different files and write new
programs to produce required result)
 Data was not Shareable (Data of one department can’t
shareable by other departments )
DATABASE:
 A collection of information organized in such a way that a
computer program can quickly select required data.
OR
A Database is a collection of related data.
 Database is just like an Electronic Filing System.
 (e.g.)
 Computerized Library Systems
 Automated Teller Machines (ATM)
 Flight Reservation Systems (etc)
Advantages of Database System:
Following are the main advantages of Database System
 More information from same data
 Shared data
 Balancing conflicts among users
 Controlled Redundancy
 Consistency
 Security
 Increased productivity
 Data independence
Fields, Records, Files and Database:
 Fields (Columns are called Fields)

 Records (Rows are called Records)
 Files (A file is a collection of records)
 Database (A Database may have many files)
DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM (DBMS):
 It is a collection of programs that enables users to Store, Modify,
and Retrieve information from a database.
 It provides the interface between the user and the database.
Primary Key:
 The field which has Primary Key can’t be null and duplicate.
 If primary key is made of only one field, it is called “Simple key”.
 If primary key is made of a group of two or more fields, it is called
“Composite key”.
Data Type:
 Text (Used to store alphabets, digits and special characters. It
can store up to 255 characters).
 Memo (Used to store a large amount of text data).
 Number (Used to store numeric data).
 Date/Time (Used to store Date and Time).
 Currency (Used to store Currency amounts).
 AutoNumber (Used to generate a serial number).
 Yes/No (This field contain either Yes or No).
ENTITY-RELATIONSHIP MODEL:
 Also called E-R Model.
 It is the graphical representation of the database.
 In E-R Model Entities and their relationship described.
Entity:
 An entity is a person, place, event or a concept in the real world.
 Each entity has a set of attributes or properties.
 For example, in a school, each student is an entity. This entity
has the attributes of Name, Roll No, Class, Date of Birth, Phone
No etc.
Relationship:
 Linking of records of one table with the records of another tables
is called “Relationship”.
 The field(s) in both tables usually have the same name, data type
and size
 Three types of relationships are
1. One-to-One Relationship
2. One-to-Many Relationship
3. Many-to-Many Relationship
One-to-One Relationship:
 Relationship between two sets of entities A and B is one-to-one

when
o For each entity in A, there is only one related entity in B,
and
o For each entity in B, there is only one related entity in A.
 For example, countries and their capitals.
One-to-Many Relationship:
 Relationship between two sets of entities A and B is one-to-many
when
o For each entity in A, there can be one or more than one
related entities in B, and
o For each entity in B, there is only one related entity in A.
 For example, a student can have more than one phone numbers
but phone number could be assigned to only one student.
Many-to-Many Relationship:
 Relationship between two sets of entities A and B is many-to-
many when
o For each entity in A, there can be many related entities in
the B, and
o For each entity in B, there can be many related entities in
A.
 For example, many students can read many subjects
TABLES:
 A table consists of rows and columns.
 Within a table, data is stored as records.
 A database may contain one or more tables.
 Each row in a table represents one record.
 Column is called “Field” and row is called “Record” in database.
QURIES:
 Query is the request to extract data from database.
 It consists of a command that is given to display data.
 The results of a query are in the form of a table.
 Main Advantages of using queries are
o Extract particular records from one or more tables without
modification of the actual data.
o Sort records in a particular data
o Display the selected records on the screen; print them on
the printer, etc.
FORMS:
 Form is a window that collects data from a database and
organizes it on the computer screen.
 It is used to
o Retrieve data from the database and display it.
o Enter data into the database.
o Edit data in the database.
 Forms are designed to make data entry and retrieval easier.

Advantages:
 Forms provide a user friendly interface. So non-technical user
can work easily.
 A form usually displays only one record at a time so it is easier
to edit and enter data by using form.
 A form can collect and display data from more than one table.
REPORTS:
 Presentation of selected data retrieved from a database in a
predefined manner is called a Report.
or
Presentation of data in formatted form.
or
Presentation of processed data obtained from a database is
called Report.
 Report can be displayed on the screen, printed on the paper or

stored on the disk.
 It can retrieve data from one or more tables of a database.
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN FORMS & REPORTS:
No Forms Reports
Usually used to view data on the Usually used to print data on the
1. computer screen paper
2. Data cannot be formatted Data can be formatted
3. Data in the tables can be modified Data cannot be modified
4. New data can be entered New data cannot be entered
FILE MANAGEMENT
DATA FILES AND THEIR IMPORTANCE:

 Sometime computer program need large amount of input data. So it is
very difficult to enter all data at run time.
 Input data is stored in a file on the disk. Computer program reads the
data from the data disk.
 Similarly, programs are also often produce large output which is not
possible to view the entire data on screen at run time.
 The output from a program is written into a data file and is stored on the
disk.
ACCESS METHOD OF FILES:

 Sequential Access Files (Data read and write in a sequence. If we want
to read 5th record then the first four records have to be read. Text Data
Files are Sequential Access Files in C Language).
 Random Access Files (Read and write data directly. If we want to read
5th record then we can read required record directly. Binary Data Files
are Random or Direct Access Files in C Language).
File Access Modes:
Mode Description
r Reading Mode.
w Writing Mode.
a Append Mode. Data can be added at the end of file.
r+ Reading / Writing Mode.
w+ Writing / Reading Mode.
a+ Reading / Append Mode.
Opening Files:
 “fopen” function is used to open a file.
 Before opening a file, a file pointer is associated with it.
 Example
FILE *fp;
fp=fopen(“abc.txt”,”w”);
Closing Files:
 When we opened a file we must close such file, otherwise data will
damage.
 “fclose” function is used to close a file.
 Example
fclose(fp);
FUNCTIONS
IMPORTANCE OF FUNCTIONS:
 A function is a piece of code written to perform a specific task.
 Importance and Advantages are
1. A large program can be divided into small units or modules.
These are written as Functions.
2. Each function is written to perform specific task. This makes

writing and testing of program easier.
3. Many programmers can work on one program at a time. So
program develop quickly.
4. A function can be use in other program.
5. Use of functions also reduces overall length of the program.
TYPES OF FUNCTIONS:
 Built-In Functions (These functions are defined already in the
language. We can’t use these functions in any other program. Also
called Library Functions. (i.e.) printf ( ), sqrt ( ) etc.).
 User-Defined Functions (User creates these functions. Also called
Programmer-Defined functions. These functions are written for a
specific use).
TYPES OF VARIABLES:
Local Variables:
 Variables that are declared inside the main function or inside any user-
defined function are called Local variables or automatic variables.
 The keyword “auto” (optional) can be used to declare these variables.
 Example
auto int a, b, c;
or
int a, b, c;
Life-Time of Local Variables:

 Life time is the time period between the creation and destruction of the
variable.
 When control goes to that function in which variable is declared, then
variable will created and occupy memory space and when control goes
back to calling function then variable will be destroyed.
 A variable declared inside the function can not used in other function.
Global Variables:
 Variable that is declared outside the main function or any other function
are called Global variables or External variables.
 These variables can use any where in the program.
Life-Time of Global Variables:

 These variables exist in the memory throughout the program execution.
 When a program starts its execution these are created.
 When program ends then these variables destroyed from memory.
Static Variables:
 These variables are declared inside a function by using the keyword
“Static”.
 These can be used only in that function in which they are declared.
 Life time is throughout the program.
 Since static variables is initialized only once and is not destroyed, the
function having static variables runs faster.
 (e.g.) static int i=10;
PASSING ARGUMENTS TO FUNCTIONS:

 Two ways of passing arguments are
– Argument Passed by Value (In this method, value of the
variable is passed to the function).
– Argument Passed by Reference (It is also called “passing by
address”. In this method, the memory address or reference of the
variable is passed to the function. & sign is used with actual
parameter).
INTRODUCTION TO C LANGUAGE
LANGUAGE:
 Language is used for communication.
 For communication with computer we need some languages are called
Computer languages or Programming languages.
COMPUTER PROGRAM:
 Set of instructions given to computer to perform a task is called
computer program.
 Instructions are written according to some rules are called computer
language or Programming Languages.
TYPES OF PROGRAMMING LANGUAGES:
Three main types are
 Machine Language
 Assembly Language
 High Level Language
Machine Language:
 All coding will be in form of 0s and 1s are called Binary Code.
 Difficult to learn and understand.
Assembly Language:
 Symbols are used instead of binary code.
 Easier than Machine Language but hard to learn.
High Level Language (HLLs):
 Instructions are written in these languages are very Close to Human
Language.
 Very powerful than Machine and Assembly Languages.
 Easier to Learn and Understand.
 Used for writing application programs.
 Examples are
BASIC, C, C++, COBOL (etc)
Characteristics (Features) of High Level Langauage:

 Machine Independent (Program written in high level language can be
run on any computer system).
 Well defined Syntax and Standard (Syntax are rules to write a source
code).
 Easy to Learn and Understand (Easy to learn as compare to machine
languages).
 Shorter Programs (Programs are shorter than programs written in
machine language).
 Source is understandable by other programmers (Instructions are
written in English words so any programmer can understand source
code).
Source Code:
 A Computer Program written in a High Level Language is called Source
Code.
 Computer can’t run this Program.
Object Code:
 Computer Program in the form of machine language (0, 1) is called
object code.
 Computer can run this code directly.
TRANSLATORS OR LANGUAGE PROCESSORS:
Common translators are
 Compiler
 Interpreter
 Assembler
Compiler:
 Translate source code into object code as whole.
 Saves Compiled file called Object file.
 Computer will run object file.
 If there is any error in the source program, compiler tells about error at
time of compilation.
 All errors must be removed for successful compilation.
Interpreter:
 Translate source instructions one by one and executes them
immediately.
 If any error occur program tells about error and stops program
execution.
 Does not make object file.
 Slow and Time Consuming method.
HISTORY OF C LANGUAGE:
 C language combines some features of Assembly language and some
features of High Level Language.
 C language was developed in early 1970s by Dennis Ritchie at Bell
Laboratories.
 Designed for UNIX Operating Systems but very widely use now a day.
 In 1980s American National Standards Institute (ANSI) introduced the
standard version of “C” called ANSI C.
 Use to write all type of programs such as

 Control Hardware Processes
 Word-processing Programs
 Spreadsheet Programs
 Educational Programs
 Games
BASIC STRUCTURE OF C PROGRAM:
 Writing style of a program is called Structure of program.
 C Program has 3 main parts
1. Preprocessor Directives
2. The Main( ) Function
3. C Statements
Example:
# include <stdio.h> Preprocessor

Directive
main( ) Header
{ File
printf (“First Program”);

Main Function
C Statement
getche( );
}
Preprocessors Directives:
 Instructions given to Compiler before actual program are called
Preprocessor Directives.
 It does some processing before the Compilation process starts.
 Preprocessor Directives are used to include Header files in the program.
(e.g.)
#include <Stdio.h> or #include “Stdio.h”
or #define <Stdio.h> or #define “Stdio.h”
Header Files:
 Contain Definitions of standard library function.
 C has many header files.
 Each header file contains definitions of one type of functions only.
 (e.g.) math.h (Has Mathematical Function only)
 Header File has an extension .h
 The name of header file is written in angle brackets < > or double quotes
“ ”after #include or #Define directive.
Main Function:
 C Program begins with “main( )” function.
 “main( )” must be included in every C Program.
 Execution will Starts through “main( )” Function.
 If there in no “main ( )” Function, Compiler generated an error.

(e.g.)
main( )
{
Program Statements…
}
C Statements:
 Statements are written between Curly braces { } of main function.
 Each statement of C ends with Semicolon ( ; ).
 Mostly written in lowercase, but in some cases, can also be written in
uppercase.
CREATING, EDITING AND SAVING A PROGRAM:
 Creating is the process of writing program into C compiler editor.
 Editing is the process of make changes into written program (Del and
Backspace key is used to delete characters).
 After creation of program save it as filename.c.
COMPILING, LINKING AND EXECUTING A PROGRAM:
Compiling:
 Conversion of Source code into object code is called Compiling.
 Compiler is used for conversion.
 Compiler saves object code in a file with extension .obj.
e.g.) Filename.obj
 If there are errors in source code compiler tells about error, when
these errors will remove then program will compiled
successfully.
Linking:
 Necessary libraries are linked to the object code and make
executable file.
 Linker can also detect errors.
 If Source code uses a library function that does not exist, linker
generates an error.
 Object file is converted into Executable file with extension .Exe.
Executing:
 Executable file will run on the computer system.
 Executable file may also contain errors. These can produce
wrong output or they can halt the system.
(e.g.) a = 20 / 6;
FUNDAMENTALS OF C LANGUAGE
CHAPTER # 2
KEYWORDS OR RESERVED WORDS:

 Words that are used for Special purpose by the language.
 These are always written in lowercase.
 These have predefined uses and can’t be used for any other purpose in C
Language.
 C has 32 Keywords.
 (e.g.) Main (Indicate Main( ) function, we can’t use main for any other
purpose).
CONSTANTS:
Constants are quantities whose values do not change during program
execution.
Types of Constants:
Two types of constant are
1. Numeric Constant
a. Integer Constant (0, 245, -4759, +4595)
b. Floating-point Constant (25.5, 0.49, 245.463)
2. Character Constant (M, s, 5, +, - , * )
VARIABLES:
 Value of Variable may change during program execution.
 Variable represents memory location.
 Data stored into the memory location.
 May be Numeric or a non-numeric value.
Rules for Writing Variable Names:
 Must be starting with Alphabetic Character or an underscore ( _ ).
 First character cannot be a digit.
 Spaces are not allowed in variable name.
 Special character are not allowed (#,^,&,* , %, }, etc)
 Reserved words cannot be used.
 Maximum length is up to 31 characters.
 Two variables can not contain same name.
Types of Variables:
C has three types of variables
1. Integer Variables
2. Floating-point Variables
3. Character Variables
Integer Variables:
 Integer is a whole number.
 It may have a positive or negative value.
 (e.g.) 25, 785, -78, 342
 Four types of integer are
i. Int (Takes 2 bytes in memory)
ii. Short Int (Takes 2 bytes in memory)
iii. Long Int (Takes 4 bytes in memory)
iv. Unsigned Int (Takes 2 bytes in memory, Can Store only positive
values)
Floating-point Variables:
 These consist of whole numbers with fraction or decimal point.

 These are also called floating point numbers.
 (e.g.) 27.47, 0.14, -2.15
 Three types are
i. Float
 It takes 4 bytes in memory.
 Represented in decimal or exponential form.
 May be signed or unsigned.
ii. Double
 Used to store large floating values.
iii. Long Double
 Used to store very large floating values.
Character Variables:
 Character data type consists of alphabetic characters, numeric digits and
special characters
 It takes 1 byte in memory.
Declaration of Variables:
 Name of a variable and the Variable Type it can hold is called
declaration of the variable.
 When a variable is declared, it occupies some memory space according
to its data type.
 Value of variable is stored in this memory.
(e.g)
 Int marks;
Data Type Variable Name REVIEWED

ByByuser at Afridi
1:05 pm, 1/13/10
Azmat 13/01/2010
Examples:
 Short int Marks;
 Long int Length;
 Float Height;
 Double Distance;
 Char Single;
 Int Marks, Rollno, Age;
Initialization of Variables:
 Assigning a value to variable at declaration time is called initialization
of the variable.
 (e.g)
Int a=110, b=60, c;
Float num=6.78f;
Char sin=‘M’;
COMMENTS:
 Compiler can’t read these statements.
 Used to add remarks or comments in a program.
 Usually given to explain logic of program.
 For Single line comments
// comments
 For multi line comments
/* comments
comments */
 (e.g.)
c=a +b; // Addition of two numbers
INPUT AND OUTPUT STATEMENTS:
 Statements that are used to provide data to the program during its
execution are called input statements.
 Function used for input are
– scanf Function
– gets Function
– getch Function
– getche Function
 Statements that are used to show data to an output device are called
output statements.
 Function used for output are
– printf Function
– puts Function
 scanf and printf are most common used functions.
 These functions are defined in the “Stdio.h” header file.
#include <stdio.h>
Example:
#include <stdio.h>
#include <conio.h>
main ( )
{
int a=15;
int b;
scanf(“%d”,&b);
printf (“This is C Language”);
printf (“%d”,a);
print(“%d”,b);
getche( );
}
FORMAT SPECIFIER:
Format Specifier should be same to the type of variable for printing.
%c Single Character
%s String
%d Singed Decimal Integer
%f Floating Point
%e Floating Point (Exponential Notation)
%g Floating Point (%f or %e)
%u Unsigned Decimal Integer
FIELD WIDTH SPECIFIRER or ESCAPE SEQUENCES:
 Special characters are used to control printing on the output device are
called Escape Sequence.
 Escape Sequence is a combination of a Backslash ‘\’ and a code character.
\n For New Line
\t For Tab
\b For Backspace
\a For Alarm (Beep)
\r Cursor will move to the beginning of line
\’ To Print Single Quote
\” To Print Double Quote
\\ To Print Backslash
OPERATORS:
Expression:
 Expression is used for calculating the value of a formula.
 It has different Operands and Operators.
 Its evaluation gives a single value.
(e.g.) A×B×C
– Where A, B, C are variable names and are called
operands.
– Multiplication sign ‘×’ is called operator.
Arithmetic Operators:
 Arithmetic Operators are the symbols that are used for Arithmetic
operations.
 Arithmetic Operators are
Symbol Operation
+ Addition
- Subtraction
* Multiplication
/ Division
% Modulus (Remainder)
Assignment Operator:
 The Operator that is used to assign value to a variable is called an
Assignment Operator.
 Assignment Operator ‘=‘ is used to assign value to variable.
 Example
int age ;
age = 50;
or
int age = 50;

 Assignment Operator can also be used to assign one value to many
variables called Compound Assignment Operator.
 Example
int x, y, z;
x = y = z = 10;
Increment and Decrement Operators:
Increment Operator Decrement Operator

 + + is used as Increment Operator.  - - is used as Decrement Operator.
 It is used to add 1 to the value of a  It is used to Subtract 1 to the value
variable. of a variable.
 (e.g.)  (e.g.)
int x = 87; int x = 87;
x + +; x - -;
Prefix and Postfix Operators:
Prefix Operator Postfix Operator

 It adds 1 to the value of the  It adds 1 to the value of the
variable before the value of the variable after the value of the
variable is used in the expression. variable is used in the expression.
 (e.g.)  (e.g.)
int a = 50, b; int a = 50, b;
b = + +a; b = a+ +;
Relational Operators:
 Relational operator is a symbol that is used to find a relationship
between two expressions.
 Relational operator are
Symbol Definition
== Equal To
!= Not Equal To
< Less Than
> Greater Than
<= Less Than or Equal To
>= Greater Than or Equal To
Logical Operators:
 Used to compare two or more conditions.
 The output of logical expression is True or False.
 Logical operators are
Symbol Definition
&& AND Operator
|| OR Operator
! NOT Operator
Truth Table for &&, || and ! Operator
a b a && b a || b !a !b
True True True True False False
True False False True False True
False True False True True False
False False False False True True
Order of Precedence of Operators:
 All Multiplication and Division are performed first.
 All Addition and Subtraction are then performed.
 If parentheses are used in an expression, then expression in parenthesis
are performed first.
 If parentheses are used within parentheses, the expression, within
innermost parentheses will performed first.
 (e.g.)
(4 - (3*5))+2
LOOPS
LOOP:
 A statement or a set of statements that is executed repeatedly is called a
loop.
 Loop is executed until the given condition remains true.
 Three loops in C are
 While Loop
 Do-While Loop
 For Loop
While Loop:
 Used to execute a statement or set of statements as long as the given
condition remains true.
 Syntax of the “While” loop is
while (condition)
{
statement (s);
}
Example:
#include <stdio.h>
#include <conio.h>
main ( )
{
int c=1;
while (c<6)
{
printf (“I Love Pakistan\n”);
c=c+1;
}
getche( );
}
Do-While Loop:
 Used to execute a statement or set of statements.
 Just like while loop but in this loop the condition is tested after
executing the statements of the loop.
 Syntax of the “While” loop is
do
{
statement (s);
}
while (condition);
Example:
#include <stdio.h>
#include <conio.h>
main ( )
{
int c=1;
do
{
c=c+1;
}
while (c<6);
getche( );
}
For Loop:
 Used to execute a statement or set of statements as long as the given
condition remains true.
 Also called Counter loop.
 It has following parts
1. Initialization
2. Condition
3. Increment or Decrement
4. Body of the Loop
 General syntax of For Loop is
for (initialization; condition; increment / decrement)
{
Statements;
}
REVIEWED
ByByuser at 1:05
13/01/2010
Example:
#include <stdio.h>
#include <conio.h>
main ( )
{
int a;
for (a=5; a<15; a++)
{
}
getche( );
}
NESTED LOOPS:
 A loop can be declared inside another loop called nested loop.
 Loops can be nested For-Loop, While Loop, Do-While Loop or mixture
of these.
Example:
#include <stdio.h>
#include <conio.h>
main ( )
{
int a, b;
for (a=1; a<5; a++)
for (b=1; b<3; b++)
{
}
getche( );
}
INFORMATION SYSTEM DEVELOPMENT (ISD)

An Information System Collects, Maintains, and Provides information to
people. Today, many information systems are computerized. Information
systems are design for those people who have very little knowledge of
information technology. The five phases of information system development

are
 System Analysis
 System Design
 System Development
 System Implementation
 System Maintenance
System Analysis:
o The person who does analysis is called an Analyst.
o This phase focuses on “what”.
o Three task of this phase are
 Defining the problem
 Analyze current system
 Selecting the best solution
System Design:
 This phase focuses on “how”.
 Main tasks in this phase are
 Making Flow Charts and Data Flow Diagrams (DFD’s)
 Making User Manuals
 Selecting the best computer language for development
System Development:
 The person who does development is called a Programmer
 Writing computer programs by using some computer language
 Testing and debugging programs
System Implementation:
 Install developed system on computers
 Update or upgrade systems hardware if needed
 Training of operators and users
System Maintenance:
o After implementation if any error occurs then it will remove in this
phase
o Monitor system performance
DATA COMMUNICATION
DATA COMMUNICATION:
“Transferring of data from one point to other is called data
communication”.
BASIC ELEMENTS OF DATA COMMUNICATION:

Three basic elements are
1) Transmitter or Sender:
Who sends data called a Sender.
2) Medium:
Which carries information called a Medium. Such as
cables, air (etc)
3) Receiver:
Which receives the information, called a Receiver.
Sender Medium Receiver
DATA COMMUNICATION MODES:

There are three modes of data communication
1) Simplex Mode:
Data can send only in one direction/side (from sender to
receiver).
Examples:
Radio, Television (etc)
2) Half-Duplex Mode:
Data can send both directions/sides but only in one
direction/side at a time (from sender to receiver or from receiver
to sender).
Examples:
Wireless set, Computers in a Network (etc)
OR
3) Full-Duplex Mode:
Data can send both directions/sides at a time (from
sender to receiver and from receiver to sender).
Examples:
Telephone Lines (etc)
AND
TYPES OF DATA:
There are two types of data are
1) Digital Signals:
 Computer use digital signals.
 Data in the form of “0” and “1”.
 Discrete data.
Examples:
Data stored in memory (etc)
2) Analog Signals:
 Telephone lines use digital signals.
 Data in the form waves.
 Continue data.
Examples:
Human Voice (etc)
MODEM:
 Word Modem comes from MOdulation (Digital to Analog) and
DEModulation (Analog to Digital).
 Computer use digital signals, while telephone lines use analog signals.
 Modem is the medium between telephone lines and computer, which
perform Modulation and Demodulation.
 Computer “A” wants to send a file to computer “B”, both should have
modem and a protocol FTP (File Transfer Protocol).
TRANSMISSION MEDIAS:
 Data travel from one computer to other through some media called
transmission media or communication channels or communication
media.
 Communication media includes
 Standard Telephone Lines
 Coaxial Cables
 Microwave Transmission
 Satellite Communication
 Fiber Optics
Telephone Lines:
 Telephone lines are widely used as communication lines.
 Data travel over these lines in the form of Analog signals.
Coaxial Cables:
 These are made up of copper.
 Transmission rate is 10 Mega bits per second (Mbps).
 Mostly used for long distance transmission.
 Provide high quality data transmission without distortion or loss of
signal.
Microwave Transmission:
 These use air for data transmission.
 Data transmit in the form of waves.
 Transmission speed is faster than Telephone lines and Coaxial cables.
 Transmitters are installed on high buildings.
 Two stations must be within sight of one another.
Satellite Communication:
 Ideal for long distance communication.
 Very fast transmission speed.
 Satellites are placed about 22,000 miles above the earth.
 There are many earth stations with antennas which receives/sends
signals from satellite.
 Satellites are launched either by rockets or by space shuttles.
Fiber Optics:
 Thin glass or plastic tubes are used for data transmission.
 Data transmit through the speed of light.
 Transmission rate is more than a Billion bits per second (Bbps).
 Very costly
 Special devices are used to cut and install the cable.
 Converters are used at the both ends of the cable, which convert
electrical signals into light and vice versa.
ENCODING DIFFERENT TYPES OF DATA:

 Two types of a data are
 Analog Signals
 Digital Signals
 Computer use digital signals, while telephone lines use analog signals.
 Analog signals should be change into digital signals for transmit over
telephone lines and then change back to digital data for processing
inside the computer.
 Modem is used for changing data from Digital to Analog and Analog to
Digital.
EXERCISE
vii Data Communication

viii Half Duplex
ix Asynchronous
x Synchronous
xi Relay Station
xii Modulation
xiii Modem
xiv Baud
COMPUTER NETWORKS
COMPUTER NETWORKS:
Connection between two or more Computers, so that they can communicate with
each other.
Types of a network:
Types of network are the following.
 LAN (Local Area Network)
 WAN (Wide Area Network)
 MAN (Metropolitan Area Network)
Local Area Network (LAN):

 LAN is a network that spans limited physical area.
 LANs are usually used for sharing printers, hard disk, hardware
devices, and software applications (etc.).
 LAN is a high-speed connection.
 Used in small office, computers Labs.
Wide Area Network (WAN):

 WAN is a Network that spans a large number of areas.
 It may operate nationwide or worldwide.
NETWORKING CONCEPTS:
Server:
 If a computer shares resources for other to use then it is called a
server.
 Server are often more powerful, more faster, more memory and
more disk space than client.
Client:
 When the computer access the resources form other, then we
can say that is a client.
 Clients are usually less powerful, less memory, less speed and
less disk space than server.
LAN Card or NIC Card (Network Interface Card):

 NIC card or LAN cards are used for data communication.
 LAN cards are used in Local Area Network.
Modem:
Modem is used to access internet and data communication in WAN.
Types of a network:
There are two types of network.

1. Dedicated server network or client server network.
2. Peer-to-Peer network.
Dedicated server network:

 Normally used in both in LAN and WAN.
 There is a server with many clients.
 Server can provide
o File sharing
o Printer sharing
o Application sharing
o Access to the internet and
o Security.
Peer-to-Peer network:
 Normally used in LAN.
 Also called workgroup.
 No central computer (Server).
 All computers are having equal functionality.
 A single computer will be server when it will serve to other
Computers, and become a client when request for resources to
Other.
Networking Software:
 Software, which provide feature for communication.
 These software’s are also called networking operating system
(NOS).
 Examples are
WIN XP, WIN 2000, LINUX, and UNIX etc.
Workgroup Computing and Groupware:

 A workgroup is a collection of individuals working in a task.
 They can send e-mail to each other's, shared data and schedule
meetings.
 Groupware is software that supports workgroup computing.
NETWORK TOPOLOGIES:
 Cabling layout of a network is called topology.
 Network topologies are following.
o Bus
o Ring
o Star
Bus Topology:
 All computers are connected with a single cable called a bus.

 At the end of bus, terminator is installed that absorbs the
singles.
 Data travels along the cable until it reaches to the required
computer.
 Suitable for small networks.
 If any computer goes down all network will goes down.
 It uses Carrier Sense Multiple Access (CSMA) technology.
Ring Topology:
 Its shape is just like a ring.
 Each computer is connected with its to adjacent computers.
 Data will travel in one direction around the ring.
 If any computer goes down then all network will goes down.
Star Topology:
 All computers are connected with a central device called hub.
 Very popular for small networks.
 More expensive than bus topology.
 Data will send to hub than hub will send it to the required
computer.
 If any computer goes down there is no effect on network.
ISO and OSI Model:

 ISO Developed a standard for data communication called Open
System Interconnection.
 OSI has seven layers.
o Physical Layer
o Data Link Layer
o Network Layer
o Transport Layer
o Session Layer
o Presentation Layer
o Application Layer
Physical Layer:
 This layer deals with system of bits.
 Collect data from upper layer and send it to required computer in
the form of bits.
 RS-232 connector is used for data transmission.
Data Link Layer:

 Responsible for node-to-node delivery of message.
 Control the rate of flow of data.
Network Layer:
 It decides which path of data should send from one node to
other.
 Switches, Routers and NIC Cards (Network interface card)
decides the routing based on network conditions, priority of
service and other factors.
 TCP/IP is very important protocol of this layer.
Transport Layer:
 Responsible for end-to-end delivery of entire message.
 If the link goes down then this layer send data into other link
(Path).
 Arrangement of data in its order.
 Remove errors.
 Control rate of flow of data.
Session Layer:
 Establish a connection between two-application across network.
 Its function is performing
o Security
o Logging
o Administration
Presentation Layer:
 This layer represents data in user understandable form.
 Techniques used are
o Translation
o Encryption
o Compression REVIEWED
ByByuser at Afridi
Azmat 1:05 pm, 1/13/10
13/01/2010
Application Layer:
 This layer serves the user.
 User can control it directly.
 It includes services such as
o E-mail
o File sharing
o File printing and other software
PROTOCOLS:
 Protocols are set of rules that transfer data from one location to
another.
 Network has many protocols.
o TCP/IP
o IEEE 802.X Standard
o IEEE 802.3 and 802.5 Standard
o IEEE 802.6 Standard.
TCP/IP:
 TCP/IP stands for transmission control protocol/Internet
protocols.
 TCP/IP protocol communicates between two similar or
dis-similar computer systems.
 Very popular protocol in large networks.
 It is used in Network layer and transport layer.
 Example are
 192.168.0.10
 10.0.0.15
IEEE 802.X Standard:

 IEEE stands for Institute of Electrical & Electronics Engineers
(IEEE).
 IEEE has developed a set of standard about cabling, Topology

and Access time of network products.
 The general committee working on these standard is called 802.
 This standard is used in lower two layers (Physical & Data Link
Layer).
IEEE 802.3 and 802.5 Standard:

 IEEE 802.3 uses carrier sense Multiple Access (CSMA) on bus
topology.
 IEEE 802.6 standard used in Token Ring Topology.
IEEE 802.6 Standard:

IEEE 802.6 use in Metropolitan Area Network (MAN).
EXERCISE
xv Network
xvi Dedicated Server
xvii Peer-to-Peer
xviii WAN
xix Groupware
xx Topology
xxi Protocols
xxii Network
NETWORK:
Connection of more than one Computers so that they can
Communicate, Exchange Information, and Share Resources.
Uses of Networking:
 Sharing Hardware Resources (Printer, Scanner, CD-ROM etc.)
 Sharing Software Resources (Programs and Data)
 Easy Backup
 Communication and Messaging
Hardware Requirement for a Computer Network:

 Computers
 NIC Card or LAN Cards or Ethernet Card
 Wires (UTP Cat5)
 RJ-45 Connectors
 HUB / Switch
TYPES OF NETWORK:
Following are the types of network

 Local Area Networks (LAN)
 Wide Area Networks (WAN)
 Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)
Local Area Network (LAN):

 LAN normally operates within a compact area such as an Office
Building or a Campus.
 LAN is capable of interconnecting a large number of computers
and other devices within 1 Km.
 A LAN tends to use only one type of transmission medium.
 LANs are usually used for sharing printers, hard disk, hardware
devices, and software applications (etc.).
 Physical medium is used for data transmission.
 Transmission medium used are UTP (Un-Shielded Twisted Pair)
Cable, STP (Shielded Twisted Pair) Cable or Fiber Optic Cable.
 Data transmission Speed is high.
(i.e.) 10/100 mbps
 Installation cost is low.
 Normally owned by a single organization.
 Success Rate of Data Transmission is almost 100%.
 (e.g.) Computer Labs of Institutions, Computer Network in an
Office, etc.
Wide Area Network (WAN):

 WAN interconnects different Sites, User Terminals, and enable
LANs to Communicate with each other.
 They exist in an unlimited geographical area.
 Used to Communicate to Nationwide or Worldwide.
 Transmission medium used are Telephone Lines, microwave and
Satellite links.
 Devices used are HUB, Switches, Routers (etc.)
 Speed of Data Transmission is 1800 to 9600 bits per second.
 Very High Installation cost as Compare to LANs.
 Not owned by a single organization.
 Complex structure than LAN.
 There is more chance of errors due to the distance data travels.
 Success Rate of Data Transmission is less than LAN.
 (e.g.) Internet, Network of all Branches of a Bank.
METROPOLITAN AREA NETWORK (MAN):

 A MAN interconnects different Sites, User Terminals, and enables
LANs to Communicate with each other but within a city.
 It covers region larger than LAN but smaller than WAN.
 MANs normally covers an area of between 5 to 50 Km.
 Like WAN it is not owned by a single organization.
 Installation cost is high than LAN but less than WAN.
 Data transmission speed is high than WAN but less than LAN.
 (e.g.) Network of different branches of a company within city
NETWORKING CONCEPTS:
Server:
 If a computer shares resources for other to use then it is
called a server.
 Server are often more powerful, faster, more memory and
more disk space than client.
Client:
 When the computer access the resources form other, then
we can say that is a client.
 Clients are usually less powerful, less memory, less speed
and less disk space than server.
LAN Card or NIC Card (Network Interface Card):

 NIC card or LAN cards are used for data communication.
 LAN cards are used in Local Area Network.
WAN Card or MoDem:

 Word Modem comes from MOdulation (Digital to Analog)
and DEModulation (Analog to Digital).
 Computer use digital signals, while telephone lines use
analog signals.
 Modem is the medium between telephone lines and
computer, which perform Modulation and Demodulation.
Networking Software:
 Software, which provide feature for communication.
 These software’s are also called network operating system
(NOS).
 Examples are
WIN XP, WIN 2000, LINUX, and UNIX etc.
NETWORK TOPOLOGIES:
 The term topology refers to the way a network is laid out.
OR
 Cabling layout of a Network is called Network Topology.
OR
 Physical layout of a network is called Network Topology.
 Network topologies are

o Bus Topology or Linear Topology
o Star Topology
o Ring or Token Topology
o Mesh Topology
o Tree Topology
Bus Topology:
 All Computers will be attached with a long cable called a Bus or
Trunk or Back bone cable.
 Multi-Point Communication.
 No security of data.
 Not recommended for large or sensitive networks.
 T-Connectors and Terminators are used.
 It uses Carrier Sense Multiple Access (CSMA) technology for
data transmission.
 Advantages are
o Least amount of Cabling of any topology.
o Suitable for small networks
o Adding additional nodes is easy
o If main Cable breaks, then whole Network will goes down.
o If any link goes down, then network will goes down.
o Only one medium for Data Transmission so Transmission
Speed is very slow.
o Terminators are requires at the both ends.
Star Topology:
 Most common use now a day.
 Point-to-Point or Uni-cost Communication.
 Security of data.
 All Computers will be connected to a Central controller, usually
called a HUB or Switch.
 Central device (Switch or HUB) has addresses of all computers
connected to it.
 If one device wants to send the data to another, it sends the data
to the controller, which then relays the data to other connected
devices.
 Advantages are
o Fast Communication Speed as compared to Bus Topology.
o Easy to install and wire.
o If one computer fails, no effect on network.
o Easy to detect and remove faults.
o High installation cost as compared to Bus Topology.
o If central device fails then entire network will goes down.
Ring Topology:
 Its shape is just like a ring.
 Also called Token Ring Topology.
 Connects the nodes (computers) in a circular Chain.
 Point-to-point Communication only with two devices on either side
of it.
 A signal or Token is passed along the ring in the direction (Anti
Clock Wise), from device to device, until it reaches its required
destination.
 Better Performance than Bus Topology but less effective than
Star Topology.
 Not very common used for large networks.
 Advantages are
 Adding additional nodes is easy.
 All computers have equal access on network.
 Difficult to configure
 If Cable breaks, then whole Network will goes down.
 If any link goes down, then network will also goes down.
 Only one medium for Data Transmission so Transmission
Speed is very slow.
DATA COMMUNICATION:
“Transferring or Exchange of information or messages from one
point to other is called data communication”.
BASIC ELEMENTS OF DATA COMMUNICATION:

Three basic elements are
4) Transmitter or Sender:
Who sends data called a Sender.
OR
Transmitting device is called sender.

5) Medium:
Which carries information called a Medium. Such as
cables, air (etc)
6) Receiver:
Which receives the information, called a Receiver.
DATA COMMUNICATION MODES:

There are three modes of data communication
4) Simplex Mode:
Data can send only in one direction/side (from
sender to receiver).
Examples:
Radio, Television (etc)
5) Half-Duplex Mode:
Data can send both directions/sides but only in one
direction/side at a time (from sender to receiver or from
receiver to sender).
Examples:
Wireless set, Computers in a Network (etc)
OR
6) Full-Duplex Mode:
Data can send both directions/sides at a time (from
sender to receiver and from receiver to sender).
Examples:
Telephone Lines (etc)
AND
TYPES OF DATA:
Two types of data
3) Digital Signals:
 Computer use digital signals.
 Data in the form of “0” and “1”.
 Refers to something that is discrete.
 A set of specific points of data with no other points in
between.
 An example of digital data is data stored in the
memory of a computer in the form of 0s and 1s it is
usually converted to digital signal when needed to be
transmitted.
4) Analog Signals:
 Telephone lines use Analog signals.
 Analog refers to something that is continuous.
 A set of specific points of data and all possible points
in between.
 Data in the form of waves.
 An example of analog data is human voice when
somebody speaks a continuous wave is created in the
air.
NETWORK OR TRANSMISSION MEDIAS:

 Data travel from one computer to other through some medium
called transmission media or communication channels or
communication media.
 Medias is classified into two types
 Bounded or Guided (In Bounded or Guided physical
media is used. Such as cable system)
 Unbounded or Unguided (Unbounded or Unguided media
is wireless. Signal is usually transmitted through air)
 Communication media includes
 Standard Telephone Lines
 Coaxial Cables
 Microwave Transmission
 Satellite Communication
 Fiber Optics
Telephone Lines:
 Telephone cable is used to access internet.
 Normally used in WAN and MAN for data transmission.
 It has low cost as compare to other transmission Medias.
 Telephone lines are widely used as communication lines.
 Data travel over these lines in the form of Analog signals.
Coaxial Cables:
 These are made up of copper. A plastic layer provides insulation
between the copper wire and metal shield. Metal shield helps to
block any outside interference.
 Transmission rate is 10 Mega bits per second (Mbps).
 It is less expensive than Fiber Optic.
 Mostly used for long distance transmission.
 Provide high quality data transmission without distortion or loss of
signal.
 It can be classified in two categories
o UTP (Unshielded Twisted Pair Cable)
 It has maximum range of 100 meters (328 feet).
 It consists of 2 or 4 twisted wire pairs.
 Widely used in LANs.
o STP (Shielded Twisted Pair Cable)
 Same as UTP but it is covered with a shield for
resistance.
 It is more reliable and faster than UTP.
 It covers long distance.
 Normally used as a back bone cable.
Microwave Transmission:
 These use air for data transmission.
 Data transmit in the form of waves.
 Very useful for lone distance communication.

 It has high cost.
 It is very difficult to install.
 Data transmission speed is slow as compared to physical or
guided Medias.
 Transmitters are installed on high buildings.
 Two stations must be within sight of one another.
 Difficult to detect and remove errors.
 Normally telecommunication companies use microwave signals
for data transmission.
Satellite Communication:
 Ideal for long distance communication.
 Transmission speed is slow as compared to Coaxial and Fiber
optic cables.
 Satellites are placed about 22,000 miles above the earth.
 This technique has very huge cost.
 Difficult to install.
 Data transmission in the form of waves.
 It covers very large area of the earth.
 There are many earth stations with antennas which
receives/sends signals from satellite.
 Satellites are launched either by rockets or by space shuttles.
 Difficult to detect and remove errors.
Fiber Optics:
 Thin glass or plastic tubes are used for data transmission.
 Data transmit through the speed of light so that’s why it provides
very high data transmission speed.
 Transmission rate is more than a Billion bits per second (Bbps).
 It has very high cost.
 Special devices are used to cut and install the cable.
 Very difficult to install.
 Converters are used at the both ends of the cable, which convert
electrical signals into light and vice versa.
 Normally used for long distance communication.
 Very secure and reliable data transmission.
OSI LAYERS
ISO AND OSI MODEL:
 ISO Developed a standard for data communication called Open
System Interconnection (OSI).
 It’s a model that allows two different systems to
communicate with each other.
 It is not a protocol, it’s a standard.
 Used for understanding and designing network

architecture.
 OSI Model has seven separated but related layers.
o Physical Layer
o Data Link Layer
o Network Layer
o Transport Layer
o Session Layer
o Presentation Layer
o Application Layer
( Please Do Not Trust Sales Person Advice )
( All People Seem To Need Data Processing )
Physical Layer:
 This layer deals with stream of bits.
 Collect data from upper layer and send it to required computer in
the form of bits.
 RS-232 connector is used for data transmission.
 Control Data Flow rate.
 Define Physical Medium.
 Define Transmission mode (Simplex, Half-Duplex or Full-
Duplex).
Data Link Layer:

 Responsible for node-to-node delivery of message.
 Control the rate of flow of data.
 Make Data error free.
 Making Access to the link for data transmission.
Network Layer:
 It decides which path of data should send from one node to
other.
 Switches, Routers and NIC Cards (Network interface card)
decides the routing based on network conditions, priority of
service and other factors.
 TCP/IP is very important protocol of this layer.
Transport Layer:
 Responsible for end-to-end delivery of entire message.
 If the link goes down then this layer send data into other link
(Path).
 Segmentation and Reassembly of data
 Remove errors.
 Control rate of flow of data.
Session Layer:
 Establish, Maintain and Synchronize a connection between two
Communication Systems across the network.
 Its function is performing

o Security
o Logging
o Administration
Presentation Layer:
 This layer represents data in user understandable form.
 Techniques used are
o Translation
o Encryption
o Compression
Application Layer:
 This layer serves the user.
 User can control it directly.
 It includes services such as
o E-mail
o File sharing
o File printing and other software
Hardware Equipment for

LAN
 Computers
 NIC or LAN Cards
 UTP Cat 5 Cable
 Switch / Hub
REVIEWED
By
Byuser atAfridi
Azmat 1:05 13/01/2010
pm, 1/13/10
STRAIGHT CABLE
SIDE A SIDE B
Cable # Colour Cable # Colour
1 White-Orange 1 White-Orange
2 Orange 2 Orange
3 White-Green 3 White-Green
4 Blue 4 Blue
5 White-Blue 5 White-Blue
6 Green 6 Green
7 White-Brown 7 White-Brown
8 Brown 8 Brown
Computer to Switch / Hub = Straight Cable
MCSE (Microsoft Certified System Engineer)
Version:
MCSE 2003
Papers:
1) Windows Xp Professional
2) Windows 2003 Server Enterprise
3) Active Directory Services (ADS) Core
4) Planning Network Infrastructure
5) Implementation Network Infrastructure
6) Designing Active Directory Services + Infrastructure
Or Network Design
Designing Security using Windows 2003
7) SQL Server or ISA Server or Exchange 2003 or SMS
Fee per Paper 50 Dollar = Rs. 3,000/-
Recommended Books:
 Sybex Press
 Microsoft Press
Course Duration:
3 Months
LECTURE 1
Hardware Requirement for a Computer Network:
 Computers
 NIC Card or LAN Cards or Ethernet Card
 Wires (UTP Cat5)
 HUB / Switch
NIC CARD:
 NIC Card having RJ-45 Port.
 Slot is called PCI.
 NIC Card having a chip called NPU (Network Processing Unit).
 NPU is responsible for Sending / Receiving data.
 NPU has further two chips inside.
 RX (Receive data from wires)
 TX (Transmit data to motherboard)
 RJ-45 having 8 pins.
 1, 2 wires for Transmit
 3, 6 wires for Receive
 Remaining 4 wires are for future use.
 1 Gbps or 10 Gbps use all 8 wires for communication.
TYPES OF NIC CARD:
 Ethernet (Common used)
 Token Ring (Old Technology)
 FDDI (Costly)
 ATM (Very Costly)
 Wireless (Less Speed, No Security)
Ethernet:


Ethernet Card (100 Mbps)
Used Ethernet Card having Cost (Rs. 50) REVIEWED
ByByuser at Afridi
Azmat 1:06 pm, 1/13/10
13/01/2010
 Switch Speed is 100 Mbps
 1 Gbps Ethernet Card (Rs. 1200)
 100 Mbps Switch (Rs. 1200-1400)
 Normally used in Computer Labs.
Fiber Optic:
 Fiber Card
 Fiber Cable (Rs. 3000-4000)
 Very Costly Network
 Very Fast Communication
 Processing Speed is very fast
 Media converters are used between Fiber network and other network.
 Normally used in Server Rooms.
ATM (Asynchronous Transmission Mode):

 Basically designed for Audio and Video Conferencing.
 Very Expensive Technology.
 ATM Cards and ATM Switches are used.
 Normally used as ISP back bone, Manager Rooms (etc)
NETWORK OF TWO COMPUTERS:

Method 1 (COM Port to COM Port):
COM Port is also called Serial Port or 9 Pin Male Port
 Null Modem Cable (Cost is Rs. 200)
 Data Transmission Speed is 1 Mbps
 Transmission range is 10-12 feet
 Lap link software can be used for configuration
 We should configure one computer as a Host and other as a Guest
 Data will transmit through one wire out of 9
Method 2 (Parallel Port to Parallel Port):
Parallel Port is also called LPT or Female Port
 Null Modem Parallel Cable
 Data Transmission Speed is 8 Mbps
 Data will transmit through 8 wires at a time
Method 3 (USB Port to USB Port):
 USB to USB Cable
 Data Transmission Speed is 30 MBps
 Software is available on Internet
 Two types of USB Port are
 USB Port 1 = Less Speed
 USB Port 2 = Fast Speed (New P-IV have this Port)
Method 4 (Infrared to Infrared):
 Used in Laptops or Mobiles
 Wireless Communication
 Communication within line of sight
 Built-in Software
 If computer has not Infrared port then Infrared device is used for data
communication
Method 5 (Bluetooth to Bluetooth):
 Latest Technique
 Wireless Communication
 No need of line of sight
 Speed is better than Infrared
Method 6 (Modem to Modem):

 Two Telephone lines

 On Sender / Server side configure Dial-up Setting
 On Receiver / Client side configure Dial-in Setting
Method 7 (NIC Card to NIC Card):
 Cross Cable will use for connectivity between two NIC Cards.
 If computers are more than two then Switch / HUB (Hybrid Universal
Bus) will used as a Central device between computers.
 Straight Cable is used between Switch / HUB and Computer (b/c in
switch / HUB 1&2 Cable is for Receive and 3&6 Cable is for Transmit).
CABLE CONFIGURATIONS:
Configuration of a Cross Cable:
SIDE A SIDE B
Cable # Color Cable # Color
1 White-Orange 1 White-Green
2 Orange 2 Green
3 White-Green 3 White-Orange
4 Blue 4 Blue
6 Green 6 Orange
8 Brown 8 Brown
Cable between two Computers
Cable between two Ports of Switch / HUB
Cable between two Up-Link Ports of Switch / HUB
Configuration of a Straight Cable:
SIDE A SIDE B
Cable # Color Cable # Color
1 White-Orange 1 White-Orange
2 Orange 2 Orange
3 White-Green 3 White-Green
4 Blue 4 Blue
6 Green 6 Green
8 Brown 8 Brown
Cable between Switch / HUB and Computer
Cable between Up-Link to any other Port of Switch / HUB
MDI (Media Dependent Interface):

 Uplink standard is called MDI.
 Uplink port and connected port are basically one port.
 MDI / MDI.x standard is used in modern switches.
 MDI / MDI.x standard use to convert cable combination as per

requirement.
Un-Shielded Twisted Pair Cable (UTP):
 Common types are
o CAT 5 (Width = 27 awg, Twist = 5-7 per inch)
o CAT 5e (Enhanced Version)
o CAT 6 (Width = 24/25 awg, Twist = 7-11 per inch)
 Voltages can drop due to resistance of copper wire.
 If number of twists is more then more security of data.
 Outer cable is called “Ring Cable” and inner cable is called “Tip
Cable”.
 Ring cable protects the tip cable.
 For Tx, Rx wires will use in pair format.
LECTURE 2
Versions of Windows Xp:
1. Home Edition (for home users)
2. Professional Edition (for networking environment)
3. Media Centre Edition
INSTALLATION OF WINDOWS XP:
Hardware Requirement (Microsoft Recommended):
 Processor = P-II
 RAM = 64 MB
 H.D.D = 1.5 GB
Hardware Requirement (Normally Recommended):
 Processor = P-III (800 MHz)
 RAM = 256 MB
 H.D.D = 10 GB
Installation Types:
1. CD-Based Attended Installation (Normal Installation)
2. CD-Based Un-Attended Installation (Installation through answer file)
3. SysPrep (System Preparation)
4. RIS (Remote Installation Services)
BIOS (Basic Input / Output System):
 BIOS are the collection software stored in ROM will run when computer
turns on.
 Normal sizes of BIOS are 256 KB, 512 KB, and 1 MB.
 BIOS having files / software
 Post
 Check all components which are attached to Main Board
 Boot Loader
 Search Operating System from all storage medias (H.D.D, F.D.D, CD-
ROM, USB)
 Copy Operating System from storage media to RAM.
 Setup Utility
 Drivers
 PnP (Plug and Play) Tools
Installation:
 Boot from windows Xp Bootable CD.
 Create Partitions as per requirement (Partition should not exceed than 10 GB)
 Format the Hard Drive (Format is the method of creation sectors and tracks on
Hard Disk).
 Quick Format (Just Check File System)
 Normal Format (Check all sectors and tracks of Hard Disk)
 Three default folders of windows Xp are
 Windows (having windows files)
 Program Files (having all third party software)
 Documents and Settings (having documents)
 Three default files will copy to hard disk are called system files
 NTDLR
 Boot.ini
 NTDetect.com
 The boot file is
 NTosKrnl.exe
FILE SYSTEMS:
 File System is just like Index which contains names, location and other
information related to files and folders.
 File systems are
 FAT16 (DOS)
 FAT32 (Windows 98 having Add, Remove features)
 NTFS (WinNT, 2000, Xp having Encryption Techniques)
File System
Portion
Data
Hard Disk
Master Boot Record (MBR):
 Master Boot Record or Zero Sector is not a part of C Drive.
 MBR having 512bytes in size.
Recommendation:
Hard Disk should be formatted after 3 or 4 months for better performance.
CD-Based Un-Attended Installation:

Answer File:
 SetupMgr is the software which is used to create answer files.
Windows Xp CD→ Support→ Tools→ Deploy.cab

Extract “Deploy.cab” file you will see a file “SetupMgr.exe”.

Click “Next” then click on “Create a new answer file”.

Click “Un-attended Installation” then click “Windows Xp Professional”.

Click “Fully Automated” then click on “Setup from CD”.

Click “Accept License”.

Give answers according to given questions.

After creation of answer file you can save into floppy (winNT.sif) or CD
(unattend.txt).
 Insert bootable CD and floppy (having answer file) and start installation.
Service Pack:
 Service Packs are collection of software used to repair / remove errors /
bugs from windows operating system.
 Three Service Packs of windows Xp are
 Service Pack 1
 Service Pack 2
 Service Pack 3 (In Progress)
Pagefile.sys or Virtual Memory or Swap File:
 When capacity of RAM will full of active programs then there is area on
Hard Disk which will act as RAM (use for storage of programs).
 Page file contains information about RAM.
 Page file should not be on drive which have operating system.
My Computer→ Advanced → Settings → Advanced → Change
Bootable CD:
When we copied bootable CD to any location then only data portion is copied.
If we want to copy Data Portion as well as Boot area then through Nero
burning ROM we will create image on bootable CD and copy this image to
other CD.
Bootable CD = Boot Area + Data Portion
Boot Area
Data
Portion
Administrator:
The person who installs windows or any other software is called
“Administrator”. Administrator can be a “Network Administrator” or
“Hardware Engineer”
LECTURE 3
DISK DUPLICATOR:
 Disk Duplicator is a device used to copy data of Master drive to Slave
drives.
 Hardware should be same for all computers.
 We can attach many slave drives with disk duplicator.
 Functions of Disk Duplicator are
 Create Partitions
 Format Drives
 Copy data of Master drive to Slave drives
 Price of Disk duplicator is almost 1 or 3/2 lac.
 Disk duplicator is very expensive technique so alternate solution is
Norton Ghost or Win Image
Norton Ghost:
 Norton Ghost is used to Copy data from master drive to slave drive.
 Main features of Norton Ghost are
 Disk-to-Disk
 Partition-to-Partition
 Partition-to-Image
 Partition-from-Image ByByuser at Afridi
1:06 pm, 1/13/10
REVIEWED
Azmat 13/01/2010
 Two methods of cloning / copying data are
 Windows Based
 DOS Based
Windows Based:
 Install Norton Ghost on windows environment.
 Attach another Hard disk and make it slave.
 Norton will copy all sectors of master drive with data to slave. This
method is called Cloning or Image.
DOS Based:
 Insert Bootable CD of Norton Ghost
 Run Norton Ghost
 Copy data from master drive to slave drive
SysPrep (System Preparation) Installation:

 By using Norton Ghost all computers will have same Name, IP address,
Domain so there is a problem in networking environment.
 SysPrep is provided solution of above problem.
 “SysPrep” is available in “setupmgr.cab” file.
 “SysPrep” will remove System Name, IP address, CD-Key, CID
(System Identifier).
 “SysPrep” file will use on master system.
 Run “SysPrep” file and select “mini setup mode” then click on “OK”
button.
 Window will shut down and start in mini setup mode and write answers
of questions.
 Mini setup mode can remove through making answer file.
SysPrep.inf
Copy this file into C:\SysPrep
USER ACCOUNTS:
 SAM (Security Account Manager) is the database which contains
information about user accounts.
 Only Administrator can create user accounts.
 User name and Password will be checked in SAM database.
 Two types of profiles are
 Local Profile or Default Profile
 Roaming Profile
Local Profile or Default Profile:

 After verification computer will load User profile or Local profile or
Default profile (Desktop Settings, My Documents, Color Schemes) from
C:\ Documents and Settings
 If user profile is not available in C:\ Documents and Settings then
default profile will load from
C:\ Documents and Settings \ All User \ Default
 Right Click on My Computer→ Manage→ Local User and Groups
or
Run→ lusrmgr.msc→ Local User and Groups
 Check option “Password never expire”, otherwise password will expire
in 42 days by default.
 Logoff the computer and then Login. Press “Ctrl + Alt + Del” (2 Times)
at Login screen for simple login screen.
 Local profile technique is normally used in “Stand Alone Computers”.
Roaming Profile:
 This technique is normally used in “Networking Environment”.
 All user accounts are on server.
 Windows will load profile other than C:\ Documents and Settings (from
any other location).
Example:
 Create a folder on D:\Profile
 Create a user named “Test”.
 Go to My Computer → Properties → Advanced → User
Accounts → User Profiles
 Copy to Test profile to D:\Profile
 Check option “For everyone”
 Go to Local User and Groups → User 1 → Properties
Profile Path : D: \ Profile
 We should change security policy
 Run → gpedit.msc →Administrative Templates → System →
User Profiles → Double Click on “Don’t Check for User

Ownership….” → Enable
 Run → gpupdate
 Logoff the computer and Login as User 1. Computer will load
test profile from D:\Profile for user 1.
Conversion of FAT or FAT32 File System to NTFS:

 Run → cmd (Command Prompt)
 Command is as follow
C:\> Convert e: /fs:ntfs
Classification of Processor according to functionality:
PROCESSOR
Celeron Normal Xeon

(Server Based)
LECTURE 4
APPLYING SECURITY ON FOLDERS:
 Open Folder Options.
 Go to View Tag and uncheck “Use Simple File sharing”. Then
 Go to Folder Properties → Security → Remove all Users → Click on
Add → Advanced → Find Now → Add users as per requirement
 Apply Permissions to users as your requirement.
 Security window has two parts.
 ACL (Access Control List)
 Having user names
 ACE (Access Control Entry)
 Having user rights
 Administrator can view Secret data of any user by getting “Ownership”
rights.
 Only Administrator has right at disk level.
 Single head symbol represents “User” and Double head symbol
represents “Group”.
DISK QUOTA:
 Quota is the space allocated by Administrator to users.
 Quota has two types
1) Default Quota
2) User Base Quota
Default Quota:
 Equal spaced is allocated by administrator to all users.
 E: Drive → Properties → Quota
 Enable Quota Management
 Deny Disk Space
 Limit Space → 300 MB , Set Warning → 200 MB
User Base Quota:
 Different space is allocated by administrator to all users.
 E: Drive → Properties → Quota → Quota Entries → Go to User
Properties → Limit Space → 300 MB , Set Warning → 200 MB
MICROSOFT MANAGEMENT CONSOLE:

 It is software which makes Console (Container or Bags).
 It has windows management tools also called “Snap-ins”.
 All Snap-ins are stored in C:\Windows\System 32
 Snap-ins has extension .msc.
 Run → MMC → File → Add / Remove Snap-ins → Add → Local User
and Groups
 Save “Snap-Ins” on desktop.
HARD DISK PARTITION:

 Logical division of Hard disk is called “Partition”.
 Two standards of Partition are
1. Basic Disk Standard
2. Dynamic Disk Standard
Basic Disk Standard:
 This includes FDisk, Disk Manager, Partition Magic, and other such
kind of tools.
 Supports all operating systems (Dos Based, Windows Based)
 One Disk should be “Primary”, then “Extended” and “Logical Drives”
are in Extended.
 Maximum 4 primary partitions can be created in this standard but
normally we create 1 Primary and Remaining space is allocated for
extended which is use for making Logical drives.
Dynamic Disk Standard:
 Introduced in 1990s.
 Partition is Un-limited.
 Partition is called “Volume” in this standard.
 We can also create one partition of two disks.
 Supports Windows 2000, Xp and 2003 Server.
 “Disk Management” (Product of “Veritas Corporation”) tool is used for

volume.
 Dynamic disk can’t be read in win98.
 Partition Magic can’t apply on Dynamic Disk.
 This standard is not used practically because this is software based and
if operating system fails then we can’t access volumes.
 Types of partitions are
1. Simple Volume
2. Spanned Volume
3. Stripe Volume
4. Mirror Volume
5. RAID5 Volume
Simple Volume:
Same as “Basic Disk Standard” but we can create volume as per requirement.
Spanned Volume:
 We can create one volume of more than one hard disks.
 Data will Read/Write through 1st drive, then 2nd drive, then 3rd drive and
so on.
 Normally used in “Exchange Server”.
 (e.g.) 600 GB + 600 GB + 300 GB = 1500 GB
1500
GB
Stripe Volume:
 Enhanced form of “Spanned Volume”.
 In this method data will Read / Write simultaneously from all disks.
 If one drive fails then all data will be lost.
Mirror Volume:
 If we create one volume through 100 GB + 100 GB then capacity shows
100 GB in this method instead of 200 GB.
 2nd drive will save all data of first drive automatically (Mirror copy of
first drive).
 In this method both Hard disks should be same Company, same RPM,
same Cache and same Size is recommended.
 Used for taking backup normally.
 We can use only 2 drives.
 If both drives fail then data can’t be recovered.
RAID5 Volume:
 If we create one volume through 100 GB + 100 GB + 100 GB then
capacity shows 200 GB instead of 300 GB.
 If one drive fails then data can be recovered form other drives.
 If two drives fail then data can’t be recovered.
 If data is “ABCDEF” then storage will be as
A B P
C P D
P E F
Disk 1 Disk 2 Disk 3

Where “P” is the “Parity Bit”.
LECTURE 5
TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol / Internet Protocol):
IP ADDRESSING:
 NIC cards having unique addressing.
 Address is in the form of Hexa-Decimal.
 (e.g.) A1.B2.00.C1.D2.01
Manufacturing Number of NIC Cards

Company Name designed by company
 IP address is in Network layer.

 IP address is of 32 bits.
Classes of IP address:
 Sub-net mask specifies the direction of data (i.e.) where data is to be
sent.
 Router sends data by checking sub-net mask.
 IP addresses having different classes are called IPV 4 (IP version 4).
IP Range IP Range
Class Network Host
Sub-net Mask Range Sub-net Mask Range
Name Bits Bits
Starting Ending
1.0.0.0 126.255.255.255
Class A 8 24
255.0.0.0 255.0.0.0
128.0.0.0 191.255.255.255
Class B 16 16
255.255.0.0 255.255.0.0
192.0.0.0 223.255.255.255
Class C 24 8
255.255.255.0 255.255.255.0
Class D - - 240.0.0.0 255.255.255.255
Class E - - - -
 127.0.0.0 To 127.255.255.255 is used for device checking called

“Loopback” address.
 Class D is used for multitasking (not for normal communication).
 240.0.0.0 To 255.255.255.255 are used by NASA for Research work.
Private IP:
Private IP can’t run on Internet because Router can’t understand private IP.
IP Range IP Range
Class Name
Starting Ending
10.255.255.255
Class A 10.0.0.0
Class B 172.16.0.0 172.31.255.255
192.168.0.0 192.168.255.255
Class C
Public IP:
Public IP are those who can run on Internet
Services and Ports:
SERVICE NAME PORT #

WWW 80
DNS 53
SMTP 25
Telnet 23
POP3 110
SSL 423
Setting for Data Communication:

 NIC Card + Drivers
 Protocols (TCP/IP, IPx/SPx, Apple Talk, NetBeui)
 Client Software
 File and Print Sharing
 IP Address
PROTOCOLS:
 Protocols are set of rules that make communication possible.
 Some common protocols are
 IPx / SPx
 Apple Talk
 NetBeui
 TCP / IP
IPx / SPx:
 Novell made this protocol.
 Not used now a day.
Apple Talk:
This is also not used now a day.
NetBeui:
 In this method without IP address communication is possible.
 Not used now a day.
TCP/IP:
 It is the default protocol of Win Xp.
 Very popular and common used now a day.
 TCP/IP is used for Internet Connectivity.
Setting of NIC Card Properties:
 If all machines are Microsoft then check the option
 Microsoft Network
 If computers having different operating systems then click on Install
button and check the option
 Client Services for Netware
 For File and Printer sharing check option
 File & Printer Sharing
 Some Ethernet Cards having Speed 10 Mbps and some having 100
Mbps (Fast Ethernet Card) then
Configure → Advanced → Media Type → Auto Select
This will maintain Send / Receive speed of all computers.
IP Assignment:
IP Assignment
Static Dynamic
or or
Manual Automatic (DHCP)
DHCP APIPA
(Any IP Range) (169.254.X.X)
Types of IP Addresses:
 Without IP address communication is not possible.
 Types of IP address are
 Manual or Static
 Automatic or Dynamic (DHCP, APIPA)
Static or Manual IP:
NIC Card → Properties → TCP/IP → Properties → Write IP
Dynamic or Automatic IP:
 Set option “Obtained IP Automatically”.
 Computer will get IP from DHCP (Dynamic Host Configuration
Protocol) Server.
 If there is conflict of IP then a new IP will be assigned to computer by
DHCP Server.
APIPA:
 IF “Obtained IP Automatically” option is checked and DHCP server is
not present then computer will assign IP itself which can be
169. 254. X. X
 This method in not suitable for large networks.
DHCP Server:
 DHCP having list of IP’s.
 DHCP is a Server who will assign dynamically IP to computers.
 DHCP Server can be a Router, Computer or any other Hardware.
 Normally there is one DHCP server in a network.
Packets:
 Data will transmit over network in the form of “Packets”.
 Maximum size of packet on Ethernet is 1500 Bytes.
 Maximum size is called M.T.U (Maximum Transmission Unit).
Lost of Packets:
 If distance between computers to switch is more than 100 meter
then packets will drop.
 Bad Cable causes lost of packets.
 Huge traffic over network.
 If cable is not properly made (Cable Pair Combination).
Computer Name:
Computer name can be checked through
My Computer → Properties → Computer name
or
Run → cmd → hostname
Services:
 It is the software which will run backhand automatically and perform
some useful functions.
 Services can be Start and Stop according to our requirement.
Control Panel → Administrative Tools → Services
Sharing of Data:
 Right Click on folder → Sharing and Security → Sharing
 Max number of user → 10

 Window Xp supports maximum 10 users
Accessing Share Folders:
 If we want to see all share folders then write command as
Run → \\ 192.168.0.4
or
Run → \\ Computer Name
Where \\ = Network
And 192.168.0.4 = UNC (Universal Naming Convention)
 If we want to see a specific folder then writes command as

Run → \\ 192.168.0.4 \ Data
or
Run → \\ Computer Name \ Share Folder
Ping Command:
 Ping is software which is built-in in Windows, Linux operating System.
C:\ Windows \ System32 \ Ping.exe
 If we remove “Ping.exe” then computer will not Ping.
 Ping command is used for checking connectivity on network.
Run → Ping 192.168.0.4
 Ping command will send 4 Packets each of 32 Bytes to target machine.
 If source machine get message “Replying from 192.168.0.4” then target
machine is connected but if message is “Request time out” then target
machine is not connected.
 Structure of Packet is as fallow
Source Destination
Address Data Address
 We can check own machine NIC Card as

Ping 192.168.0.1 (Own IP)
or
Ping 127.0.0.1 (Loop back address or Local host address)
or
Ping Localhost
or
Ping Loopback
 We can check own machine IP as

Run → cmd → IPconfig /all
or
NIC Card → Properties → Support
 If firewall in on / Activate on remote computer than remote computer

will not reply through “Ping” command.
 If our computer having IP “192.168.0.1:” and we are pinging IP
“10.0.0.1” the IP of other class then message will come “Destination
Host Unreachable”.
 Router is the machine which will connect computers having different IP

addresses (IPs of different classes).
Router Network
Network
Device
Default Gateway:
Normally IP (address of same class of network) of Router is used as a
Default Gateway through which different networks having different IP classes
communicates with each other.
Pinging through Name (Name Resolver):

 “Name Resolver” is the software which is used to convert computer /
machine name into its IP address because Source and Destination
addresses are in the form of IP address.
 If ping through name
Ping PC4
Then operating system will sends “PC4 (computer name)” to “Name
Resolver” which will convert “PC4” to its IP address.
ICS (INTERNET CONNECTION SERVER):

 NIC Card → Properties → Advanced
 Allow other network users to connect through Internet
Connection
 IP address of Proxy should be 192.168.0.1.
Services of Proxy:
1. Proxy will be “Default Gateway” for other computers connected to it.
2. Serve as a DHCP (Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol) Server.
3. Server as a DNS (Domain Name Source) Server.
4. NAT Services (Network Address Translation).
Internet
Proxy (Public IP)
PC1 PC2 PC3 PC4
(Private IP)
 We can check “Gateway”, “DHCP”, “DNS”, and “Subnet Mask”

through
NIC → Properties → Support
 DNS is used to resolve names on Internet.
 “Default Gateway” & “DNS” are not required for internal Proxy Server.
DSL Routers:
 Now a day “DSL Routers” are used as a Proxy server.
 Normally 4 port “DSL Router” is used as a Proxy Server.
 Router always checks “Destination Address or Target Address” for data
transmission.
Internet
DSL Router
PC1 PC2 PC3 PC4
Tips:
www.whatismyip.com (Shows the source IP address)
LECTURE 6
NETWORK NAMES:
Network Names
Net Bios FQDN
Net Bios:
 Used in LAN.
 Net Bios is of 13 Characters and Host name is of 65 Characters.
Examples:
PC1, PC2, Computer 100 (etc.)
 “Name Resolver” converts “Host name or Net Bios or Computer Name”
into IP address by performing following steps.
1. Check Local name or own name (if not found then next step
will be checked)
2. Check “LMHosts.sam” File (List of important computer
names and their IP address).
C:\ Windows \ System32 \ drivers \ etc \ LMHosts.sam
(If not found then next step will be checked)
3. RAM table (Net Bios Remote Name Cache table) will be
checked. We can view this table by following command
Run → cmd → nbtstat –c
Life time of “IP address” in cache table is 600 seconds. If we
want to make empty Cache table then following command
will be followed
Run → cmd → nbtstat -r
4. Wins Server will be checked.
TCP/IP → Properties → Advanced → Wins
5. Broad cost on Network (192.168.0.255 is used for broad cost).
(192.168.0.9) COMPUTER NAME (192.168.0.255)
FQDN’s:
 FQDN stands for “Fully Qualified Domain Name”
 Give information about System and Network.
 Normally used in WAN.
Examples:
www.yahoo.com
mail.gmail.com
Where www = Computer name, yahoo.com = Network name
Pc1.corvit.com
Where Pc1 = Computer name or Net Bios
Corvit.com = Domain Name

 “Name Resolver” converts “FQDN” into IP address by performing
following steps.
1. Check Local name. (if not found then next step)
2. Check “Hosts” file. (if not found then next step)
C:\ windows \ system32 \ drivers \ etc \ hosts
3. FQDN table will be checked. (if not found then next step)
Run → cmd → ipconfig / displaydns (View FQDN table)
Run → cmd → ipconfig / flushdns (empty FQDN table)
4. DNS will be checked. (If not found then next step)
TCP/IP → Properties → DNS
DNS is normally ISP Server.
Net Bios Vs FQDN:
Net Bios FQDN

LAN WAN
LMHosts Hosts
NbtStat –c IPConfig / Displaydns
NbtStat –r IPConfig / Flushdns
Wins DNS
Symbol of Connectivity:
Our Pc Network
If yellow sign is appear on above symbol then NIC having IP through APIPA.
Net View:
“Net View” Command is used for checking, “How many systems /
computers are connected with network”?
Run → cmd → Net View
LECTURE 7
FILE SHARING AND SECURITY:
How to Share a Folder:
 Right click on required folder → Sharing and Security → Share this

folder → Share name → ok
 Shared data can be accessed through
 UNC (Universal Naming Convention) Path
 Network Neighborhood
 Map Network Drive
 Most common way of accessing shared data is
Run → \\172.16.0.100
Permission / Security on Folder:
 We can assign permission to different users.
 Permissions can be
 Full Control
 Change
 Read Only
 Max 10 users can access shared data at a time in windows Xp.
 In standalone computer “NTFS” will check user permission.
 In Networking Environment “Network Permission” will be checked then
“Local Permission” will be checked.
 “Network Permission” is “Read-Only” By Default.
USEFUL TOOLS OF WINDOWS XP:

“FASTWIZ” Tool:
 This tool is used in GUI environment.
 Built-in tool of win Xp.
 This tool is used for coping Data and Configuration into
 USB
 Other Partition (D: or E :)
 Network Computer
 Normally used when format old system and install new system then first
copy data from old computer then paste on new computer.
 System Tools → File and Setting Transfer Wizard
 For Win 98, Win 2000
Xp CD → Support → Tools → FASTWIZ
“USMT” (User State Migration Tool):
 Its function is same like “FASTWIZ”.
 DOS based program.
 Not used now a day. REVIEWED
ByByuser at 1:06
13/01/2010
Firewall Tool:
 Service Pack 2 has three main features
 Windows Firewall
 Wireless Networking
 Pop-Up Blocker Internet
 Firewall is used to block un-wanted Incoming (Inbound) and Outgoing
(Outbound) traffic of a computer.
 Control Panel → Firewall → General → ON → Ok

Sniffers Software:
 It is use to view detail of Inbound and Outbound packets.
 Software’s are
 Ethereal
 Observers
 IRIS
SYSTEM PROPERTIES:
Advanced → Performance → Settings:
 Different Setting can be set according to our requirement
o Let’s windows choose what’s best for my computer
o Adjust for best appearance
o Adjust for best performance
o Custom
Hardware → Device Manager:
Shows the list of all hardware connected with computer.
Hardware → Driver Signing:
 Microsoft checks drivers of products and grant license to driver creator
companies.
 If some firm doesn’t take license and when we want to install driver of
that firm then there is a “Driver Signing” problem.
Hardware → Hardware Profiles:
 Basically designed for Laptop Computers.
 We can load Drivers or Services according to our requirement.
 We can view profiles when Boot / Restart computer.
Automatic Updates:
 “Vits” service is responsible for automatic updating computer programs
from Internet.
 This process slows down the Internet processing speed so it is
recommended that automatic updates should be tern off.
Remote → Remote Assistance:
 Used to help other user remotely.
 Both computers should have windows Xp operating system.
 Can be used both on LAN and WAN.
 “Remote Assistance Invitation” must be sent for assistant.
 Check the option
 Allow Remote Assistance invitations to be sent from this computer
 Then click on
Start Button → Help and Support → Invite a Friend → Invite
Someone to Help You → Advanced → Name, Expiry Time →
Password → Save → Send File (E-mail Attachment, USB, Network)
 Invitation will have information about
 IP Address
 Username
 Password
Remote → Remote Desktop:

 Use to connect with Remote computer’s desktop.
 Check option
 Allow users to Connect Remotely to this computer
 The click on
Start Button → Programs → Accessories → Communications →
Remote Desktop Connection → Computer → Connect
Client Operating System:
Client operating system is for users.
Server Operating System:
Server operating system provides services for Users / Clients.
Windows Xp Vs Windows 2003 Server:
S# WINDOWS XP PROFESSIONAL WINDOWS 2003 SERVER

1 Client o/s (Desktop Applications) Server o/s (Background Services)
2 Graphical VGA (2D, 3D) Not Good Graphical (2D)
3 Audio Not Good for Audio
4 Built-in CD Burning s/w No Software
5 Introduce in 2002 Introduce in 2003
6 Not Very Stable Very Stable
Conversion of “Windows 2003 Server” to “Windows Xp”:

If we want to use “Server 2003” just like “Windows Xp” then following
changes should be made in Server 2003 environment
 Administrative Tools → Services → Themes → Automatic → Start,
then Desktop → Properties → Themes → Windows Xp
 Display → Advanced → Hardware Acceleration → Full
 Run → DxDiag → Display
 Direct Draw Acceleration → Enable
 Direct3D Acceleration → Enable
 AGP Texture Acceleration → Enable
(Direct X Drivers are used for better result of drivers VGA, Sound Card)
 Administrator Tools → Services → Windows Audio → Enable →
Automatic → Start → Ok
 Administrative Tools → Services → IMAPI CD Burning → Enable →
Automatic → Start → Ok
 System Properties → Advanced → Performance → Settings →
Advanced → Application Programs
Short Questions
Information Technology:
Information Technology is both Hardware and Software, and often including
Networking and Telecommunications, usually in the context of a business or
other enterprise.
Peripheral Devices:
 Peripheral Devices are used as hardware components for different
operations of data.
o Input (Keyboard, Mouse, Scanner etc)
o Output (Monitors, Printers, Speakers etc)
o Storage (Disk, Tape Drive)
Commonly used Operating Systems:

 MS-DOS
 MS-WINDOWS (3.1,3.11,95,97,98,Me,2000,Xp)
 MS-WINDOWS NT
 UNIX
 LINUX
 OS/2
 MAC (used for Apple computers)
Device Drivers:
Device drivers make it possible for specific hardware devices to function with
the software on your computer system.
Clock:
 Each CPU has its own internal clock.
 It generates pulses on a fixed rate to synchronize all computer
operations.
CPU:
 It Stands for “Central Processing Unit”.
 CPU is the brain of a computer.
 CPU is responsible for all Processing.
 It has two parts
 Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU)
 Control Unit (CU)
ALU:
 It stands for “Arithmetic and Logic Unit”.
 It is the part of Processor where actual processing takes place.
 It can perform Addition, Subtraction, Multiplication, Division, Square
Roots (etc) and logic operations such as AND, OR (etc) on binary
numbers.
CU:
 It stands for “Control Unit”.
 It is also an important part of Processor.
 It tells the computer that, “What specific sequence of operations it must
perform”.
 It also specifies timing of the instructions.

 Its function is to Fetch, Decode and Execute instructions that are
stored in memory.
 It controls
 Memory Devices
 Arithmetic Logic Unit
 All Input/Output Devices
Buses:
 Buses are wires, which used to carry data from one location to other
inside the processor.
 Three main buses are
 Data Bus
 Address Bus
 Control Bus
Registers:
 High-speed memory inside the CPU.
 Very small in size.
 Temporary storage for memory Addresses and Instructions during the
execution of the program.
 Read and execute the instructions.
 Processing speed depends upon the size of register.
 Some common registers are
 Instruction Register (IR)
 Stack Register (SR)
 Memory Address Register (MAR)
 Program Counter (PC)
 Memory Buffer Register (MBR)
Ports:
 Ports are combination of wires through which data travels.
 Two types of ports are
 Parallel Port
 Serial Port
Computer Administrator:
The person who installs windows or any other software is called
“Administrator”. Administrator can be a “Network Administrator” or “Hardware
Engineer”
“Database” and “Database Management System”:

 A collection of information organized in such a way that a computer
program can quickly select required data is called “Database”.
 DBMS is a program that enables users to Store, Modify, and Retrieve
information from a database.
Database Administrator:
The person who will maintain database is called Database Administrator.
Difference between “Data” and “Information”:

 Data is raw or unprocessed facts. Any form of a material is provided by
a user via input devices to a computer is called data.
 When data is converted into meaningful form then it becomes
Information.
Binary Numbers:
 In binary numbers we have only two digits “0” and “1”.
 Computer language is called machine language or binary language.
 Base of binary number system is 2.
Bandwidth:
Number of bits sent over a particular path is called Bandwidth.
Packet:
Chunks or Small parts of information sent over computer network is called
data packet.
Real Time:
 Time critical tasks are refers as Real Time.
 Real time is the highest priority.
Switch:
 Normally used in LANs.
 It is uni-cost device.
 Used to receive data from computers and send it into specific
computer.
HUB:
 Functions are same like Switch but it is multi-cost device.
 Also used in LANs.
 Slow speed than Switch.
Repeater:
 This device is used to boost up weak signals.
 Normally used in LANs.
Routers:
 Routers are used to specify routes to data packets.
 Normally used in WANs.
 It is uni-cost device.
Virtual Memory:
 An area of hard disk that the computer uses for RAM.
 Has slow speed than RAM.
 The created file is called Swap file and technique is called swapping.
Booting:
 When user “Turn on” computer, it perform a series of steps then it will
be ready for working this process is called “Booting”.
 Actually during booting computer will check all I/O devices and
hardware attached with computer.
 Boot Process is located in a chip called “BIOS( Basic Input and Output
System)”.
My Computer:
It represents the different secondary storage devices of your computer.
My Documents:
It is the default location of saved files.
Recycle Bin:
 When we will Delete Some File, it goes into Recycle Bin.
 We can Restore Files from Recycle Bin.
 After Deletion of Files from Recycle Bin, we can’t restore these Files.
My Network Places or Network Neighborhood:

If your computer in on network, It displays the accessible hardware and
software resources on the network.
Start Button:
It provides an entry point to begin using programs installed on the computer’s
hard drive.
Wallpaper:
It is a graphic file that forms the background of the desktop.
Screen Saver:
 If computer is idle for long time it may lose monitor’s resolution.
 To prevent monitors resolution we use screen saver.
REVIEWED
Name of some Built-In User Accounts:
 Administrators
 Backup Operators ByByuser at Afridi
Azmat 1:06 pm, 1/13/10
13/01/2010
 Guests
 Power Users
Dialog Box:
 It is Special types of windows use to communicate with software you
are running.
 Dialog boxes cannot be resized.
Icons or Shortcuts:
 Icons are placed on the desktop to provide easy access to program
and files.
 Icons provide a quick way to start a program.
Buffer:
A temporary location to store information while the processor is busy.
Clipboard:
Clipboard is the temporary location to store data. When we use “CUT” or

“COPY” command, the selected text store on clipboard area.
Internet and Intranet:

 Network of networks is called internet. It covers all across the world.
 Private internet or mini internet is called Intranet. It covers less area
than Internet.
IP Address:
 IP stands for “Internet Protocol”.
 Every computer on network has an IP address.
 Without IP address its impossible to communicate with other devices
on network.
 Example
192.168.0.15
VGA Card:
 It stands for “Video Graphic Adaptor”.
 It is responsible to build image on monitor’s screen.
File:
File Extensions:
o .Doc
o .Xls
o .Bmp
o .Gif
o .Ppt (etc)
Folder:
 Folder is a collection of Files.
UNIX:
 Very powerful command line operating system.
 Developed in 1969 at Bell laboratories.
 Ideal for those computers which store information carried over the
Internet (Network Server or Web Server).
 Its advanced form is Linux.
Linux:
 It is advanced form of UNIX.
 It has all functions of UNIX and some own extra features.
 It is an open source operating system.

 Normally used on Network Server.
Byte:
Combination of 8 bits is called a Byte.
Nibble:
Half Byte (4 bits) is called Nibble.
Bit:
 Each “0” or “1” in the binary system is called a bit (Binary Digit).
 “0” means “OFF” and “1” means “ON”.
Firmware:
 Firmware is a combination of hardware and software.
 Examples are ROM, EPROM
Freeware:
 This is copyright software given away for free by the author.
 Freeware are copyright software so you cannot make changes in it.
Shareware:
 Most Shareware are delivered free of charge or having a small fee.
 If you want to use regular you will have to pay a small registration fee.
Steps of Computer Programming:

Techniques to write a program or develop a program has following steps
1. Defining the Problem
2. Planning the Solution
3. Coding the Program
4. Testing the Program
5. Documentation the Program
6. Upgrading the Program
Protocol:
 Protocols are set of rules that transfer data from one location to another.
 Network has many protocols.
o TCP/IP
o IEEE 802.X Standard
o HTTP
o FTP
o SMTP
Virus:
 Virus is a small hidden program on a floppy disk or a hard disk.
 Virus can spread from computer to computer through infected floppy
disk or over a computer network.
 Virus can damages
 Computer Programs
 Files
 Hardware
Anti-Virus Software:
 It is the software, which uses to check computer for virus.
 Most common are
 Mcafee
 Norton Anti-virus
 Dr. Solomon’s Anti-virus
 Thunderbyte
Password:
 It is a secret code used to protect system.
 Password can apply on
 Files
 Folders
 Database
 Computer
 Web Sites (etc.)
Multitasking:
 Working on more than one Program at a time is called multitasking.
 (e.g.) working on Excel, Listening Music, Doing Chatting
Synchronous Transmission:
 Data transmission is in the form of blocks between two devices.
 Sender and Receiver clocks are synchronized.
Asynchronous Transmission:
 Data transmission is in the form of characters between two devices.
 Receiver use start and stop signal for data transmission.
ASCII:
 It stands for “American Standard Code for Information Interchange”.
 It is a 7-digit code in Binary form.
 Used to represent Alphabets, Symbols and Numbers.
(e.g.) 64 = 1000000
Units of Memory:
Unit of memory is byte. The larger units are Kilo Byte (KB), Mega Byte
(MB), Giga Byte (GB) and Tera Byte (TB).
1 Byte = 8 bits
1 Kilo Bytes = 1024 Bytes
1 Mega Bytes = 1024 Kilo Bytes
1 Giga Bytes = 1024 Mega Bytes
1 Tera Bytes = 1024 Giga Bytes
Memory Address:
 A location of words in memory is called address.
 Each word has unique address.
 Memory addresses are specified in binary numbers.
Read Operation:
Read operation is used to fetch data from memory.
Write Operation:
Write operation is used to store data in memory.
Access Time:
It is the amount of time required to perform Read operation.
Cycle Time:
It is the amount of time required to perform Read or Write operation
and then return to its original state ready for next operation.
E-Commerce:
 Online Business is called E-Commerce.
 It provide facilities for sale of
 Goods
 Services such as Banking, Ticket Reservation, Stock Exchange
Service Pack:
 Service Packs are collection of software used to repair / remove errors
/ bugs from windows operating system.
Firewall Tool:
 Firewall is used to block un-wanted Incoming (Inbound) and Outgoing
(Outbound) traffic of a computer.
REVIEWED
ByByuser at 1:07
13/01/2010
Some useful Abbreviations

Written by Azmat Afridi SAMS
07/12/2007
RAM Random Access Memory
ROM Read Only Memory
CPU Central Processing Unit
OS Operating System
PC Personal Computer
NIC Network Interface Card
OCR Optical Character Recognition
CRT Cathode Ray Tube
SCSI Small Computer System Interface
MIDI Musical Instrument Digital Interface
AMD Advanced Micro Devices
H.D.D Hard Disk Drive
F.D.D Floppy Disk Drive
CD-ROM Compact Disk-Read Only Memory
DVD-ROM Digital Video Disk-Read Only Memory
CD-R Compact Disk-Readable
CD-RW Compact Disk-Rewritable
DOS Disk Operating System
NT New Technology
DBMS Database Management System
LAN Local Area Network
WAN Wide Area Network
MIS Management Information System
PDA Personal Digital Assistant
SDLC System Development Life Cycle
WWW World Wide Web
HTML Hyper Text Markup Language
URL Uniform Resource Locator
FTP File Transfer Protocol
HTTP Hyper Text Transfer Protocol
B-2-B Business 2 Business
IT Information Technology
LCD Liquid Crystal Display
IBM International Business Machines
MS Microsoft
DPI Dot Per Inch
MB Mega Bytes
Mb Mega Bits
GB Giga Bytes
TB Terra Bytes
KB Kilo Bytes
ISDN Integrated Services Digital Network
DSL Digital Subscriber Line
ATM Asynchronous Transfer Mode
TCP/IP Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol
IP Internet Protocol
DNS Domain Name System
E-mail Electronic Mail
GUI Graphical User Interface
MIPS Millions of Instructions Per Second
EIDE Enhanced Integrated Drive Electronics
SIMM Single In-line Memory Module
DIMM Dual In-line Memory Module
SMP Symmetric Multiprocessing
MMP Massively Multiprocessing
ALU Arithmetic Logic Unit
BMP Bitmap
CAD Computer Aided Design
Coax Coaxial Cable
FAT File Allocation Table
4GL Fourth Generation Language
I/O Input/Output
ISP Internet Service Provider
IRC Internet Relay Chat
IRQ Interrupt Request
TFT Thin Film Transistor
USB Universal Serial Bus
MAN Metropolitan Area Network
OOP Object Oriented Programming
IEEE Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers
CPI Character Per Inch
OSI Open System Interconnection
SQL Structured Query Languages

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Prepared by Azmat Afridi SAMS 07/12/2007---E-mail: azmat443@gmail.com----Mobile Pakistan: +92-333-9382107 Mobile U.A.

INTRODUCTION TO INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY:

What is Information Technology (IT)?

Often we use two or more forms of information to convey a message.

COMPUTER HARDWARE AND SOFTWARE:

1) System Software or Operating System:

2) Application Software or Computer Programs:

INPUT AND OUTPUT DEVICES:

Four Arrow Keys:

PageUp and PageDown Keys:

Cathode Ray Tube (CRT):

Flat Screens or Liquid Crystal Display (LCD):

Dot Matrix Printers:

Daisy Wheel Printers:

Random Access Memory (RAM):

Sequential Access Memory:

Read/Write Memory (RWM):

Read-Only Memory (ROM):

Static Memory Devices:

Dynamic Memory Devices:

INFORMATION SYSTEM DEVELOPMENT (ISD):

APPLICATION AND USE OF COMPUTERS

Computer in Medical Field:

Computer Integrated Manufacturing:

PARTS OF COMPUTER SYSTEM

RAM (Random Access Memory)

Dynamic RAM (DRAM):

Static RAM (SRAM): REVIEWED

 Faster than DRAM.

ROM (Read Only Memory)

Input / Output Devices

Types of Input Devices

Two main types are:

2- Flat Bed Scanner

Different Types are:

Types of Output Devices

LCD (Liquid Crystal Display)

Different Types are

5.25 Floppy Disk

3.5 Floppy Disk

 Data accessing speed is much faster as compare to other floppy disks

CENTRAL PROCESSING UNIT (CPU):

Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU):

Control Unit (CU):

RAM (Random Access Memory):

Instruction Register (IR):

Stack Register (SR):

Memory Address Register (MAR):

Program Counter (PC):

Memory Buffer Register (MBR):

Command Line Interfaces:

Graphical User Interface (GUI):

1) SYSTEM SOFTWARE OR OPERATING SYSTEM:

CLIENT/SERVER NETWORK or DEDICATED SERVER NETWORK:

 Used both in LANs and WANs.

INTRODUCTION TO MICROSOFT WINDOWS 2000

Introduction to Windows 2000:

Hardware Requirement for Windows 2000 Professional Installation:

Processor 133 MHz or Higher

RAM 64 MB Minimum-4 GB Maximum

Hard Disk 2 GB having free space of 650 MB

Icons or Shortcuts of Desktop:

My Network Places or Network Neighborhood: