Aesthetics

Aesthetician redirects here. For a cosmetologist who

specializes in the study of skin care, see Esthetician.
Aesthetic redirects here. For the EP by From First to
Last, see Aesthetic (EP).

the recognition, appreciation or criticism of art or an art

work.
Philosophical aesthetics has not only to speak about art
and to produce judgments about art works, but has also
to give a denition of what art is. Art is an autonomous
entity for philosophy, because art deals with the senses (i.
e. the etymology of aesthetics) and art is as such free of
any moral or political purpose. Hence, there are two different conceptions of art in aesthetics: art as knowledge
or art as action, but aesthetics is neither epistemology nor
ethics.[10]

Aesthetics (/stks/; also spelled sthetics and esthetics also known in Greek as ) is a branch
of philosophy dealing with the nature of art, beauty, and
taste, with the creation and appreciation of beauty.[1][2]
It is more scientically dened as the study of sensory or
sensori-emotional values, sometimes called judgments of
sentiment and taste.[3] More broadly, scholars in the eld
dene aesthetics as critical reection on art, culture and
nature.[4][5]

3 Post-renaissance aesthetics

More specic aesthetic theory, often with practical implications, relating to a particular branch of the arts is divided into areas of aesthetics such as art theory, literary
theory, lm theory and music theory. An example from
art theory is aesthetic theory as a set of principles underlying the work of a particular artist or artistic movement:
such as the Cubist aesthetic.[6]

Etymology

The word aesthetic is derived from the Greek

(aisthetikos, meaning esthetic, sensitive,
sentient), which in turn was derived from
(aisthanomai, meaning I perceive, feel, sense).[7] The
term aesthetics was appropriated and coined with new
meaning in the German form sthetik (modern spelling
sthetik) by Alexander Baumgarten in 1735.

Aesthetics and the philosophy of

art
Cubist painting by Georges Braque, Violin and Candlestick
(1910)

Aesthetics is for the artist as Ornithology is

for the birds.
Barnett Newman[8][9]

From the late 17th to the early 20th century Western

aesthetics underwent a slow revolution into what is often called modernism. German and British thinkers emphasised beauty as the key component of art and of the
aesthetic experience, and saw art as necessarily aiming at
absolute beauty.

For some, aesthetics is considered a synonym for the philosophy of art since Hegel, while others insist that there
is a signicant distinction between these closely related
elds. In practice aesthetic judgement refers to the sensory contemplation or appreciation of an object (not nec- For Alexander Gottlieb Baumgarten aesthetics is the sciessarily an art object), while artistic judgement refers to ence of the sense experiences, a younger sister of logic,
1

4 NEW CRITICISM AND THE INTENTIONAL FALLACY

and beauty is thus the most perfect kind of knowledge

that sense experience can have. For Immanuel Kant the
aesthetic experience of beauty is a judgment of a subjective but similar human truth, since all people should
agree that this rose is beautiful if it in fact is. However, beauty cannot be reduced to any more basic set of
features. For Friedrich Schiller aesthetic appreciation of
beauty is the most perfect reconciliation of the sensual
and rational parts of human nature.
For Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph Schelling, the philosophy
of art is the organon of philosophy concerning the relation between man and nature. So aesthetics began now
to be the name for the philosophy of art. Friedrich von
Schlegel, August Wilhelm Schlegel, Friedrich Schleiermacher and Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel also gave
lectures on aesthetics as philosophy of art after 1800.
For Hegel, all culture is a matter of absolute spirit coming to be manifest to itself, stage by stage, changing to a
perfection that only philosophy can approach. Art is the
rst stage in which the absolute spirit is manifest immediately to sense-perception, and is thus an objective rather
than subjective revelation of beauty.
For Arthur Schopenhauer aesthetic contemplation of
beauty is the most free that the pure intellect can be from
the dictates of will; here we contemplate perfection of
form without any kind of worldly agenda, and thus any
intrusion of utility or politics would ruin the point of the
beauty. It is thus for Schopenhauer one way to ght the
suering.
The British were largely divided into intuitionist and analytic camps. The intuitionists believed that aesthetic experience was disclosed by a single mental faculty of some
kind. For Anthony Ashley-Cooper, 3rd Earl of Shaftesbury this was identical to the moral sense, beauty just
is the sensory version of moral goodness. For Ludwig
Wittgenstein aesthetics consisted in the description of a
whole culture which is a linguistic impossibility. Hence
his viewpoint can be paraphrased as That which constitutes aesthetics lies outside the realm of the language
game.
For Oscar Wilde, the contemplation of beauty for
beautys sake (augmented by John Ruskin's search for
moral grounding) was more than the foundation for much
of his literary career; he once stated, Aestheticism is a
search after the signs of the beautiful. It is the science of
the beautiful through which men seek the correlation of
the arts. It is, to speak more exactly, the search after the
secret of life..[11]
Wilde famously toured the United States in 1882. He
travelled across the United States spreading the idea of
Aesthetics in a speech called The English Renaissance.
In his speech he proposed that Beauty and Aesthetics was
not languid but energetic. By beautifying the outward
aspects of life, one would beautify the inner ones. The
English Renaissance was, he said, like the Italian Renaissance before it, a sort of rebirth of the spirit of man.[12]

William Hogarth, self-portrait, 1745

For Francis Hutcheson beauty is disclosed by an inner

mental sense, but is a subjective fact rather than an objective one. Analytic theorists like Henry Home, Lord
Kames, William Hogarth, and Edmund Burke hoped to
reduce beauty to some list of attributes. Hogarth, for example, thinks that beauty consists of (1) tness of the
parts to some design; (2) variety in as many ways as possible; (3) uniformity, regularity or symmetry, which is
only beautiful when it helps to preserve the character of
tness; (4) simplicity or distinctness, which gives pleasure
not in itself, but through its enabling the eye to enjoy variety with ease; (5) intricacy, which provides employment
for our active energies, leading the eye on a wanton kind
of chase"; and (6) quantity or magnitude, which draws
our attention and produces admiration and awe. Later
analytic aestheticians strove to link beauty to some scientic theory of psychology (such as James Mill) or biology
(such as Herbert Spencer).

4 New Criticism and The Intentional Fallacy

During the rst half of the twentieth century, a signicant shift to general aesthetic theory took place which attempted to apply aesthetic theory between various forms
of art, including the literary arts and the visual arts, to
each other. This resulted in the rise of the New Criticism school and debate concerning the intentional fallacy.
At issue was the question of whether the aesthetic intentions of the artist in creating the work of art, whatever

3
its specic form, should be associated with the criticism
and evaluation of the nal product of the work of art, or,
if the work of art should be evaluated on its own merits
independent of the intentions of the artist.
In 1946, William K. Wimsatt and Monroe Beardsley published a classic and controversial New Critical essay entitled "The Intentional Fallacy", in which they argued
strongly against the relevance of an authors intention, or
intended meaning in the analysis of a literary work. For
Wimsatt and Beardsley, the words on the page were all
that mattered; importation of meanings from outside the
text was considered irrelevant, and potentially distracting.
In another essay, "The Aective Fallacy, which served
as a kind of sister essay to The Intentional Fallacy
Wimsatt and Beardsley also discounted the readers personal/emotional reaction to a literary work as a valid
means of analyzing a text. This fallacy would later be
repudiated by theorists from the reader-response school
of literary theory. Ironically, one of the leading theorists from this school, Stanley Fish, was himself trained example of the Dada aesthetic, Marcel Duchamp's Fountain
1917
by New Critics. Fish criticizes Wimsatt and Beardsley in
[13]
his essay Literature in the Reader (1970).
As summarized by Gaut and Livingston in their essay The Creation of Art": Structuralist and poststructuralists theorists and critics were sharply critical of
many aspects of New Criticism, beginning with the emphasis on aesthetic appreciation and the so-called autonomy of art, but they reiterated the attack on biographical criticismss assumption that the artists activities and
experience were a privileged critical topic.[14] These authors contend that: Anti-intentionalists, such as formalists, hold that the intentions involved in the making of art
are irrelevant or peripheral to correctly interpreting art.
So details of the act of creating a work, though possibly
of interest in themselves, have no bearing on the correct
interpretation of the work.[15]
Gaut and Livingston dene the intentionalists as distinct
from formalists stating that: Intentionalists, unlike formalists, hold that reference to intentions is essential in
xing the correct interpretation of works. They quote
Richard Wollheim as stating that, The task of criticism
is the reconstruction of the creative process, where the
creative process must in turn be thought of as something
not stopping short of, but terminating on, the work of art
itself.[15]

Post-modern aesthetics and psychoanalysis

Early-twentieth-century artists, poets and composers

challenged existing notions of beauty, broadening the
scope of art and aesthetics. In 1941, Eli Siegel, American philosopher and poet, founded Aesthetic Realism, the
philosophy that reality itself is aesthetic, and that The

world, art, and self explain each other: each is the aesthetic oneness of opposites.[16][17]
Various attempts have been made to dene Post-modern
aesthetics. The challenge to the assumption that beauty
was central to art and aesthetics, thought to be original, is
actually continuous with older aesthetic theory; Aristotle
was the rst in the Western tradition to classify beauty
into types as in his theory of drama, and Kant made a distinction between beauty and the sublime. What was new
was a refusal to credit the higher status of certain types,
where the taxonomy implied a preference for tragedy and
the sublime to comedy and the Rococo.
Croce suggested that expression is central in the way
that beauty was once thought to be central. George Dickie
suggested that the sociological institutions of the art world
were the glue binding art and sensibility into unities.[18]
Marshall McLuhan suggested that art always functions as
a counter-environment designed to make visible what
is usually invisible about a society. Theodor Adorno felt
that aesthetics could not proceed without confronting the
role of the culture industry in the commodication of art
and aesthetic experience. Hal Foster attempted to portray the reaction against beauty and Modernist art in The
Anti-Aesthetic: Essays on Postmodern Culture. Arthur
Danto has described this reaction as kalliphobia (after the Greek word for beauty, kallos).[19] Andr
Malraux explains that the notion of beauty was connected
to a particular conception of art that arose with the Renaissance and was still dominant in the eighteenth century
(but was supplanted later). The discipline of aesthetics,
which originated in the eighteenth century, mistook this
transient state of aairs for a revelation of the permanent
nature of art.[20] Brian Massumi suggests to reconsider
beauty following the aesthetical thought in the philoso-

AESTHETICS AND SCIENCE

phy of Deleuze and Guattari.[21]

Jean-Franois Lyotard re-invokes the Kantian distinction
between taste and the sublime. Sublime painting, unlike
kitsch realism, "... will enable us to see only by making it impossible to see; it will please only by causing
pain.[22][23]
Sigmund Freud inaugurated aesthetical thinking in
Psychoanalysis mainly via the Uncanny as aesthetical aect.[24] Following Freud and Merleau-Ponty,[25]
Jacques Lacan theorized aesthetics in terms of sublimation and the Thing.[26]
The relation of Marxist aesthetics to postmodern aesthetics is still a contentious area of debate.
Initial image of a Mandelbrot set zoom sequence with continuously colored environment

Recent aesthetics

inductive approach. The analysis of individual expeIt is not always clear, easy, or relevant to categorize all rience and behavior based on experimental methods is
recent aesthetics into either modern(ist) or post-modern. a central part of experimental aesthetics. In particular, the perception of works of art,[33] music, or modern
Guy Sircello has pioneered eorts in analytic philosophy
items such websites[34] or other IT products[35] is studto develop a rigorous theory of aesthetics, focusing on the
ied. Experimental aesthetics is strongly oriented towards
concepts of beauty,[27] love[28] and sublimity.[29] In conthe natural sciences. Modern approaches mostly come
trast to romantic theorists Sircello argued for the objecfrom the elds of cognitive psychology or neuroscience
tivity of beauty and formulated a theory of love on that
(neuroaesthetics[36] ).
basis.
In the 1970s, Abraham Moles and Frieder Nake were
British philosopher and theorist of conceptual art aesthetamong the rst to analyze links between aesthetics,
ics, Peter Osborne, makes the point that post-conceptual
information processing, and information theory.[37][38]
art aesthetic does not concern a particular type of
contemporary art so much as the historical-ontological In the 1990s, Jrgen Schmidhuber described an
condition for the production of contemporary art in gen- algorithmic theory of beauty which takes the subjectivity
eral ...[30] Osborne noted that contemporary art is 'post- of the observer into account and postulates: among
several observations classied as comparable by a given
conceptual in a public lecture delivered in 2010.
subjective observer, the aesthetically most pleasing
Gary Tedman has put forward a theory of a subjectless
one is the one with the shortest description, given
aesthetics derived from Karl Marxs concept of alienthe observers previous knowledge and his particular
ation, and Louis Althussers anti humanism, using elemethod for encoding the data.[39][40] This is closely
ments of Freuds group psychology, dening a concept of
related to the principles of algorithmic information
the 'aesthetic level of practice'.[31]
theory and minimum description length. One of his
Gregory Loewen has suggested that the subject is key in examples: mathematicians enjoy simple proofs with a
the interaction with the aesthetic object. The work of art short description in their formal language. Another very
serves as a vehicle for the projection of the individuals concrete example describes an aesthetically pleasing
identity into the world of objects, as well as being the ir- human face whose proportions can be described by
ruptive source of much of what is uncanny in modern life. very few bits of information,[41][42] drawing inspiration
As well, art is used to memorialize individuated biogra- from less detailed 15th century proportion studies by
phies in a manner that allows persons to imagine that they Leonardo da Vinci and Albrecht Drer. Schmidhubers
are part of something greater than themselves.[32]
theory explicitly distinguishes between whats beautiful
As already stated, the relation of Marxist aesthetics to and whats interesting, stating that interestingness corpostmodern aesthetics is still a contentious area of debate. responds to the rst derivative of subjectively perceived
beauty. Here the premise is that any observer continually
tries to improve the predictability and compressibility
of the observations by discovering regularities such as
7 Aesthetics and science
repetitions and symmetries and fractal self-similarity.
Whenever the observers learning process (which may
The eld of experimental aesthetics was founded by be a predictive neural network; see also Neuroesthetics)
Gustav Theodor Fechner in the 19th century. Exper- leads to improved data compression such that the
imental aesthetics is characterized by a subject-based, observation sequence can be described by fewer bits

5
than before, the temporary interestingness of the data
corresponds to the number of saved bits. This compression progress is proportional to the observers internal
reward, also called curiosity reward. A reinforcement
learning algorithm is used to maximize future expected
reward by learning to execute action sequences that cause
additional interesting input data with yet unknown but
learnable predictability or regularity. The principles can
be implemented on articial agents which then exhibit a
form of articial curiosity.[43][44][45][46]

Theory in Cognitive Science and has developed a generative theory of shape.

There have also been relatively successful attempts with
regard to chess and music.[57] A relation between Max
Bense's mathematical formulation of aesthetics in terms
of redundancy and complexity and theories of musical anticipation was oered using the notion of Information Rate.[58]

10 Evolutionary aesthetics
8

Truth as beauty, mathematics

Mathematical considerations, such as symmetry and

complexity, are used for analysis in theoretical aesthetics. This is dierent from the aesthetic considerations
of applied aesthetics used in the study of mathematical
beauty. Aesthetic considerations such as symmetry and
simplicity are used in areas of philosophy, such as ethics
and theoretical physics and cosmology to dene truth,
outside of empirical considerations. Beauty and Truth
have been argued to be nearly synonymous,[47] as reected in the statement Beauty is truth, truth beauty in
the poem Ode on a Grecian Urn by John Keats, or by the
Hindu motto Satyam Shivam Sundaram (Satya (Truth)
is Shiva (God), and Shiva is Sundaram (Beautiful)). The
fact that judgments of beauty and judgments of truth both
are inuenced by processing uency, which is the ease
with which information can be processed, has been presented as an explanation for why beauty is sometimes
equated with truth.[48] Indeed, recent research found that
people use beauty as an indication for truth in mathematical pattern tasks.[49] However, scientists including
the mathematician David Orrell[50] and physicist Marcelo
Gleiser[51] have argued that the emphasis on aesthetic criteria such as symmetry is equally capable of leading scientists astray.

Main article: Evolutionary aesthetics

Evolutionary aesthetics refers to evolutionary psychology theories in which the basic aesthetic preferences of
Homo sapiens are argued to have evolved in order to enhance survival and reproductive success. One example
being that humans are argued to nd beautiful and prefer landscapes which were good habitats in the ancestral
environment. Another example is that body symmetry is
an important aspect of physical attractiveness which may
be due to this indicating good health during body growth.
Evolutionary explanations for aesthetical preferences are
important parts of evolutionary musicology, Darwinian
literary studies, and the study of the evolution of emotion.

11 Applied aesthetics
Main article: Applied aesthetics

As well as being applied to art, aesthetics can also be applied to cultural objects such as crucix or tools. Aesthetic coupling between art-objects and medical topics was made by speakers working for the US Information Agency[59] This coupling was made to reinforce
learning paradigm when English-language speakers
9 Computational inference of aes- the
used translators to address audiences in their own country. These audiences were generally not uent in the
thetics
English language. It can also be used in topics as dimathematics, gastronomy, fashion and website
Since about 2005, computer scientists have attempted to verse as[60][61][62]
design.
develop automated methods to infer aesthetic quality of
images.[52][53][54][55] Typically, these approaches follow
a machine learning approach, where large numbers of
manually rated photographs are used to teach a com- 12 Aesthetic ethics
puter about what visual properties are of relevance to aesthetic quality. The Acquine engine, developed at Penn Aesthetic ethics refers to the idea that human conduct and
State University, rates natural photographs uploaded by behaviour ought to be governed by that which is beautiusers.[56]
ful and attractive. John Dewey[63] has pointed out that the
Notable in this area is Michael Leyton, professor of psychology at Rutgers University. Leyton is the president of
the International Society for Mathematical and Computational Aesthetics and the International Society for Group

unity of aesthetics and ethics is in fact reected in our understanding of behaviour being fair the word having
a double meaning of attractive and morally acceptable.
More recently, James Page[64][65] has suggested that aes-

14 AESTHETIC JUDGMENT

thetic ethics might be taken to form a philosophical ratio- education.[68] According to Kant, beauty is subjective and
nale for peace education.
universal; thus certain things are beautiful to everyone.[69]
The contemporary view of beauty is not based on innate
qualities, but rather on cultural specics and individual
interpretations.

13

Aristotle, Beauty and Goodness

Aristotle was passionate about goodness in men as he 14.1

valued taking [its] virtues to be central to a well-lived
life.[66] In Politics, he writes, Again, men in general desire the good, and not merely what their fathers had.[67]
To thoroughly comprehend goodness, Aristotle also studied Beauty. As noted in the Encyclopdia Britannica
(1902), moreover, Aristotle, ignores all conceptions of
an absolute Beauty, and at the same time seeks to distinguish the Beautiful from the Good. Aristotle explains
that men will be better able to achieve [their] good if
[they] develop a fuller understanding of what it is to
ourish.[66]

14

Aesthetic judgment

Judgments of aesthetic value rely on our ability to discriminate at a sensory level. Aesthetics examines our
aective domain response to an object or phenomenon.
Immanuel Kant, writing in 1790, observes of a man If
he says that canary wine is agreeable he is quite content if
someone else corrects his terms and reminds him to say
instead: It is agreeable to me, because Everyone has
his own (sense of) taste". The case of beauty is dierent from mere agreeableness because, If he proclaims
something to be beautiful, then he requires the same liking from others; he then judges not just for himself but
for everyone, and speaks of beauty as if it were a property
of things.
Aesthetic judgments usually go beyond sensory discrimination. For David Hume, delicacy of taste is not merely
the ability to detect all the ingredients in a composition, but also our sensitivity to pains as well as pleasures, which escape the rest of mankind. (Essays Moral
Political and Literary. Indianapolis, Literary Classics 5,
1987.) Thus, the sensory discrimination is linked to capacity for pleasure. For Kant enjoyment is the result
when pleasure arises from sensation, but judging something to be beautiful has a third requirement: sensation
must give rise to pleasure by engaging our capacities of
reective contemplation. Judgments of beauty are sensory, emotional and intellectual all at once.

Factors involved in aesthetic judgment

Rainbows often have aesthetic appeal.

Judgments of aesthetical values seem often to involve

many other kinds of issues as well. Responses such as
disgust show that sensory detection is linked in instinctual
ways to facial expressions, and even behaviors like the gag
reex. Yet disgust can often be a learned or cultural issue too; as Darwin pointed out, seeing a stripe of soup in
a mans beard is disgusting even though neither soup nor
beards are themselves disgusting. Aesthetic judgments
may be linked to emotions or, like emotions, partially embodied in our physical reactions. Seeing a sublime view
of a landscape may give us a reaction of awe, which might
manifest physically as an increased heart rate or widened
eyes. These unconscious reactions may even be partly
constitutive of what makes our judgment a judgment that
the landscape is sublime.

Likewise, aesthetic judgments may be culturally conditioned to some extent. Victorians in Britain often saw
African sculpture as ugly, but just a few decades later,
Edwardian audiences saw the same sculptures as being
beautiful. Evaluations of beauty may well be linked to
desirability, perhaps even to sexual desirability. Thus,
judgments of aesthetic value can become linked to judgments of economic, political, or moral value.[70] In a current context, one might judge a Lamborghini to be beautiful partly because it is desirable as a status symbol, or
we might judge it to be repulsive partly because it signies for us over-consumption and oends our political or
[71]
Viewer interpretations of beauty possess two concepts moral values.
of value: aesthetics and taste. Aesthetics is the philo- Aesthetic judgments can often be very ne-grained and
sophical notion of beauty. Taste is a result of an educa- internally contradictory. Likewise aesthetic judgments
tion process and awareness of elite cultural values learned seem often to be at least partly intellectual and interprethrough exposure to mass culture. Bourdieu examined tative. It is what a thing means or symbolizes for us that
how the elite in society dene the aesthetic values like is often what we are judging. Modern aestheticians have
taste and how varying levels of exposure to these values asserted that will and desire were almost dormant in aescan result in variations by class, cultural background, and thetic experience, yet preference and choice have seemed

14.3

What is art"?

important aesthetics to some 20th-century thinkers. The

point is already made by Hume, but see Mary Mothersill, Beauty and the Critics Judgment, in The Blackwell Guide to Aesthetics, 2004. Thus aesthetic judgments
might be seen to be based on the senses, emotions, intellectual opinions, will, desires, culture, preferences, values, subconscious behavior, conscious decision, training,
instinct, sociological institutions, or some complex combination of these, depending on exactly which theory one
employs.

14.2

Are dierent art forms beautiful, disgusting, or boring in the same way?

A third major topic in the study of aesthetic judgments

is how they are unied across art forms. We can call
a person, a house, a symphony, a fragrance, and a
mathematical proof beautiful. What characteristics do
they share which give them that status? What possible
feature could a proof and a fragrance both share in virtue
of which they both count as beautiful? What makes a
painting beautiful is quite dierent from what makes music beautiful, which suggests that each art form has its own
language for the judgement of aesthetics.[72]
At the same time, there is seemingly quite a lack of words
to express oneself accurately when making an aesthetic
judgment. An aesthetic judgment cannot be an empirical judgement. Therefore, due to impossibility for precision, there is confusion about what interpretations can
be culturally negotiated. Due to imprecision in the standard English language, two completely dierent feelings
experienced by two dierent people can be represented
by an identical verbal expression. Wittgenstein stated this
in his lectures on aesthetics and language games.
A collective identication of beauty, with willing participants in a given social spectrum, may be a socially negotiated phenomenon, discussed in a culture or context. Is
there some underlying unity to aesthetic judgment and is
there some way to articulate the similarities of a beautiful house, beautiful proof, and beautiful sunset?[73] Dening it requires a description of the entire phenomenon, as
Wittgenstein argued in his lectures on aesthetics. Likewise there has been long debate on how perception of
beauty in the natural world, especially perception of the
human form as beautiful, is supposed to relate to perceiving beauty in art or artefacts. This goes back at least to
Kant, with some echoes even in St. Bonaventure.

14.3

What is art"?

How best to dene the term art is a subject of constant contention; many books and journal articles have
been published arguing over even the basics of what we
mean by the term art.[74] Theodor Adorno claimed
in 1969 It is self-evident that nothing concerning art
is self-evident.[75][76] Artists, philosophers, anthropolo-

Harmony of colors

gists, psychologists and programmers all use the notion of

art in their respective elds, and give it operational denitions that vary considerably. Furthermore, it is clear that
even the basic meaning of the term art has changed several times over the centuries, and has continued to evolve
during the 20th century as well.
The main recent sense of the word art is roughly as an
abbreviation for creative art or "ne art. Here we mean
that skill is being used to express the artists creativity, or
to engage the audiences aesthetic sensibilities, or to draw
the audience towards consideration of the ner things.
Often, if the skill is being used in a functional object,
people will consider it a craft instead of art, a suggestion
which is highly disputed by many Contemporary Craft
thinkers. Likewise, if the skill is being used in a commercial or industrial way it may be considered design instead of art, or contrariwise these may be defended as art
forms, perhaps called applied art. Some thinkers, for instance, have argued that the dierence between ne art
and applied art has more to do with the actual function of
the object than any clear denitional dierence.[77] Art
usually implies no function other than to convey or communicate an idea.
Even as late as 1912 it was normal in the West to assume
that all art aims at beauty, and thus that anything that
wasn't trying to be beautiful couldn't count as art. The
cubists, dadaists, Stravinsky, and many later art movements struggled against this conception that beauty was
central to the denition of art, with such success that,
according to Danto, Beauty had disappeared not only
from the advanced art of the 1960s but from the advanced philosophy of art of that decade as well.[75]
Perhaps some notion like expression (in Croces theories) or counter-environment (in McLuhans theory)
can replace the previous role of beauty. Brian Massumi
brought back beauty into consideration together with
expression.[78] Another view, as important to the philosophy of art as beauty, is that of the sublime, elab-

8
orated upon in the twentieth century by the postmodern
philosopher Jean-Franois Lyotard. A further approach,
elaborated by Andr Malraux in works such as The Voices
of Silence, is that art is fundamentally a response to
a metaphysical question ('Art', he writes, 'is an 'antidestiny'). Malraux argues that, while art has sometimes
been oriented towards beauty and the sublime (principally in post-Renaissance European art) these qualities,
as the wider history of art demonstrates, are by no means
essential to it.[79]
Perhaps (as in Kennicks theory) no denition of art is
possible anymore. Perhaps art should be thought of as
a cluster of related concepts in a Wittgensteinian fashion
(as in Weitz or Beuys). Another approach is to say that
art is basically a sociological category, that whatever
art schools and museums and artists dene as art is considered art regardless of formal denitions. This institutional denition of art (see also Institutional Critique)
has been championed by George Dickie. Most people
did not consider the depiction of a store-bought urinal
or Brillo Box to be art until Marcel Duchamp and Andy
Warhol (respectively) placed them in the context of art
(i.e., the art gallery), which then provided the association
of these objects with the associations that dene art.
Proceduralists often suggest that it is the process by which
a work of art is created or viewed that makes it art, not
any inherent feature of an object, or how well received it
is by the institutions of the art world after its introduction
to society at large. If a poet writes down several lines,
intending them as a poem, the very procedure by which
it is written makes it a poem. Whereas if a journalist
writes exactly the same set of words, intending them as
shorthand notes to help him write a longer article later,
these would not be a poem. Leo Tolstoy, on the other
hand, claims in his What is art? (1897) that what decides
whether or not something is art is how it is experienced by
its audience, not by the intention of its creator. Functionalists like Monroe Beardsley argue that whether or not a
piece counts as art depends on what function it plays in a
particular context; the same Greek vase may play a nonartistic function in one context (carrying wine), and an
artistic function in another context (helping us to appreciate the beauty of the human gure). '

14 AESTHETIC JUDGMENT

14.4 What should art be like?

Many goals have been argued for art, and aestheticians
often argue that some goal or another is superior in some
way. Clement Greenberg, for instance, argued in 1960
that each artistic medium should seek that which makes it
unique among the possible mediums and then purify itself
of anything other than expression of its own uniqueness as
a form.[83] The Dadaist Tristan Tzara on the other hand
saw the function of art in 1918 as the destruction of a
mad social order. We must sweep and clean. Arm the
cleanliness of the individual after the state of madness,
aggressive complete madness of a world abandoned to the
hands of bandits.[84] Formal goals, creative goals, selfexpression, political goals, spiritual goals, philosophical
goals, and even more perceptual or aesthetic goals have
all been popular pictures of what art should be like.

14.5 The value of art

Tolstoy dened art as the following: Art is a human
activity consisting in this, that one man consciously, by
means of certain external signs, hands on to others feelings he has lived through, and that other people are infected by these feelings and also experience them. However, this denition is merely a starting point for his theory of arts value. To some extent, the value of art, for
Tolstoy, is one with the value of empathy. However,
sometimes empathy is not of value. In chapter fteen
of What Is Art?, Tolstoy says that some feelings are good,
but others are bad, and so art is only valuable when it
generates empathy or shared feeling for good feelings.
For example, Tolstoy asserts that empathy for decadent
members of the ruling class makes society worse, rather
than better. In chapter sixteen, he asserts that the best
art is universal art that expresses simple and accessible
positive feeling.[85]
Other possible views are these: Art can act as a means
to some special kind of knowledge. Art may give insight
into the human condition. Art relates to science and religion. Art serves as a tool of education, or indoctrination,
or enculturation. Art makes us more moral. It uplifts us
spiritually. Art is politics by other means. Art has the
value of allowing catharsis. In any case, the value of art
may determine the suitability of an art form. Do they differ signicantly in their values, or (if not) in their ability
to achieve the unitary value of art?

Marxist attempts to dene art focus on its place in the

mode of production, such as in Walter Benjamin's essay The Author as Producer,[80] and/or its political role in
class struggle.[81] Revising some concepts of the Marxist
philosopher Louis Althusser, Gary Tedman denes art in
terms of social reproduction of the relations of produc- But to approach the question of the value of art systematically, one ought to ask: for whom? For the artist? For
tion on the aesthetic level.[82]
the audience? For society at large, and/or for individuals
See also: Classicatory disputes about art
beyond the audience? Is the value of art dierent in
each of these dierent contexts?
Working on the intended value of art tends to help dene
the relations between art and other acts. Art clearly does
have spiritual goals in many contexts, but what exactly is
the dierence between religious art and religion per se?

9
The truth is complex; art is both useless in a functional the works realisation). Moreover, some of Duttons catsense, and also the most important human activity.
egories seem too broad: a physicist might entertain hyAn argument for the value of art, used in the ctional pothetical worlds in his/her imagination in the course of
work The Hitchhikers Guide to the Galaxy, proceeds that, formulating a theory. Another problem is that Duttons
if some external force presenting imminent destruction of categories seek to universalise traditional European noEarth asked humanity what its value waswhat should tions of aesthetics and art forgetting that, as Andr Malhumanitys response be? The argument continues that raux and others have pointed out, there have been large
ideas (including the
the only justication humanity could give for its contin- numbers of cultures in which such[89]
idea art itself) were non-existent.
ued existence would be the past creation and continued
creation of things like a Shakespeare play, a Rembrandt
painting or a Bach concerto. The suggestion is that these
are the things of value which dene humanity.[86] What- 16 Criticism
ever one might think of this claim and it does seem to
undervalue the many other achievements of which human
The philosophy of aesthetics as a practice has been critbeings have shown themselves capable, both individually
icized by some sociologists and writers of art and sociand collectively it is true that art appears to possess a
ety. Raymond Williams argues that there is no unique and
special capacity to endure (live on) beyond the moment
or individual aesthetic object which can be extrapolated
of its birth, in many cases for centuries or millennia. This
from the art world, but that there is a continuum of culcapacity of art to endure over time what precisely it is
tural forms and experience of which ordinary speech and
and how it operates has been widely neglected in modexperiences may signal as art. By art we may frame sev[87]
ern aesthetics.
eral artistic works or creations as so though this reference remains within the institution or special event which
creates it and this leaves some works or other possible
15 Aesthetic universals
art outside of the frame work, or other interpretations
such as other phenomenon which may not be considered
The philosopher Denis Dutton identied six universal sig- as art.
natures in human aesthetics:[88]
Pierre Bourdieu disagrees with Kants idea of the aesthetic. He argues that Kants aesthetic merely repre1. Expertise or virtuosity. Humans cultivate, recog- sents an experience that is the product of an elevated class
nize, and admire technical artistic skills.
habitus and scholarly leisure as opposed to other possible
and equally valid aesthetic experiences which lay out2. Nonutilitarian pleasure. People enjoy art for arts
side Kants narrow denition.
sake, and don't demand that it keep them warm or
put food on the table.
3. Style. Artistic objects and performances satisfy
rules of composition that place them in a recognizable style.

17 History of aesthetics

Main article: History of aesthetics before the 20th cen4. Criticism. People make a point of judging, appreci- tury
ating, and interpreting works of art.
Any aesthetic doctrines that guided the production and
5. Imitation. With a few important exceptions like abstract painting, works of art simulate experiences of
the world.
6. Special focus. Art is set aside from ordinary life and
made a dramatic focus of experience.
It might be objected, however, that there are rather
too many exceptions to Duttons categories. For example, the installations of the contemporary artist Thomas
Hirschhorn deliberately eschew technical virtuosity. People can appreciate a Renaissance Madonna for aesthetic
reasons, but such objects often had (and sometimes still
have) specic devotional functions. Rules of composition that might be read into Duchamp's Fountain or John
Cage's 433 do not locate the works in a recognizable Bronze sculpture, thought to be either Poseidon or Zeus, National
style (or certainly not a style recognizable at the time of Archaeological Museum of Athens

10

17

HISTORY OF AESTHETICS

interpretation of prehistoric art are mostly unknown. The

civilizations that expressed themselves in ancient art, including Egypt, Mesopotamia, Persia, Greece, China, the
Etruscans, Rome, India, the Celtic peoples, and the Maya,
each developed a unique and characteristic style in its art.

the grammars, rules, & language of an art-form are adepts

(Daksha), whereas those who have worked through the
whole system and journeyed ahead of these to become
a law unto themselves is called a Mahana. Individuals
idea of 'Daksha' and 'Mahana' is relative to the development of the concept of 'Satyam-Shivam-Sundaram.' For
example, Tagores idea of these two concepts should be
above any common mans and many perceive Tagore as
17.1 Ancient Greek aesthetics
a 'Mahana' Artist in the realm of literature. This concept
Greece had the most inuence on the development of aes- of Satyam-Shivam-Sundaram, a kind of Value Theory is
thetics in the West. This period of Greek art saw a vener- the cornerstone of Indian Aesthetics.
ation of the human physical form and the development of Of particular concern to Indian drama and literature are
corresponding skills to show musculature, poise, beauty the term 'Bhava' or the state of mind and rasa referring
and anatomically correct proportions. Furthermore, in generally to the emotional avors/essence crafted into the
many Western and Eastern cultures alike, traits such as work by the writer and relished by a 'sensitive spectator'
body hair are rarely depicted in art that addresses physi- or sahdaya. Poets like Klidsa were attentive to rasa,
cal beauty. Greek philosophers initially felt that aesthet- which blossomed into a fully developed aesthetic system.
ically appealing objects were beautiful in and of them- Even in contemporary India the term rasa denoting aselves. Plato believed that for us to have a perception of vor or essence is used colloquially to describe the aesbeauty there must be a transcendent form for beauty in thetic experiences in lms; msala mix describes popwhich beautiful objects partake and which causes them to ular Hindi cinema lms which serve a so-called balanced
be beautiful also. He felt that beautiful objects incorpo- emotional meal for the masses, savored as rasa by these
rated proportion, harmony, and unity among their parts. spectators.
Similarly, in the Metaphysics, Aristotle found that the universal elements of beauty were order, symmetry, and def- Rasa theory blossoms beginning with the Sanskrit text
initeness. An example of ancient aesthetics in Greece Ntyashstra (ntya meaning drama and shstra meanthrough poetry is Platos quote: For the authors of those ing science of), a work attributed to Bharata Muni
great poems which we admire, do not attain to excellence where the Gods declare that drama is the 'Fifth Veda'
through the rules of any art; but they utter their beautiful because it is suitable for the degenerate age as the best
melodies of verse in a state of inspiration, and, as it were, form of religious instruction. While the date of composition varies wildly among scholars, ranging from the
possessed by a spirit not their own.[90]
era of Plato and Aristotle to the seventh century CE. The
Ntyashstra presents the aesthetic concepts of rasas and
their associated bhvas in Chapters Six and Seven respec17.2 Indian aesthetics
tively, which appear to be independent of the work as a
Indian art evolved with an emphasis on inducing special whole. Eight rasas and associated bhvas are named and
spiritual or philosophical states in the audience, or with their enjoyment is likened to savoring a meal: rasa is the
representing them symbolically. According to Kapila enjoyment of avors that arise from the proper preparaVatsyayan, Classical Indian architecture, sculpture, tion of ingredients and the quality of ingredients. What
painting, literature (kvya), music, and dancing evolved rasa actually is, in a theoretical sense, is not discussed
their own rules conditioned by their respective media, but and given the Ntyashstra's pithy wording it is unlikely
they shared with one another not only the underlying spir- the exact understanding of the original author(s) will be
itual beliefs of the Indian religio-philosophic mind, but known.
also the procedures by which the relationships of the sym- The theory of the rasas develops signicantly with the
bol and the spiritual states were worked out in detail.
Kashmiri aesthetician ndandavardhanas classic on poIn the Pan Indian philosophic thought the term 'Satyam etics, the Dhvanyloka which introduces the ninth rasa,
Shivam Sundaram' is another name for the concept of shnta-rasa as a specically religious feeling of peace
the Supreme. 'Sat' is the truth value, 'Shiv' is the good (nta) which arises from its bhva, weariness of the pleavalue & 'Sundaram' is the beauty value. Man through his sures of the world. The primary purpose of this text is to
'Srabana' or education, 'Manana' or experience and con- rene the literary concept dhvani or poetic suggestion, by
ceptualization and 'Sadhana' or practice, through dier- arguing for the existence of the rasa-dhvani, primarily
ent stages of life (Ashramas) comes to form and realize in forms of Sanskrit including a word, sentence or whole
the idea of these three values to develop a value system. work suggests a real-world emotional state or bhva, but
This Value-system helps develop two basic ideas 1) that thanks to aesthetic distance, the sensitive spectator relof 'Daksha' or the adept/expert and 2) of Mahana/Parama ishes the rasa, the aesthetic avor of tragedy, heroism or
or the Absolute and thus to judge anything in this universe romance.
in the light of these two measures, known as 'Adarsha'. A The 9th10th century master of the religious system
person who has mastered great amounts of knowledge of

17.5

Arab aesthetics

known as the nondual Shaivism of Kashmir (or Kashmir Shaivism) and aesthetician, Abhinavagupta brought
rasa theory to its pinnacle in his separate commentaries
on the Dhvanyloka, the Dhvanyloka-locana (translated
by Ingalls, Masson and Patwardhan, 1992) and the Abhinavabharati, his commentary on the Ntyashstra, portions of which are translated by Gnoli and Masson and
Patwardhan. Abhinavagupta oers for the rst time a
technical denition of rasa which is the universal bliss
of the Self or Atman colored by the emotional tone of
a drama. Shnta-rasa functions as an equal member of
the set of rasas but is simultaneously distinct being the
most clear form of aesthetic bliss. Abhinavagupta likens
it to the string of a jeweled necklace; while it may not
be the most appealing for most people, it is the string
that gives form to the necklace, allowing the jewels of
the other eight rasas to be relished. Relishing the rasas
and particularly shnta-rasa is hinted as being as-goodas but never-equal-to the bliss of Self-realization experienced by yogis.

17.3

Chinese aesthetics

Chinese art has a long history of varied styles and emphases. Confucius emphasized the role of the arts and
humanities (especially music and poetry) in broadening
human nature and aiding li (etiquette, the rites) in bringing us back to what is essential about humanity. His opponent Mozi, however, argued that music and ne arts were
classist and wasteful, beneting the rich over the poor.
By the 4th century AD artists had started debating in writing over the proper goals of art as well. Gu Kaizhi has left
three surviving books on the theory of painting. Several
later artists or scholars both created art and wrote about
the creation of it. Religious and philosophical inuences
on art were common (and diverse) but never universal.

17.4

African aesthetics

The Great Mosque's signature trio of minarets overlooks the central market of Djenn. Unique Malian aesthetic

11
African art has existed in many forms and styles, with
relatively little inuence from outside Africa. Most of
it followed traditional forms; the aesthetic norms were
handed down orally as well as textually. Sculpture and
performance art are prominent, and abstract and partially
abstracted forms are valued, and were valued long before
inuence from the Western tradition began in earnest.
The Nok culture is testimony to this. The mosque of
Timbuktu shows that specic areas of Africa developed
unique aesthetics.

17.5 Arab aesthetics

Arab art for the last 1400 years has taken place under the
context of Islam and is sometimes referred to as Islamic
art, although many Arab artists throughout time have not
been Muslim. The term Islamic refers not only to the
religion, but to any form of art created by people in an
Islamic culture or in an Islamic context, whether the artist
is Islamic or not. Not all Muslims are in agreement on
the use of art in religious observance, the proper place
of art in society, or the relation between secular art and
the demands placed on the secular world to conform to
religious precepts. Islamic art frequently adopts secular
elements and elements that are frowned upon, if not forbidden, by some Islamic theologians.[91] Although the often cited opposition in Islam to the depiction of human
and animal forms holds true for religious art and architecture, in the secular sphere, such representations have
ourished in nearly all Islamic cultures.
The Islamic resistance to the representation of living beings ultimately stems from the belief that the creation
of living forms is unique to God, and it is for this reason that the role of images and image makers has been
controversial. The strongest statements on the subject of
gural depiction are made in the Hadith (Traditions of
the Prophet), where painters are challenged to breathe
life into their creations and threatened with punishment
on the Day of Judgment. The Qur'an is less specic
but condemns idolatry and uses the Arabic term musawwir (maker of forms, or artist) as an epithet for
God. Partially as a result of this religious sentiment, gures in painting were often stylized and, in some cases,
the destruction of gurative artworks occurred. Iconoclasm was previously known in the Byzantine period
and aniconicism was a feature of the Judaic world, thus
placing the Islamic objection to gurative representations
within a larger context. As ornament, however, gures
were largely devoid of any larger signicance and perhaps therefore posed less challenge.[92]
This tendency aected the narrowing eld of artistic
possibility to such forms of art as Arabesque, mosaic,
Islamic calligraphy, and Islamic architecture, as well as
any form of abstraction that can claim the status of nonrepresentational art.
Limited possibilities have been explored by artists as an

12

17

HISTORY OF AESTHETICS

outlet to artistic expression, and has been cultivated to

become a positive style and tradition, emphasizing the
decorative function of art, or its religious functions via
non-representational forms such as Geometric patterns,
oral patterns, and arabesques.
Human portrayals can be found in early Islamic cultures
with varying degrees of acceptance by religious authorities. Human representation for the purpose of worship
is uniformly considered idolatry as forbidden in Sharia
law.[93][94]
The calligraphic arts grew out of an eort to devote oneself to the study of the Quran. By patiently transcribing
each word of the text, the writer was made to contemplate the meaning of it. As time passed, these calligraphic
works began to be prized as works of art, growing increasingly elaborate in the illumination and stylizing of
the text. These illuminations were applied to other works
besides the Quran, and it became a respected art form in
and of itself.
Arabic is written from right to left, like other Semitic
scripts, and consists of 17 characters, which, with the
addition of dots placed above or below certain of them,
provide the 28 letters of the Arabic alphabet. Short vowels are not included in the alphabet, being indicated by
signs placed above or below the consonant or long vowel
that they follow. Certain characters may be joined to
their neighbors, others to the preceding one only, and
others to the succeeding one only. The written letters
undergo a slight external change according to their position within a word. When they stand alone or occur
at the end of a word, they ordinarily terminate in a bold
stroke; when they appear in the middle of a word, they
are ordinarily joined to the letter following by a small,
upward curved stroke. With the exception of six letters,
which can be joined only to the preceding ones, the initial and medial letters are much abbreviated, while the
nal form consists of the initial form with a triumphant
ourish. The essential part of the characters, however,
remains unchanged.[95]

17.6

Western medieval aesthetics

Surviving medieval art is primarily religious in focus and

funded largely by the State, Roman Catholic or Orthodox
church, powerful ecclesiastical individuals, or wealthy
secular patrons. These art pieces often served a liturgical
function, whether as chalices or even as church buildings
themselves. Objects of ne art from this period were frequently made from rare and valuable materials, such as
gold and lapis, the cost of which commonly exceeded the
wages of the artist.
Medieval aesthetics in the realm of philosophy built upon
Classical thought, continuing the practice of Plotinus by
employing theological terminology in its explications. St.
Bonaventure's Retracing the Arts to Theology, a primary example of this method, discusses the skills of the

Lorsch Gospels 778820. Charlemagnes Court School.

artisan as gifts given by God for the purpose of disclosing

God to mankind, which purpose is achieved through four
lights: the light of skill in mechanical arts which discloses
the world of artifacts; which light is guided by the light
of sense perception which discloses the world of natural
forms; which light, consequently, is guided by the light of
philosophy which discloses the world of intellectual truth;
nally, this light is guided by the light of divine wisdom
which discloses the world of saving truth.
Saint Thomas Aquinas's aesthetic is probably the most
famous and inuential theory among medieval authors,
having been the subject of much scrutiny in the wake of
the neo-Scholastic revival of the late 19th and early 20th
centuries and even having received the approbation of the
celebrated Modernist writer, James Joyce. Thomas, like
many other medievals, never gives a systematic account
of beauty itself, but several scholars have conventionally arranged his thoughtthough not always with uniform conclusionsusing relevant observations spanning
the entire corpus of his work. While Aquinass theory
follows generally the model of Aristotle, he develops a
singular aesthetics which incorporates elements unique
to his thought. Umberto Eco's The Aesthetics of Thomas
Aquinas identies the three main characteristics of beauty
in Aquinass philosophy: integritas sive perfectio, consonantia sive debita proportio, and claritas sive splendor
formae. While Aristotle likewise identies the rst two
characteristics, St. Thomas conceives of the third as an
appropriation from principles developed by neo-Platonic

13
and Augustinian thinkers. With the shift from the Middle [13] Leitch, Vincent B. , et al., eds. The Norton Anthology of
Theory and Criticism. New York: W. W. Norton & ComAges to the Renaissance, art likewise changed its focus,
pany, 2001.
as much in its content as in its mode of expression.
[14] Gaut and Livingston, The Creation of Art, p.3.

18

See also

20th-century Western painting

Art movement
Art periods
Formal analysis
List of artistic media
List of art movements
Western art history
Mannerism
Mise en scne
Style (visual arts)

19

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[65] http://eprints.qut.edu.au/12263/

15

[66] Kraut, Richard. Aristotles Ethics. The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Retrieved 22 October 2013.
[67] Aristotle. Politics. pp. Book II, 1269.a4.
[68] Bourdieu, Pierre (1984). Distinction. Routledge. ISBN
0-674-21277-0
[69] Aesthetic Judgment. Retrieved 23 September 2014.
[70] Holm, Ivar (2006). Ideas and Beliefs in Architecture and
Industrial design: How attitudes, orientations, and underlying assumptions shape the built environment. Oslo School
of Architecture and Design. ISBN 82-547-0174-1.
[71] Korsmeyer, Carolyn ed. Aesthetics: The Big Questions
1998
[72] Consider Clement Greenbergs arguments in On Modernist Painting (1961), reprinted in Aesthetics: A Reader
in Philosophy of Arts.
[73] Immanuel Kant, The Critique of Judgment.
[74] Davies, 1991, Carroll, 2000, et al.
[75] Danto, 2003
[76] Goodman,
[77] Novitz, 1992
[78] Brian Massumi, Deleuze, Guattari and the Philosophy of
Expression, CRCL, 24:3, 1997.
[79] Derek Allan. Art and the Human Adventure. Andr Malrauxs Theory of Art. (Amsterdam: Rodopi, 2009)

[92] http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/figs/hd_figs.htm
[93] The Arab Contribution to Islamic Art: From the Seventh to
the Fifteenth Centuries, [Wijdan Ali], American Univ in
Cairo Press, 10 December 1999, ISBN 977-424-476-1
[94] From the Literal to the Spiritual: The Development of
the Prophet Muhammads Portrayal from 13th century
Ilkhanid Miniatures to 17th century Ottoman Art, [Steve
Mwai], EJOS (Electronic Journal of Oriental Studies),
volume IV, issue 7, p. 124, 2001
[95] http://www.calligraphyislamic.com/
IntroIslamicCalligraphy.html

20 Further reading
Mario Perniola, 20th Century Aesthetics. Towards A Theory of Feeling, translated by Massimo
Verdicchio, London-New Delhi-New York-Sydney,
Bloomsbury, 2013, ISBN 978-1-4411-1850-9.
Chung-yuan, Chang (19631970). Creativity and
Taoism, A Study of Chinese Philosophy, Art, and Poetry. New York: Harper Torchbooks. ISBN 0-06131968-6.
Handbook of Phenomenological Aesthetics. Edited
by Hans Rainer Sepp and Lester Embree. (Series: Contributions To Phenomenology, Vol. 59)
Springer, Dordrecht / Heidelberg / London / New
York 2010. ISBN 978-90-481-2470-1

[80] Benjamin, Walter, Understanding Brecht, trans. Anna Bostock, Verso Books, 2003, ISBN 978-1859844182

Theodor W. Adorno, Aesthetic Theory, Minneapolis, University of Minnesota Press, 1997.

[81] Hadjinicolaou, Nicos, Art History and Class Struggle,

Pluto Press; 1978. ISBN 978-0904383270

Ayn Rand, The Romantic Manifesto: A Philosophy

of Literature, New York, NY, New American Library, 1971

[82] Tedman, Gary, Aesthetics & Alienation, Zero Books;

2012.
[83] Clement Greenberg, On Modernist Painting.
[84] Tristan Tzara, Sept Manifestes Dada.
[85] Theodore Gracyk, Outline of Tolstoys What Is Art?",
course web page.
[86] The Hitchhikers Guide to the Galaxy, by Douglas Adams
[87] Derek Allan, Art and Time, Cambridge Scholars, 2013
[88] Denis Dutton's Aesthetic Universals summarized by Steven
Pinker in The Blank Slate
[89] Derek Allan, Art and the Human Adventure: Andr Malrauxs Theory of Art. (Amsterdam: Rodopi. 2009)
[90] Plato. Ion Or: On the Iliad
[91] Davies, Penelope J.E. Denny, Walter B. Hofrichter, Frima
Fox. Jacobs, Joseph. Roberts, Ann M. Simon, David
L. Jansons History of Art, Prentice Hall; 2007, Upper
Saddle River, New Jersey. Seventh Edition, ISBN 0-13193455-4 pg. 277

Derek Allan, Art and the Human Adventure, Andre

Malrauxs Theory of Art, Rodopi, 2009
Derek Allan. Art and Time, Cambridge Scholars,
2013.
Augros, Robert M., Stanciu, George N., The New
Story of Science: mind and the universe, Lake Blu,
Ill.: Regnery Gateway, c1984. ISBN 0-89526-8337 (has signicant material on Art, Science and their
philosophies)
John Bender and Gene Blocker Contemporary Philosophy of Art: Readings in Analytic Aesthetics 1993.
Ren Bergeron. L'Art et sa spiritualit. Qubec,
QC.: ditions du Pelican, 1961.
Christine Buci-Glucksmann (2003), Esthtique de
l'phmre, Galile. (French)
Nol Carroll (2000), Theories of Art Today, University of Wisconsin Press.

16

20 FURTHER READING

Mario Costa (1999) (in Italian), L'estetica dei media. Avanguardie e tecnologia, Milan: Castelvecchi,
ISBN 88-8210-165-7.

Kant, Immanuel (1790), Critique of Judgement,

Translated by Werner S. Pluhar, Hackett Publishing
Co., 1987.

Benedetto Croce (1922), Aesthetic as Science of Expression and General Linguistic.

Kelly, Michael (Editor in Chief) (1998) Encyclopedia of Aesthetics. New York, Oxford, Oxford University Press. 4 voll., pp. XVII-521, pp. 555, pp.
536, pp. 572; 2224 total pages; 100 b/w photos;
ISBN 978-0-19-511307-5. Covers philosophical,
historical, sociological, and biographical aspects of
Art and Aesthetics worldwide.

E. S. Dallas (1866), The Gay Science, 2 volumes, on

the aesthetics of poetry.
Danto, Arthur (2003), The Abuse of Beauty: Aesthetics and the Concept of Art, Open Court.
Stephen Davies (1991), Denitions of Art.
Terry Eagleton (1990), The Ideology of the Aesthetic.
Blackwell. ISBN 0-631-16302-6
Susan Feagin and Patrick Maynard (1997), Aesthetics. Oxford Readers.
Penny Florence and Nicola Foster (eds.) (2000),
Dierential Aesthetics. London: Ashgate. ISBN 07546-1493-X
Berys Gaut and Dominic McIver Lopes (eds.), Routledge Companion to Aesthetics. 3rd edition. London
and New York: Routledge, 2013.
Annemarie Gethmann-Siefert (1995), Einfhrung in
die sthetik, Munich, W. Fink.
David Goldblatt and Lee B. Brown, ed. (2010), Aesthetics: A Reader in the Philosophy of the Arts. 3rd
edition. Pearson Publishing.
Theodore Gracyk (2011), The Philosophy of Art: An
Introduction. Polity Press.
Greenberg, Clement (1960), Modernist Painting,
The Collected Essays and Criticism 19571969, The
University of Chicago Press, 1993, 85-92.

Alexander J. Kent, Aesthetics: A Lost Cause in

Cartographic Theory?" The Cartographic Journal,
42(2) 182-8, 2005.
Sren Kierkegaard (1843), Either/Or, translated by
Alastair Hannay, London, Penguin, 1992
Peter Kivy (ed.), The Blackwell Guide to Aesthetics.
2004
Carolyn Korsmeyer (ed.), Aesthetics: The Big Questions. 1998
Lyotard, Jean-Franois (1979), The Postmodern
Condition, Manchester University Press, 1984.
Merleau-Ponty, Maurice (1969), The Visible and the
Invisible, Northwestern University Press.
David Novitz (1992), The Boundaries of Art.
Mario Perniola, The Art and Its Shadow, foreword by Hugh J. Silverman, translated by Massimo
Verdicchio, London-NewYork, Continuum, 2004.
Robert Pirsig, Zen and the Art of Motorcycle Maintenance: An Inquiry into Values, 1974, paperpack,
or hardback rst edition ISBN 0-688-00230-7

Evelyn Hatcher (ed.), Art as Culture: An Introduction to the Anthropology of Art. 1999

Griselda Pollock, Does Art Think?" In: Dana

Arnold and Margaret Iverson (eds.) Art and
Thought. Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 2003. 129-174.
ISBN 0-631-22715-6.

Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel (1975), Aesthetics.

Lectures on Fine Art, trans. T.M. Knox, 2 vols. Oxford: Clarendon Press.

Griselda Pollock, Encounters in the Virtual Feminist

Museum: Time, Space and the Archive. Routledge,
2007. ISBN 0-415-41374-5.

Hans Hofmann and Sara T Weeks; Bartlett H Hayes;

Addison Gallery of American Art; Search for the
real, and other essays (Cambridge, Mass., M.I.T.
Press, 1967) OCLC 1125858

Griselda Pollock, Generations and Geographies in

the Visual Arts. Routledge, 1996. ISBN 0-41514128-1.

Michael Ann Holly and Keith Moxey (eds.), Art History and Visual Studies. Yale University Press, 2002.
ISBN 0-300-09789-1
Carol Armstrong and Catherine de Zegher (eds.),
Women Artists at the Millennium. Massachusetts:
October Books/MIT Press, 2006. ISBN 0-26201226-X

George Santayana (1896), The Sense of Beauty. Being the Outlines of Aesthetic Theory. New York,
Modern Library, 1955.
Elaine Scarry, On Beauty and Being Just. Princeton,
2001. ISBN 978-0-691-08959-1
Friedrich Schiller, (1795), On the Aesthetic Education of Man. Dover Publications, 2004.

17
Alan Singer and Allen Dunn (eds.), Literary Aesthetics: A Reader. Blackwell Publishing Limited, 2000.
ISBN 978-0-631-20869-3
Wadysaw Tatarkiewicz, A History of Six Ideas: an
Essay in Aesthetics, The Hague, 1980. ISBN 97890-247-2233-4

Aesthetics in Art Education: A Look Toward Implementation

More about Art, culture and Education
An history of aesthetics
The Concept of the Aesthetic

Wadysaw Tatarkiewicz, History of Aesthetics, 3

vols. (12, 1970; 3, 1974), The Hague, Mouton.

Aesthetics entry in the Routledge Encyclopedia of

Philosophy

Markand Thakar Looking for the 'Harp' Quartet:

An Investigation into Musical Beauty. University of
Rochester Press, 2011.

Philosophy of Aesthetics entry in the Philosophy

Archive

Leo Tolstoy, What Is Art?, Penguin Classics, 1995.

Washington State Board for Community & Technical Colleges: Introduction to Aesthetics

The London Philosophy Study Guide oers many

suggestions on what to read, depending on the students familiarity with the subject: Aesthetics

Art Perception Complete pdf version of art historian

David Cyclebacks book.

John M. Valentine, Beginning Aesthetics: An Introduction To The Philosophy of Art. McGraw-Hill,

2006. ISBN 978-0-07-353754-2
von Vacano, Diego, The Art of Power: Machiavelli, Nietzsche and the Making of Aesthetic Political Theory, Lanham MD: Lexington: 2007.
Thomas Wartenberg, The Nature of Art. 2006.
John Whitehead, Grasping for the Wind. 2001.
Ludwig Wittgenstein, Lectures on aesthetics, psychology and religious belief, Oxford, Blackwell,
1966.
Richard Wollheim, Art and its objects, 2nd edn,
1980, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0-52129706-0
Sen, R. K., Aesthetic Enjoyment: Its Background in
Philosophy and Medicine, Calcutta: University of
Calcutta, 1966

21

External links

Aesthetics at the Indiana Philosophy Ontology

Project
Aesthetics at PhilPapers
Aesthetics entry in the Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy
Medieval Theories of Aesthetics article in the
Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy
Revue online Appareil
Postscript 1980- Some Old Problems in New Perspectives

18

22

22
22.1

TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

Text

Aesthetics Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aesthetics?oldid=645390554 Contributors: Lee Daniel Crocker, Brion VIBBER, Daniel
C. Boyer, Heron, DennisDaniels, Michael Hardy, Jahsonic, Ixfd64, Kalki, Lament, Minesweeper, Wintran, Ihcoyc, Ellywa, Williamv1138,
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