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INTRODUCTION
1.1
INRODUCTION
1.2
PROBLEM STATEMENT
Structures are mean to stand firm for many years to come and more importantly, could
provide great strength to support loads within the structure. Consolidation settlement was a major
topic discussed by the civil engineers and geologist particularly when dealing with structure
design involving foundation. The predictions of long term settlement can be determined by the
soil exploration. In this study the prediction of the settlement for highway construction project
have been selected and discussed as a case study. The soil sample were investigated in a
laboratory by consolidation test which was done by using the odometer apparatus. Finally, the
consolidation time and settlement can be predict from the odometer result.
1.3
PROPERTIES OF SAND
Mineral composition, whether single mineral grains like quartz sand, or made up of other
minerals or small rock fragments. Sands containing a large proportion of heavy minerals, such as
rutile and zircon are mined as sources of titanium and zirconium. There are also sands rich in
magnetite, suitable for treating as iron ore.
Grain size and size distribution (sorting). Well sorted sands (single sized) are useful for
industrial applications, whereas sand with a wide distribution of grainsize is preferred for
concrete manufacture (because a poorly sorted sand has less pore space, and less cement is
needed in making concrete).
Porosity and permeability. Well sorted sand has a higher permeability, and is suitable for
drainage materials and, especially if pure quartz sand, for water filtration.Grain shape (angular,
subangular or rounded). More angular sand is preferred for concrete manufacture, and wellrounded sand is preferred for filtration sand.
1.4
PROPOSED SOLUTION
Consolidation settlement was a major topic discussed by the civil engineers and geologist
when designing the structure. From past, many case of building problem and failure found that
settlement could affect them by continuing settlement for many years with total accumulated
settlement being very large. This settlement may due to creep or secondary settlement. There are
many method used to predict the settlement such as Casagrande Odometer (Terzaghi 1923 ;
Casagrande 1936). We can predict the primary and secondary settlement in laboratory using
3
consolidation odometer test. The reliability of the prediction depend on many factors such as
good sample, human, apparatus, and other uncertainties soils.
Atterberg Limits test methods are used as an integral part of several engineering
classification systems to characterize the fine-grained fractions of soils along the lakeside of
college of engineering UNITEN and to specify the fine-grained fraction of construction
materials. The liquid limit, plastic limit, and plasticity index of soils are also used extensively,
either individually or together, with other soil properties to correlate with engineering behavior
such as compressibility, hydraulic conductivity (permeability), compatibility, shrink-swell, and
shear strength. The liquid and plastic limits of the soil and its water content can be used to
express its relative consistency or liquidity index. In addition, the plasticity index and the
percentage finer than 2-m particle size can be used to determine its activity number. The liquid
limit of a soil containing substantial amounts of organic matter decreases dramatically when the
soil is oven-dried before testing. Comparison of the liquid limit of a sample before and after
oven-drying can therefore be used as a qualitative measure of organic matter content of soil .
1.5
To determine and identify the type and the percentages of gravel and sand
To determine the percentage of moisture content of liquid limit.
To determine the percentages of moisture content of plastic limit of soil sample.
IV.
1.6
SCOPE OF WORK
The main scope of this project is to determine the coefficient of consolidation (cv) of soil
sample. The scope of study has been narrowed down so the study will not exceed the limit stated.
The scope of work involved in this study is in-situ soil testing. Testing is involving the sieve
analysis, plastic limit, liquid limit and consolidation test. The testing method will be done only in
the laboratory which means there is no field testing involve. The properties of the soil is said to
be categorized as sand as the soil sample taken is situated around the land beside Murni
Apartment of Universiti Tenaga Nasional.
CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1
all
but
the
rarest
of
natural
deposit,while
still
being
are
to
be
drawn
from
the
knowledge
of
the
type
of
Figure 2.2 shows the British Standard range of the particles size. The
particles size analysis of a soil is carried out by determining the weight
percentages falling within bands of size represented by divisions and
subdivision. In the case of a course soil, from which fine grained particles
have been removed or were absent, the usual process is a sieve analysis. A
representative sample of the soil is spilt systematically down to be
convenient sub sample size and then oven dried .This sample is then passed
through a nest of standard test sieve arranged in descending order of mesh
size. Following agitation of first the whole nest and then individuals sieves,
the weight of the soil retained on each sieve is determined and the
cumulative percentages of the sub sample weight passing each sieve
calculated.
2.2
LIQUID LIMIT
The liquid limit is that moisture content at which a soil changes from
the liquid state to the plastic state. It along with the plastic limit provides a
means of soil classification as well as being useful in determining other soil
properties.
As explained, plastic limit is the dividing line between the plastic and
semisolid states. From a physical standpoint, it is the water content at which
the soil will begin to crumble when rolled in small threads.
Liquid limit is significant to know the stress history and general
properties of the soil met with construction. From the results of liquid limit
the compression index may be estimated. The compression index value will
help us in settlement analysis. If the natural moisture content of soil is closer
9
to liquid limit, the soil can be considered as soft if the moisture content is
lesser than liquids limit, the soil can be considered as soft if the moisture
content is lesser than liquid limit. The soil is brittle and stiffer.
The liquid limit is the moisture content at which the groove, formed by
a standard tool into the sample of soil taken in the standard cup, closes for
10 mm on being given 25 blows in a standard manner. At this limit the soil
possess low shear strength.
2.3
PLASTIC LIMIT
10
The following moisture conditions liquid limit, plastic limit, along with shrinkage limit
are referred to as the Atterberg Limit after the originator of the test procedure.
2.4
CONSOLIDATION TEST
In saturated cohesive soil the effect of loading is to squeeze out pore water; this process is
called consolidation. A gradual reduction in volume occurs until internal pore pressure
equilibrium is reached. Unloading result is swelling, providing the soil can remain saturated. A
detailed study of the consolidation process and methods of assessing the resulting settlement.
11
The rate of the consolidation depend on the soil permeability can be very slow in fine soils, so
that it may take several years for the final settlement to be achieved.
When a saturated mass of soil is loaded, say by foundation, an immediate increase in pore
pressure occurs and a hydraulic gradient is set up so that seepage flow take place into
surrounding soil. This excess pore pressure dissipates as water drain from the soil: very quickly
in coarse soil (sand and gravel), and very slowly in fine soil (silt and clay) which have low
permeability. As water leaves the soil a change in volume accurs, the rate gradually diminishing
until steady state condition are regained. The process is called consolidation.
Terzaghi (1943) suggest the model of one- dimensional consolidation which used the
steel spring technique that represents the soil. It is assumed that the frictionless piston was
supported by the spring and the cylinder was filled with water. If a load was applied to the piston
by the closed valve, the length of the spring will remain unchanged since the water was assume
as incompressible. If the load was induced an increase in total stress of the whole of the
consideration must be count initially by an equal increase in pore water pressure u.
For standard references ASTM D 2435- Standard Test Method for One Dimensional
Consolidation Properties of Soil.
12
CHAPTER 3
METHODOLOGY
13
3.1
INTRODUCTION
A specific site was chosen for the purpose of soil sampling. Hence, we decide to take the
sample at behind Murni 3 parking area for the soil sample. A portion of about 10kg soil was
taken back to the laboratory for further investigation. The soil sample was sieved using the sieve
size of 2mm. Only a small portion of soil was needed for the sieving. The sieved soil was used
for the plastic limit and the liquid limit experimentation also for consolidation test.Diagram
below is referring to the flow chart of this entire research.
SOIL
SAMPLING
14
LIQUID LIMIT
PLASTIC LIMIT
CONSOLIDATION
3.2
BASIC SOIL
CLASSIFICATION TEST
COEFFICIENT OF
CONSOLIDATION
From the soil sample that we took is to determine the soil type, soil classification and the
sensitivity of the soil from a selected site. Soil that is to be taken will first examine based on its
colour and stickiness. The colour of our soil at the site is dark and it is sticky. This characteristics
is enough to classify the type of soil that is needed to conduct the basic soil test and the
sensitivity test.
It was selected for the experiment sample test due to open ended based from a strategic
area. This is easy for students to bring the sample to the lab. In addition, the soil still in good
condition. It was not too disturbed because the land is nearby to the trees and no traffic areas.
15
17
Figure 3.4 : Sieving process of soil sample to get in particles size 2-mm
3.3
EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE
3.3.1
About roughly 300g of soil sample that passes sieve size 2.00mm had prepared.The height of
fall of the liquid limit device was adjusted through which the cup is lifted and dropped where the
point on the cup comes in contact with the base falls through exactly 10.00mm, the handle was
rotated by one revolution. Whenthe adjustment plate was complete, the adjustment was screwed
tight. The soil sample was mixed thoroughly with distilled water on a large glass plate to formed
uniform paste.A portion of the paste was taken with a spatulaand placed it in the centre of the
cup so that it is almost half filled.
The surface of the wet soil was smoothed off level and parallel to the base maximum depth of
the soil 10.0mm.Using the grooving tool, a clan, straight groove was cut through the soil
dividing it into two halves, on a line joining the highest point to the lowest point on the rim of
the cup. When the groove was cut, the tool must be held normal to the surface of the cup. The tip
18
of the tool must scrape the bowl lightly. The handle of the apparatus had turned at the rate of 2
revolution per seconds to lift and drop the cup, until the two halves of the soil pat come in
contact at the bottom of the groove along a distance of 12.7 mm. The number of blows required
to close the groove was recorded.
A slice of soil approximately the width of the spatula extending from one edge to the other
edge of the soil cake at right angles to the groove including that portion of the groove in which
the soil flowed together was collected, and put it in a weighted container and cover it. This was
done to determine the water content of the soil sample.The remaining soil from the cup was
removed and mixed it with the soil left on the glass plate. Add distilled water to increase the
water content of the soil and decrease the number of blows required closing the groove.The steps
were repeated successively and lower number of blows required to close the groove.
19
20
A soil sample 50g of the material are taken and mix with water remaining from the liquid
limit test. From that a ball were made and rolled on the glass of plate with the hand with just
steady pressure at a rate of 80-90 strokes per minute. Therate of rolling may have to be decreased
for very fragile soils.
The mass was rolled into a thread of uniform diameter throughout its length until the thread
reaches a diameter of approximately 3mm.At this point the thread began to act brittle and
crumbled then the plastic limit was reached. The crumbled soil was collected in the airtight
container and was kept for water content determination. The process was continued until the
thread just crumble at 3mm diameter.
21
FIGURE 3.11 : Roll sample until the diameter 3mmthe soil begins to crack
3.3.3
CONSOLIDATION TEST
The specimen ring is weighed approximately 30mm of soil was extruded from the sample
tube.The oedometer cell- cutting ring was used as a guide template, the extruded soil sample was
trimmed until the edged of the trimmed sample just allowing the cutter ring to slide over the soil.
The ring is pressed down until it is centrally positioned with the upper and lower surfaces of the
soil just protruding by an equal amount. A straight edge or spatula was used to trim these
surfaces to be level with the end faces of the cutting ring. The specimen was weighted in the ring
and the weight of the ring was deducted, to obtain the sample weight.
The moisture content of the sample is determined. After swinging the loading yoke clear of
the centre line of the platenthe filled cell was loaded .The loading beam was swing up to the
vertical and the beam support is screwed to the point where it just touches the underside of the
beam. the sliding arm attachment (where fitted) was set to the zero position.The beam was
slowly lower and yoked until the screw spindle was just above the loading cap. If the beam,
when contact was made above the horizontal, the support jack was raised to hold the lever arm
and bring the screw spindle into contact by screwing down.
Position was locked using the lock nut and the changed in the beam angle has a negligible
effect on the loading ratio.The dial gauge was swing on its block and the spindle was above the
top surface of the crossbeam screw spindle. a small positive reading is obtained after set the dial
gauge, then the screw jack was ensured to support the beam, the first increment load was placed
22
on the weight pan, then when ready to start readings, the screw jack was release and the timer is
started.
When a saturated soil mass was subjected to an increase in load, it is carried initially by
increased pore water pressure. The resulting causes water to drain from the soil pores, shifting
the load to the soil structure. The volume of the soil also decreases (equivalent to the volume of
water drained) causing settlement. The process is known as consolidation.
Three important soil properties found using a consolidation test are:
The coefficient of consolidation, Cv, obtained from deformation-time curve data and an
equation. It indicates the rate of compression under a load increment.
The pre-consolidation stress, C'p, obtained graphically from a log stress-void ratio curve.
It indicates the maximum past effective stress the soil has been subjected to.
The compression index, Cc, also obtained graphically from the log stress-void ratio
curve. It indicates the compressibility of the specimen.
23
Figure 3.13 : Poured the distilled water to make it into a soil paste
24
Figure 3.14: Trim this surface to be level with the end faces of the cutting
ring
Figure 3.15: The apparatus is ready set up. Make sure the sliding arm
attachment is set to the zero position
25
CHAPTER 4
RESULT AND ANALYSIS
4.1
4.1.1
Container number
Number of blows
20
29
15
30
17.0
18.1
29.9
24.1
15.0
15.5
26.7
20.3
2.0
2.60
3.20
3.80
8.70
8.5
18.0
8.3
6.3
7.0
8.7
12.0
31.75
37.15
36.78
31.67
4.1.2
Determination No.
Container number
9.7
9.5
9.0
9.5
9.40
8.9
0.20
0.10
0.1
8.60
8.7
8.30
0.9
0.7
0.6
22.22
14.29
16.67
From the plasticity chart and our results where liquid limit is 33.30% while plasticity index is
15.58 %, the soil sample is classified as clay . This chart was based on the British Standard
System
27
28
=48mm
=45.36 %
Loading
= 2kg
=0.02mm
Dial gauge
time ,t(minute)
0
0.25
1
2.25
4
8
16
25
36
49
64
81
100
Compression
0
1.86
1.79
1.75
1.70
1.66
1.60
1.56
1.53
1.50
1.48
1.48
1.48
0
0.0372
0.0358
0.0350
0.0340
0.0332
0.0320
0.0312
0.0306
0.0300
0.0296
0.0296
0.0296
0
0.500
1.000
1.500
2.000
2.828
4.000
5.000
6.000
7.000
8.000
9.000
10.00
Mass
Mass
Mass
Mass
Mass
of
of
of
of
of
Determination no
container (g)
container + wet soil (g)
wet soil (g)
container + dry soil (g)
dry soil (g)
1
61.10
134.00
72.90
111.25
50.15
29
45.36
CHAPTER 5
DISCUSSION
30
5.1
LIQUID LIMIT
5.2
PLASTIC LIMIT
From the result it was determined the plastic limit of the soil. The plastic limit is the
lower boundary range of the plastic behaviour of a given soil. Its primary use is in association
with the other Atterberg limits in soil identification and classification. For the first time testing,
the percentage of water content was only 22.22%. For the second and third test, the value of
water content was 14.29% and 14.67%. So, from all the values we can see that the percentage of
water content not show the extremely different, and after calculate the average, we found that the
plastic limit of soil was 17.72.%
5.3
CONSOLIDATION TEST
31
coefficient
of
consolidation
measures
one-dimensional
32
CHAPTER 6
CONCLUSION
All the test has met the aim and objectives that set up earlier as the following conclusion can
be drawn based on the findings :
The type of soil that we get from the sieve analysis test is sand
Our soil is classified as disturb sample
The liquid limit of our soil is 33.30 %.
The knowledge on consolidation of soil is important as it helps us to design effectively. With this
we are able to predict and design in way that settlement is minimized where we are able to
prevent damages towards buildings also with our case study which is highways.
33
REFERENCES
1) http://civilengineeringlaboratory.blogspot.com/2012/02/liquid-limit-andplastic-limit-tests.html
2) https://www.dot.ny.gov/divisions/engineering/technicalservices/technical-services-repository/GTM-7b.pdf
3) https://www.mdt.mt.gov/other/materials/external/geotech_manual/chap
ter09.pdf
4) http://www.vulcanhammer.net/geotechnical/EM-1110-2-1906.pdf
5) Book : Soil Mechanics Fourth edition Roy Whitlow
6) Book : Open Ended Lab Manual for Soil Mechanics Laboratory
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