Lecture 2

Rate Dependent Creep

ANSYS Mechanical
Advanced Nonlinear Materials
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Chapter Overview
This chapter will address the wide range of implicit creep laws available in
Mechanical.
We will cover the following topics:
A. Background on Creep

B. Definition of Terms
C. General Creep Equation
D. Available Creep Models
E.

Material Input

F.

Analysis Settings for Creep

G. Review Creep Results

H. Workshop

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A. Background on Creep
In crystalline materials, such as metals, creep mechanism is linked to
diffusional flow of vacancies and dislocation movement.

Vacancies are point defects, and they tend to favor grain boundaries that are
normal, rather than parallel, to the applied stress. Vacancies tend to move from
regions of high to low concentrations. Diffusional flow can occur at low stresses but
usually require high temperatures.

Dislocations in grains are line defects. The movement of dislocations (climb, glide,
deviation) tend to be activated by high stresses, although it may also occur at
intermediate temperatures.

Grain boundary sliding is sometimes considered as a separate mechanism which also

contributes to creep deformation.

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... Background on Creep

Although a detailed discussion of material science is beyond the scope of this
seminar, it may suffice to say that the aforementioned physical mechanics
contribute to creep.

The dependency of creep deformation on stress, strain, time, and temperature

are generally modeled with a form similar to the following:

cr f1 f 2 f 3 t f 4 T
The functions f1-4 are dependent on the creep law selected.

Associated creep constants are usually obtained through various tensile tests at
different rates and temperatures.
Assuming isotropic behavior, the von Mises equation is used to compute the effective
stress, and the equivalent strain is used in the creep strain rate equation (similar to
rate-independent plasticity).
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... Background on Creep

WB Mechanical uses the additive strain decomposition when calculating
elastic, plastic, and creep strain:

Additive decomposition

el pl cr

Plastic strains (flow rule) are calculated in a similar fashion as described in the
lecture on plasticity. Creep strains are evaluated based on the creep strain
rate equations, specific forms of which will be discussed later.
The elastic, creep, and plastic strains are all evaluated on the (current) stress
state, but they are calculated independently (not based on each other).

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... Background on Creep

Creep, like plasticity, is an irreversible (inelastic) strain which is based on
deviatoric behavior. The material is assumed to be incompressible under
creep flow.

On the other hand, creep, unlike rate-independent plasticity, has no yield

surface at which inelastic strains occur.

Hence, creep does not require a higher stress value for more creep strain to occur.
Creep strains are assumed to develop at all non-zero stress values.

In engineering usage, creep is generally used to describe a thermally-activated

process with a low strain rate. Rate-independent plastic and implicit creep strains
are treated in a weakly coupled manner.

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B. Definition of Terms
Three stages of creep:

Under constant load, the uniaxial strain vs. time behavior of creep is shown below.
In the primary stage, the strain rate decreases with time. This tends to occur over a
short period. The secondary stage has a constant strain rate associated with it. In
the tertiary stage, the strain rate increases rapidly until failure (rupture).

Rupture

Primary

Secondary
Tertiary

t
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... Definition of Terms

Three stages of creep (contd):

The creep strain rate may be a function of stress, strain, temperature, and/or time.
For engineering analysis, the primary and secondary stages of creep are usually of
greatest interest.
Tertiary creep is usually associated with the onset of failure (necking, damage)
and is short-lived. Hence, tertiary creep is not modeled in Mechanical.

The strain rate associated with primary creep is usually much greater than those
associated with secondary creep.
However, the strain rate is decreasing in the primary stage whereas it is usually
nearly constant in the secondary stage (for the aforementioned uniaxial test case
at constant stress and temperature).

Also, primary creep tends to be of a shorter period than secondary creep.

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... Definition of Terms

Creep

Under constant applied stress,

strain increases.

Stress Relaxation

Under constant applied strain,

stress decreases.

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... Definition of Terms

Time-hardening

Assumes that the creep strain rate

depends only upon the time from

the beginning of the creep process.
In other words, the curve shifts
up/down. As stress changes from
1 to 2, the different creep rates
are calculated at points A to B.

cr t n

t
c

Strain-hardening

Assumes that the creep rate depends

only on the existing strain of the
material. In other words, the curve
shifts left/right. As stress changes
from 1 to 2, the different creep strain
rates are calculated at points A to B.
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A
B

cr n
t

... Definition of Terms

Implicit creep

Implicit creep refers to the use of backward Euler integration for creep strains. This
method is numerically unconditionally stable. This means that it does not require as
small a time-step as the explicit creep method, so it is much faster overall.

cr f t t , t t , T t t ,
For implicit creep plus rate-independent plasticity, the plasticity correction and creep
correction done at the same time, not independently. Consequently, implicit creep is
generally more accurate than explicit creep, but it is still dependent on the time-step
size. A small enough time-step must be used to capture the path-dependent behavior
accurately.

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C. General Creep Equation

As noted earlier, the creep equations are usually of a rate form similar to the
one below:

cr f1 f 2 f 3 t f 4 T
However, the type of material being analyzed determines the choice of a
specific creep equation. Some general characteristics will be discussed
presently. Specific models will be covered in the implicit creep sections.

The implicit creep equations are also covered in the Elements Manual, Ch. 2.5.

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... General Creep Equation

Primary creep usually exhibits either time- or strain-hardening.

Time-hardening is the inclusion of a time-dependent term:

cr t m
Strain-hardening is the inclusion of a strain-dependent term:

cr crn
Determination of which to use (strain- or time-hardening) is based upon material data
available. Strain-hardening tends to approximate primary creep of metals more
accurately although time-hardening tends to be more popular.

Secondary creep does not exhibit time- or strain-hardening. Creep strain rate is
usually constant for secondary stage.
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... General Creep Equation

Temperature-dependency

Creep effects are thermally activated, and its temperature dependence is usually
expressed through the Arrhenius law:

cr e

Q
RT

Where Q is the activation energy, R is the universal gas constant, and T is absolute
temperature.

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... General Creep Equation

Stress dependency

Creep strain is also usually stress-dependent, especially with dislocation creep. The
steady-state creep behavior (secondary creep) is expressed in various ways.

Nortons law (a.k.a. power law):

cr n
A common modification to the above is the exponential law:

cr eC
The hyperbolic sine law is yet another common function used to describe secondary
(constant) creep rate:

cr sinh A
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... General Creep Equation

Below is a summary of implicit creep laws available in
Mechanical which will be reviewed in the following section:
Creep Equation Description
Strain Hardening
Time Hardening
Generalized Exponential
Generalized Graham
Generalized Blackburn
Modified Time Hardening
Modified Strain Hardening
Generalized Garofalo (Hyperbolic sine)
Exponential Form
Norton
Time Hardening
Rational Polynomial
Generalized Time Hardening
User Creep

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Type
Primary
Primary
Primary
Primary
Primary
Primary
Primary
Secondary
Secondary
Secondary
Both
Both
Primary

D. Available Creep Models

1) Strain Hardening
Primary creep

2) Modified Strain Hardening

Primary creep

cr C1 C 2 C3 e C 4 /T

C
cr C1 C2 C3 1 3

1
C3 1 C 4 /T

These two creep laws contain Nortons law as well as a strain-hardening

term. Since the constant C3 is usually negative, these laws are able to
model primary creep where the creep strain rate decreases as e increases.
They can also capture some secondary creep effects since, as e increases,
the creep strain rate can become nearly constant. Note that these laws
also contain the Arrhenius equation.
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... Available Creep Models

3) Time Hardening
Primary creep

cr C1 C 2 t C3 e C 4 /T
r

4) Generalized Time Hardening

Primary Creep

cr ft e

C6

f C1 C2 2 C3 3
r C4 C5

5) Modified Time Hardening

Primary creep

C1 C2 t C3 1e C4 /T
cr
C3 1

The above three creep laws include the Arrhenius equation and Nortons law, as well as
a time-hardening term. The exponential term for t is usually between -0.5 and -1.0 to
model the decreasing creep strain rate for primary creep. Hence, this model may also
approximate a significant part of secondary creep where creep strain rate is constant.
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... Available Creep Models

6) Generalized Blackburn
Primary creep

cr C1e C2 1 e rt C6 e C7 t

7) Generalized Graham
Primary creep

cr C1 C 2 t C3 C 4 t C5 C 6 t C7 e C8 /T

8) Generalized Exponential
Primary creep

r C3
C4

C5

cr C1 C2 re rt
r C5 C3 e C4 /T

These are some variants of time-hardening creep laws (see previous slide for
discussion on time-hardening creep). Note that Generalized Blackburn uses
exponential law instead of Nortons law and, like Generalized Exponential, it
includes an exponential form for the time-hardening term.
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... Available Creep Models

9) Time Hardening
Primary + Secondary

C1 C2 t C3 1e C4 /T
cr
C5 C6 teC7 /T
C3 1

10) Rational Polynomial

Primary + Secondary

cr C1

c
t
cpt
c
mt
1 pt
c C7 mC8 C9

m C210C3 C4
p C10 mC1 1 C1 2

Both of these time-hardening laws can be used to model primary and secondary
creep effects directly. If one takes the time derivative of Time Hardening one may
notice that it is both time-hardening and Nortons law. The Rational Polynomial
form is commonly used for steels in the nuclear industry.

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... Available Creep Models

11) Generalized Garofalo
Secondary creep

cr C1 sinh C 2 C 3 e C4 /T

12) Exponential Form

Secondary creep

cr C1e /C 2 e C3 /T

13) Norton
Secondary creep

cr C1 C 2 e C3 /T

These last three creep laws were previously discussed. Because they do not
include any time or strain dependence on creep strain rate, these are suitable to
model secondary creep range (i.e., constant creep strain rate).

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E. Material Data Input

From the Engineering Data Toolbox, open the Creep folder:

Highlight the creep model of interests (in the example below, modified time hardening
RMB on the material model and click on Include Property

The creep model will then appear in the

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Properties Dialogue box.

The yellow blank boxes are now available for user
to define the necessary coefficients.
As with all material properties, be sure to use consistent units
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... Material Data Input

Creep models also support temperature dependent properties via Tabular input.
Notes:
The fourth constant (C4) in the modified time
hardening model above is also related to
temperature via Arrhenius equation .
User has the option to define creep
temperature dependency by way of Arrhenius
equation with nonzero value for C4 or by
multiple sets of temperature dependent data
(as in this example) or both.
The Arrhenius function relies on an absolute
temperature scale. Temperature units are
automatically offset to absolute temperature
by solver (See TOFFST command
documentation).
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C1 C2 t C3 1e C4 /T
cr
C3 1

F. Analysis Settings for Creep

The Analysis Settings will be similar for most
nonlinear problems

Although time has importance in a creep problem,

the solution can be static or transient. This would
exclude or include inertial effects.

Ensure that the time step size is small enough to

capture the path dependent response adequately.

Large Deflection = ON is recommend

For large models with long run times and potential
convergence trouble, consider setting up a Restart
Control strategy in the event that adjustment to time
step range or convergence criteria is necessary

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 Analysis Settings for Creep

The creep strain calculation can be turned on or off during an analysis.

This is useful to establish initial conditions. In this situation, a very small ending TIME
value (e.g., 1e-8) should be set, and creep effects turned off. Solve initial stress state
as 1st load step. Then, to turn creep effects ON and specify the real end time for load
step 2.
Load Step 1

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Load Step 2

 Analysis Settings for Creep

Because creep is a path-dependent phenomenon, it is
important to ensure that the response is adequately
captured.

One measure of this which the solver uses is the Creep Strain
Ratio defined as:

Cs

cr

et

Where cr is the equivalent creep strain increment and et is the

modified equivalent elastic strain (see Ch. 4.2/4.3 of the Theory
Manual for details).

Creep Limit Ratio is the maximum allowable limit to the Creep

Strain Ratio

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 Analysis Settings for Creep

If, during a timestep, the solver calculates a Creep Strain Ratio larger than the
Creep Limit Ratio (default =1.0), then the solution is automatically bisected until
the creep limit is satisfied or the minimum time step is reached.

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 Analysis Settings for Creep

Implicit creep is unconditionally stable. However, this does not mean that
implicit creep is unconditionally accurate.

Although WB-Mechanical sets this limit to 1.0 by default, a creep limit ratio of 0.1 to
10 (10-1000%) is generally recommended, depending on the magnitude of the
equivalent elastic strain developed and the level of accuracy required.

Also, one should be sure to specify a small enough initial, min, and max time step as
well.

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G. Reviewing Creep Results

In addition to reviewing elastic, thermal, and plastic strains, one can also review
creep strains.

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H. Workshop Exercise
Please refer to your Workshop Supplement:
Workshop 2A: Stress Relaxation

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