Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy Radhakrishnan, SarvepalliInternet Encyclopedia of Philosophy Print

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InternetEncyclopediaofPhilosophyRadhakrishnan,SarvepalliInternetEncyclopediaofPhilosophyPrint
SarvepalliRadhakrishnan(18881975)
As an academic, philosopher, and statesman, Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan (1888
1975) was one of the most recognized and influential Indian thinkers in
academiccirclesinthe20thcentury.Throughouthislifeandextensivewriting
career,Radhakrishnansoughttodefine,defend,andpromulgatehisreligion,a
religion he variously identified as Hinduism, Vedanta, and the religion of the
Spirit. He sought to demonstrate that his Hinduism was both philosophically
coherent and ethically viable. Radhakrishnan's concern for experience and his
extensive knowledge of the Western philosophical and literary traditions has
earnedhimthereputationofbeingabridgebuilderbetweenIndiaandtheWest.
He often appears to feel at home in the Indian as well as the Western
philosophical contexts, and draws from both Western and Indian sources
throughout his writing. Because of this, Radhakrishnan has been held up in
academic circles as a representative of Hinduism to the West. His lengthy
writingcareerandhismanypublishedworkshavebeeninfluentialinshapingtheWest'sunderstandingof
Hinduism,India,andtheEast.
TableofContents
1. BiographyandContext
a. EarlyYears(18881904)
b. MadrasChristianCollege(19041908)
c. EarlyTeachingandWriting(19081912)
d. TheWar,Tagore,andMysore(19141920)
e. CalcuttaandtheGeorgeVChair(19211931)
f. The1930sand1940s
g. PostIndependence:VicepresidencyandPresidency
2. PhilosophyofSarvepalliRadhakrishnan
a. Metaphysics
b. Epistemology:IntuitionandtheVarietiesofExperience
i. Intuition
ii. VarietiesofExperience
1. CognitiveExperience
2. PsychicExperience
3. AestheticExperience
4. EthicalExperience
5. ReligiousExperience
c. ReligiousPluralism
d. AuthorityofScriptureandtheScientificBasisofHinduism
e. PracticalMysticismandAppliedEthics
i. EthicsofCaste
3. Criticism
a. EpistemicAuthority
b. CulturalandReligiousConstructions
c. SelectivityofEvidence
4. ListofAbbreviations
5. ReferencesandFurtherReading
a. PrimarySourcesbyRadhakrishnan
http://www.iep.utm.edu/radhakri/print
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b. SelectedSecondarySources
1.BiographyandContext
a.EarlyYears(18881904)
Rather little detail is known of Radhakrishnan's earliest childhood and education. Radhakrishnan rarely
spoke about his personal life, and what he does reveal comes to us after several decades of reflection.
Radhakrishnan was born in Tirutani, Andhra Pradesh into a brahmin family, likely smarta in religious
orientation. Predominantly Hindu, Tirutani was a temple town and popular pilgrimage center, and
Radhakrishnan'sfamily wereactiveparticipants inthedevotional activitiesthere.The implicitacceptance
ofakara'sAdvaitabythesmartatraditionisgoodevidencetosuggestthatanadvaiticframeworkwasan
important,thoughlatent,featureofRadhakrishnan'searlyphilosophicalandreligioussensibilities.
In 1896, Radhakrishnan was sent to school in the nearby pilgrimage center of Tirupati, a town with a
distinctivelycosmopolitanflavor,drawingbhaktasfromallpartsofIndia.Forfouryears,Radhakrishnan
attended the Hermannsburg Evangelical Lutheran Missionary school. It was there that the young
Radhakrishnan first encountered nonHindu missionaries and 19th century Christian theology with its
impulse toward personal religious experience. The theology taught in the missionary school may have
foundresonancewiththehighlydevotionalactivitiesconnectedwiththenearbyTirumalatemple,activities
that Radhakrishnan undoubtedly would have witnessed taking place outside the school. The shared
emphasisonpersonalreligiousexperiencemayhavesuggestedtoRadhakrishnanacommonlinkbetween
thereligionofthemissionariesandthereligionpracticedatthenearbyTirumalatemple.
Between1900and1904,RadhakrishnanattendedElizabethRodmanVoorheesCollegeinVellore,aschool
runbytheAmericanArcotMissionoftheReformedChurchinAmerica.ThemandateoftheMissionwasto
preachthegospel,topublishvernaculartracts,andtoeducatethe"heathen"masses.Itwashere,asRobert
Minorpointsout,thatRadhakrishnanwas"introducedtotheDutchReformTheology,whichemphasizeda
righteous God, unconditional grace, and election, and which criticized Hinduism as intellectually
incoherent and ethically unsound." At the same time, the Mission demonstrated an active concern for
education, health care, and social uplift through its participation in famine relief, the establishment of
hospitals,andeducationforallirrespectiveofsocialstatus.Suchactivitieswerenotinconsistentwiththe
mandateoftheMissionastheyoftenservedasincentivesforconversion.Inwasinthisatmospherethat
Radhakrishnan encountered what would have appeared to him as crippling assaults on his Hindu
sensibilities.Healsowouldhavewitnessedthepositivecontributionsofthesocialprogramsundertakenby
theMissioninthenameofpropagationoftheChristiangospel.
Thus,Radhakrishnaninheritedfromhisupbringingatacitacceptanceofakara'sAdvaitaVedantaandan
awarenessofthecentralityofdevotionalpracticesassociatedwiththesmartatradition.Hisexperiencesat
Tirupati brought him into contact with Lutheran Christian missionaries whose theological emphasis on
personal religiousexperience mayhave suggestedto him acommon groundbetween Christianityand his
ownreligiousheritage.InVellore,thepresenceofasystematicsocialgospelwasintimatelyboundupwith
thereligionofthosewhosoughttocensureRadhakrishnan'sculturalnormsandreligiousworldview.
Radhakrishnanwasmarriedtohiswifeofover50years,Sivakamuamma,in1904whilelivinginVellore.
Thecouplewentontohavesixchildren:fivedaughtersandason.
It is in this historical and hermeneutic contextsandwith these experiences informing his worldview that
RadhakrishnanencounteredaresurgentHinduism.Specifically,Radhakrishnanencounteredthewritings
of Swami Vivekananda and V.D. Savarkar's The First War of Indian Independence. The Theosophical
Society was also active in the South Arcot area at this time. The Theosophists not only applauded the
ancient wisdom they claimed to have found in India, but were persistent advocates of a philosophical,
spiritual, and scientific meeting of East and West. Moreover, the Society's role in the Indian nationalist
movement is evidenced by Annie Besant's involvement with the Indian National Congress. While
RadhakrishnandoesnotspeakoftheTheosophistspresenceatthistime,itisunlikelythathewouldhave
beenunfamiliarwiththeirviews.
What Vivekananda, Savarkar, and Theosophy did bring to Radhakrishnan was a sense of cultural self
confidence and selfreliance. However, the affirmation Radhakrishnan received from this resurgence of
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HinduismdidnotpushRadhakrishnantostudyphilosophynortointerprethisownreligion.Itwasonly
after Radhakrishnan's experiences at Madras Christian College that he began to put down in writing his
ownunderstandingofHinduism.
b.MadrasChristianCollege(19041908)
In 1904, Radhakrishnan entered Madras Christian College. At this time Radhakrishnan's academic
sensibilitieslaywiththephysicalsciences,andbeforebeginninghisMAdegreein1906hisinterestappears
tohavebeenlaw.
Two key influences on Radhakrishnan at Madras Christian College left an indelible stamp on
Radhakrishnan'ssensibilities.First,itwasherethatRadhakrishnanwastrainedinEuropeanphilosophy.
Radhakrishnan was introduced to the philosophies of Berkeley,Leibniz, Locke, Spinoza, Kant, J.S. Mill, Herbert
Spencer, Fichte, Hegel, Aristotle, andPlato among others. Radhakrishnan was also introduced to the
philosophicalmethodsandtheologicalviewsofhisMAsupervisorandmostinfluentialnonIndianmentor,
Professor A.G. Hogg. Hogg was a Scottish Presbyterian missionary who was educated in the theology of
AlbrechtRitschlandstudiedunderthephilosopherAndrewSethPringlePattison.AsastudentofArthur
Titius, himself a student of Albrecht Ritschl, Hogg adopted the Ritschlian distinction between religious
valuejudgments,withtheiremphasisonsubjectiveperception,andtheoreticalknowledge,whichseeksto
discoverthenatureofultimatereality.Religiousvaluejudgmentsgiveknowledgewhichisdifferentfrom,
though not necessarily opposed to, theoretical knowledge. For Ritschl, and subsequently for Titius and
Hogg, this distinction led tothe conclusion that doctrines and scriptures are records of personal insights
andarethereforenecessaryforreligious,andspecificallyChristian,faith.Thisdistinctionleftitsmarkon
Radhakrishnan'sphilosophicalandreligiousthinkingandresonatesthroughouthiswriting.
A second key factor shaping Radhakrishnan's sensibilities during this time is that it was at Madras
Christian College that Radhakrishnan encountered intense religious polemic in an academic setting.
Radhakrishnanlaterrecalled:"ThechallengeofChristiancriticsimpelledmetomakeastudyofHinduism
andfindoutwhatislivingandwhatisdeadinit...IpreparedathesisontheEthicsoftheVedanta,which
wasintendedtobeareplytothechargethattheVedantasystemhadnoroomforethics"(MST19).
c.EarlyTeachingandWriting(19081912)
Upon the completion of his MA degree in 1908, Radhakrishnan found himself at both a financial and
professional crossroads. His obligations to his family precluded him from applying for a scholarship to
study in Britain and he struggled without success to find work in Madras. The following year, with the
assistance of William Skinner at Madras Christian College, Radhakrishnan was able to secure what was
intendedtobeatemporaryteachingpositionatPresidencyCollegeinMadras.
AtPresidencyCollege,RadhakrishnanlecturedonavarietyoftopicsinpsychologyaswellasinEuropean
philosophy.AsajuniorAssistantProfessor,logic,epistemologyandethicaltheorywerehisstockareasof
instruction.AttheCollege,RadhakrishnanalsolearnedSanskrit.
Duringtheseyears,Radhakrishnanwasanxioustohavehisworkpublished,notonlybyIndianpressesbut
also in European journals. The Guardian Press in Madras published his MA thesis, and scarcely revised
portions of this work appeared in Modern Review andThe Madras Christian College Magazine. While
Radhakrishnan'seffortsmetwithsuccessinotherIndianjournals,itwasnotuntilhisarticle"TheEthicsof
theBhagavadgitaandKant"appearedinTheInternationalJournalofEthicsin1911thatRadhakrishnan
broke through to a substantial Western audience. As well, his edited lecture notes on psychology were
publishedunderthetitleEssentialsofPsychology.
d.TheWar,Tagore,andMysore(19141920)
By 1914, Radhakrishnan's reputation as a scholar was beginning to grow. However, the security of a
permanent academic post in Madras eluded him. For three months in 1916 he was posted to Anantapur,
AndhraPradesh,andin1917hewastransferredyetagain,thistimetoRajahmundry.Onlyafterspendinga
yearinRajahmundrydidRadhakrishnanfindsomedegreeofprofessionalsecurityuponhisacceptanceofa
positioninphilosophyatMysoreUniversity.Thishiatusinhisoccupationalangstwouldbeshortlived.His
mostprestigiousIndianacademicappointmenttotheGeorgeVChairinPhilosophyatCalcuttaUniversity
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inFebruaryof1921wouldtakehimoutofSouthIndiaforthefirsttimeonlytwoandahalfyearslater.
Between1914and1920,Radhakrishnancontinuedtopublish.Heauthoredeighteenarticles,tenofwhich
were published in prominent Western journals such as TheInternationalJournalofEthics, The Monist,
andMind. Throughout these articles, Radhakrishnan took it upon himself to refine and expand upon his
interpretationofHinduism.
Thereisastrongpolemicaltenortomanyofthesearticles.Radhakrishnanwasnolongercontentsimplyto
defineanddefendVedanta.Instead,hesoughttoconfrontdirectlynotonlyVedanta'sWesterncompetitors,
butwhathesawastheWesternphilosophicalenterpriseandtheWesternethosingeneral.
Radhakrishnan'spolemicalsensibilitiesduringtheseyearswereheightenedinnosmallpartbythepolitical
turmoilbothontheIndianaswellasontheworldstage.Radhakrishnan'sarticlesandbooksduringthis
period reflect his desire to offer a sustainable philosophical response to the unfolding discontent he
encountered.WorldWarOneanditsaftermath,andinparticulartheeventsinAmritsarinthespringof
1919, further exacerbated Radhakrishnan's patience with what he saw as an irrational, dogmatic, and
despoticWest.Radhakrishnan's1920TheReignofReligioninContemporaryPhilosophyisindicativeof
hisheightenedpolemicalsensibilitiesduringthisperiod.
AmorepositivefactorinRadhakrishnan'slifeduringtheseyearswashisreadingofRabindranathTagore,
theBengalipoet.RadhakrishnanjoinedtherestoftheEnglishspeakingworldin1912inreadingTagore's
translated works. Though the two had never met at this time, Tagore would become perhaps
Radhakrishnan'smostinfluentialIndianmentor.Tagore'spoetryandproseresonatedwithRadhakrishnan.
He appreciated Tagore's emphasis on aesthetics as well as his appeal to intuition. From 1914 on, both of
thesenotionsaestheticsandintuitionbegintofindtheirplaceinRadhakrishnan'sowninterpretations
of experience, the epistemological category for his philosophical and religious proclivities. Over the next
fivedecades,RadhakrishnanwouldrepeatedlyappealtoTagore'swritingtosupporthisownphilosophical
ideals.
e.CalcuttaandtheGeorgeVChair(19211931)
In1921,RadhakrishnantookuptheprestigiousGeorgeVChairinPhilosophyatCalcuttaUniversity.Asan
honored,thoughhesitant,heirtoBrajendranathSeal,Radhakrishnan'sappointmenttothechairwasnot
withoutitsdissenterswhosoughtafellowBengalifortheposition.InCalcutta,Radhakrishnanwasforthe
firsttimeoutofhisSouthIndianelementgeographically,culturally,andlinguistically.
However,theisolationRadhakrishnanexperiencedduringhisearlyyearsinCalcuttaallowedhimtowork
onhistwovolumeIndianPhilosophy,thefirstofwhichhebeganwhileinMysoreandpublishedin1923
andthesecondfollowedfouryearslater.Throughoutthe1920s,Radhakrishnan'sreputationasascholar
continued to grow both in India and abroad. He was invited to Oxford to give the 1926 Upton Lectures,
publishedin1927asTheHinduViewofLife,andin1929RadhakrishnandeliveredtheHibbert Lectures,
later published under the title An Idealist View of Life. The later of these two Views is Radhakrishnan's
most sustained, noncommentarial work. An Idealist View of Life is frequently seen as Radhakrishnan's
matureworkandhasundoubtedlyreceivedthebulkofscholarlyattentiononRadhakrishnan.
WhileRadhakrishnanenjoyedagrowingscholarlyrepute,hewasalsoconfrontedinCalcuttawithgrowing
conflictandconfrontation.TheeventsofAmritsarin1919didlittletoencouragepositiverelationsbetween
IndiansandtheBritishRajandGandhi'sonagainoffagainRowlattsatyagrahawasprovingineffectivein
cultivating a united Indian voice. The ambiguity of the MontaguChelmsford Reforms with their olive
branch for "responsible government" further fragmented an already divided Congress. The Khalifat
movement splintered the Indian Muslim community, and aggravated the growing animosity between its
supportersandthose,Muslimorotherwise,whosawitasasideissuetoswaraj(selfrule).Buttheracial
paternalismofthe1927SimonCommissionpromptedaresurgenceofnationalistsentiment.WhileIndian
solidarity and protest received international attention, due in no small part to the media coverage of
Gandhi'sSaltMarch,suchnationalunitywasreadilyshaken.Indianpoliticalconsensus,muchlessswaraj,
provedelusive.CommunaldivisionandpowerstrugglesonthepartofIndiansandarenewedconservatism
inBritaincrippledtheLondonRoundTableConferencesoftheearly1930s,reinforcingandperpetuating
analreadyhighlyfragmentedandpoliticallyvolatileIndia.
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WiththepublicationofAnIdealistViewofLife,Radhakrishnanhadcomeintohisownphilosophically.In
his mind, he had identified the "religious" problem, reviewed the alternatives, and posited a solution. An
unreflective dogmatism could not be remedied by escaping from "experiential religion" which is the true
basis of all religions. Rather, a recognition of the creative potency of integral experience tempered by a
critical scientific attitude was, Radhakrishnan believed, the only viable corrective to dogmatic claims of
exclusivity founded on external, secondhand authority. Moreover, while Hinduism (Advaita Vedanta) as
he defined it best exemplified his position, Radhakrishnan claimed that the genuine philosophical,
theological,andliterarytraditionsinIndiaandtheWestsupportedhisposition.
f.The1930sand1940s
Radhakrishnanwasknightedin1931,thesameyearhetookuphisadministrativepostasViceChancellor
atthenewlyfounded,thoughscarcelyconstructed,AndhraUniversityatWaltair.SirRadhakrishnanserved
there for five years as Vice Chancellor, when, in 1936, not only did the university in Calcutta affirm his
positioninperpetuitybutOxfordUniversityappointedhimtotheH.N.SpaldingChairofEasternReligions
and Ethics. In late 1939, Radhakrishnan took up his second Vice Chancellorship at Benares Hindu
University(BHU),andservedthereduringthecourseofthesecondworldwaruntilmidJanuary1948,two
weeksbeforeGandhi'sassassinationinNewDelhi.
ShortlyafterhisresignationfromBHU,RadhakrishnanwasnamedchairmanoftheUniversityEducation
Commission. The Commission's 1949 Report assessed the state of university education and made
recommendations for its improvement in the newly independent India. Though coauthored by others,
Radhakrishnan'shandisfeltespeciallyinthechaptersonTheAimsofUniversityEducationandReligious
Education.
During these years, the question of nationalism occupied Radhakrishnan's attention. The growing
communalism Radhakrishnan had witnessed in the 1920s was further intensified with the ideological
flowering of the Hindu Mahasabha under the leadership of Bhai Parmanand and his heir V.D. Savarkar.
Likewise,MuhammadIqbal's1930poeticvisionandcallforMuslimselfassertionfurnishedMuhammad
JinnahwithanideologicaltemplateinwhichtolayclaimtoanindependentPakistan.Thisclaimwasgiven
recognition at the Round Table Conferences in London early that decade. If the MontaguChelmsford
Reforms had in the 1920s served to fracture already fragile political alliances, its 1935 progeny as the
GovernmentofIndiaActwithitspromiseforgreaterselfgovernmentfurthercrowdedthepoliticalstage
and divided those groups struggling for their share of power. During these years, the spectrum of
nationalistvisionwasasbroadasIndiansolidaritywaselusive.
The issues of education and nationalism come together for Radhakrishnan during this period. For
Radhakrishnan,auniversityeducationwhichquickenedthedevelopmentofthewholeindividualwasthe
only responsible and practical means to the creation of Indian solidarity and clarity of national vision.
Throughout the 1930s and 1940s, Radhakrishnan expressed his vision of an autonomous India. He
envisionedanIndiabuiltandguidedbythosewhoweretrulyeducated,bythosewhohadapersonalvision
ofandcommitmenttoraisingIndianselfconsciousness.
g.PostIndependence:VicepresidencyandPresidency
TheyearsfollowingIndianindependencemarkRadhakrishnan'sincreasinginvolvementinIndianpolitical
aswellasininternationalaffairs.Theclosingyearsofthe1940swerebusyones.Radhakrishnanhadbeen
activelyinvolvedinthenewlyincorporatedUNESCO(UnitedNationsEducational,Scientific,andCultural
Organization), serving on its Executive Board as well as leading the Indian delegation from 19461951.
RadhakrishnanalsoservedforthetwoyearsimmediatelyfollowingIndia'sindependenceasamemberof
the Indian Constituent Assembly. Radhakrishnan's time and energy to UNESCO and the Constituent
Assembly had also to be shared by the demands of the University Commission and his continuing
obligationsasSpaldingProfessoratOxford.
WiththeReportoftheUniversitiesCommissioncompletein1949,Radhakrishnanwasappointedbythen
Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru as Indian Ambassador to Moscow, a post he held until 1952. The
opportunity for Radhakrishnan to put into practice his own philosophicalpolitical ideals came with his
electiontotheRajaSabha,inwhichheservedasIndia'sVicePresident(19521962)andlaterasPresident
(19621967).
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Radhakrishnansawduringhistermsinofficeanincreasingneedforworldunityanduniversalfellowship.
The urgency of this need was pressed home to Radhakrishnan by what he saw as the unfolding crises
throughouttheworld.AtthetimeofhistakinguptheofficeofVicePresident,theKoreanwarwasalready
infullswing.PoliticaltensionswithChinaintheearly1960sfollowedbythehostilitiesbetweenIndiaand
Pakistan dominated Radhakrishnan's presidency. Moreover, the Cold War divided East and West leaving
eachsidesuspiciousoftheotherandonthedefensive.
Radhakrishnanchallengedwhathesawasthedivisivepotentialanddominatingcharacterofselfprofessed
internationalorganizationssuchastheLeagueofNations.Instead,hecalledforthepromotionofacreative
internationalismbasedonthespiritualfoundationsofintegralexperience.Onlythencouldunderstanding
andtolerancebetweenpeoplesandbetweennationsbepromoted.
Radhakrishnanretiredfrompubliclifein1967.Hespentthelasteightyearsofhislifeatthehomehebuilt
inMylapore,Madras.RadhakrishnandiedonApril17,1975.
2.PhilosophyofSarvepalliRadhakrishnan
a.Metaphysics
Radhakrishnan located his metaphysics within the Advaita (nondual) Vedanta tradition (sampradaya).
AndlikeotherVedantinsbeforehim,RadhakrishnanwrotecommentariesonthePrasthanatraya(thatis,
main primary texts of Vedanta ): the Upanisads (1953),Brahma Sutra (1959), and the Bhagavadgita
(1948).
AsanAdvaitin,Radhakrishnanembracedametaphysicalidealism.ButRadhakrishnan'sidealismwassuch
that it recognized the reality and diversity of the world of experience (prakti) while at the same time
preservingthenotionofawhollytranscendentAbsolute(Brahman),anAbsolutethatisidenticaltotheself
(Atman). While the world of experience and of everyday things is certainly not ultimate reality as it is
subjecttochangeandischaracterizedbyfinitudeandmultiplicity,itnonethelesshasitsoriginandsupport
intheAbsolute(Brahman)whichisfreefromalllimits,diversity,anddistinctions(nirgua).Brahmanis
thesourceoftheworldanditsmanifestations,butthesemodesdonotaffecttheintegrityofBrahman.
In this vein, Radhakrishnan did not merely reiterate the metaphysics of akara (8th century C.E.),
arguably Advaita Vedanta's most prominent and enduring figure, but sought to reinterpret Advaita for
present needs. In particular, Radhakrishnan reinterpreted what he saw as akara's understanding
of maya strictly as illusion. For Radhakrishnan, maya ought not to be understood to imply a strict
objective idealism, one in which the world is taken to be inherently disconnected from Brahman, but
rathermayaindicates,amongotherthings,asubjectivemisperceptionoftheworldasultimatelyreal.[See
Donald Braue, Maya in Radhakrishnan's Thought: Six Meanings Other Than Illusion(1985) for a full
treatmentofthisissue.]
b.Epistemology:IntuitionandtheVarietiesofExperience
ThissectiondealswithRadhakrishnan'sunderstandingofintuitionandhisinterpretationsofexperience.It
beginswithageneralsurveyofthevarietyoftermsaswellasthecharacteristicsRadhakrishnanassociates
with intuition. It then details with how Radhakrishnan understands specific occurrences of intuition in
relationtootherformsofexperiencecognitive,psychic,aesthetic,ethical,andreligious.
i.Intuition
Radhakrishnanassociatesavastconstellationoftermswithintuition.Atitsbest,intuitionisan"integral
experience".Radhakrishnanusestheterm"integral"inatleastthreeways.First,intuitionisintegralinthe
sense that it coordinates and synthesizes all other experiences. It integrates all other experiences into a
more unified whole. Second, intuition is integral as it forms the basis of all other experiences. In other
words,Radhakrishnanholdsthatallexperiencesareatbottomintuitional.Third,intuitionisintegralinthe
sense that the results of the experience are integrated into the life of the individual. For Radhakrishnan,
intuitionfindsexpressionintheworldofactionandsocialrelations.
AttimesRadhakrishnanpreferstoemphasizethe"mystical"and"spiritual"qualityofintuitionasattested
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to by the expressions "religious experience" (IVL 91), "religious consciousness" (IVL 199), "mystical
experience"(IVL88),"spiritualidealism"(IVL87),"selfexistentspiritualexperience"(IVL99),"prophetic
indications" and "the real ground in man's deepest being" (IVL 103), "spiritual apprehension" (IVL 103),
"moments of vision" (IVL 94), "revelation" (IVL 210), "supreme light" (IVL 206), and even "faith" (IVL
199). But it is the creative potency of intuition, designated by Radhakrishnan's reference to the "creative
center"oftheindividual(IVL113),"creativeintuition"(IVL205),"creativespirit"(IVL206),and"creative
energy"(IVL205),thatisthelynchpinforRadhakrishnan'sunderstandingofintuition.AsRadhakrishnan
understandsit,allprogressistheresultofthecreativepotencyofintuition.
For Radhakrishnan, intuition is a distinct form of experience. Intuition is of a selfcertifying character
(svatassiddha). It is sufficient and complete. It is selfestablished (svatasiddha), selfevidencing
(svsavedya), and selfluminous (svayampraks a) (IVL 92). Intuition entails pure comprehension,
entiresignificance,completevalidity(IVL93).Itisbothtruthfilledandtruthbearing(IVL93).Intuitionis
itsowncauseanditsownexplanation(IVL92).Itissovereign(IVL92).Intuitionisapositivefeelingof
calm and confidence, joy and strength (IVL 93). Intuition is profoundly satisfying (IVL 93). It is peace,
powerandjoy(IVL93).
Intuition is the ultimate form of experience for Radhakrishnan. It is ultimate in the sense that intuition
constitutesthefullestandthereforethemostauthenticrealizationoftheReal(Brahman).Theultimacyof
intuitionisalsoaccountedforbyRadhakrishnaninthatitisthegroundofallotherformsofexperience.
Intuitionisaselfrevelationofthedivine.Intuitiveexperienceisimmediate.Immediacydoesnotimplyin
Radhakrishnan's mind an "absence of psychological mediation, but only nonmediation by conscious
thought"(IVL98).Intuitionoperatesonasupraconsciouslevel,unmediatedasitisbyconsciousthought.
Even so, Radhakrishnan holds that there is "no such thing as pure experience, raw and undigested. It is
always mixed up with layers of interpretation" (IVL 99). One might object here that Radhakrishnan has
conflated the experience itself with its subsequent interpretation and expression. However,
Radhakrishnan's comment is an attempt to deny the Hegelian interpretation of Hinduism's "contentless"
experience,affirminginsteadthatintuitionistheplenitudeofexperience.
Finally,intuition,accordingtoRadhakrishnan,isineffable.Itescapesthelimitsoflanguageandlogic,and
there is "no conception by which we can define it" (IVL 96). In such experiences "[t]hought and reality
coalesce and a creative merging of subject and object results" (IVL 92). While the experience itself
transcends expression, it also provokes it (IVL 95). The provocation of expression is, for Radhakrishnan,
testimonytothecreativeimpulseofintuition.Allcreativityandindeedallprogressinthevariousspheres
oflifeistheinevitableresultofintuition.
ii.VarietiesofExperience
1)CognitiveExperience
Radhakrishnanrecognizesthreecategoriesofcognitiveexperience:senseexperience,discursivereasoning,
and intuitive apprehension. For Radhakrishnan all of these forms of experience contribute, in varying
degrees,toaknowledgeofthereal(Brahman),andassuchhavetheirbasisinintuition.
SenseExperience
Of the cognitive forms of knowledge, Radhakrishnan suggests that sensory knowledge is in one respect
closest to intuition, for it is in the act of sensing that one is in "direct contact" with the object. Sense
experience "helps us to know the outer characters of the external world. By means of it we acquire an
acquaintance with the sensible qualities of the objects" (IVL 134). "Intuitions," Radhakrishnan believes,
"are convictions arising out of a fullness of life in a spontaneous way, more akin to sense than to
imaginationorintellectandmoreinevitablethaneither"(IVL180).Inthissense,senseperceptionmaybe
consideredintuitive,thoughRadhakrishnandoesnotexplicitlydescribeitassuch.
DiscursiveReasoning
Discursive reasoning, and the logical knowledge it produces, is subsequent to sensory experience
(perception). "Logical knowledge is obtained by the processes of analysis and synthesis. Unlike sense
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perceptionwhichRadhakrishnanclaimstobeclosertodirectknowledge,logicalknowledge"isindirectand
symbolicinitscharacter.Ithelpsustohandleandcontroltheobjectanditsworkings"(IVL134).Thereisa
paradoxicalelementhere.Radhakrishnanseemstobesuggestingthatthedirectproximitytoanexternal
object one encounters in sense perception is compromised when the perception is interpreted and
subsequentlyincorporatedintoamoresystematic,thoughpresumablyhigher,formofknowledgethrough
discursivereasoning.
For Radhakrishnan, discursive reasoning and the logical systems they construct possess an element of
intuition.Themethodical,mechanicalworkingthroughoflogicalproblemsandthereworkingofrational
systemscannotbedivorcedfromwhatRadhakrishnanmightcallan"intuitivehunch"thatsuchacourseof
action will bear positive results "In any concrete act of thinking the mind's active experience is both
intuitiveandintellectual"(IVL181182).
IntuitiveApprehension
Radhakrishnanarguesagainstwhatheseesastheprevalent(Western)temptationtoreducetheintuitiveto
the logical. While logic deals with facts already known, intuition goes beyond logic to reveal previously
unseenconnectionsbetweenfacts."Theartofdiscoveryisconfusedwiththelogicofproofandanartificial
simplificationofthedeepermovementsofthoughtresults.Weforgetthatweinventbyintuitionthoughwe
provebylogic"(IVL177).Intuitionnotonlyclarifiestherelationsbetweenfactsandseeminglydiscordant
systems,butlendsitselftothediscoveryofnewknowledgewhichthenbecomesanappropriatesubjectof
philosophicalinquiryandlogicalanalysis.
Claiming to take his cue from his former adversary Henri Bergson, Radhakrishnan offers three
explanationstoaccountforthetendencytooverlookthepresenceofintuitionindiscursivereasoning.First,
Radhakrishnanclaims,intuitionpresupposesarationalknowledgeoffacts."Theinsightdoesnotariseifwe
arenotfamiliarwiththefactsofthecase....Thesuccessfulpracticeofintuitionrequirespreviousstudyand
assimilationofamultitudeoffactsandlaws.Wemaytakeitthatgreatintuitionsariseoutofamatrixof
rationality"(IVL177).Second,theintuitiveelementisoftenobscuredindiscursivereasoningbecausefacts
knownpriortotheintuitionareretained,thoughtheyaresynthesized,andperhapsreinterpreted,inlight
of the intuitive insight. "The readjustment [of previously known facts] is so easy that when the insight is
attaineditescapesnoticeandweimaginethattheprocessofdiscoveryisonlyrationalsynthesis"(IVL177).
Finally,intuitionindiscursivereasoningisoftenoverlooked,disguisedasitisinthelanguageoflogic.In
short,theintuitiveismistakenforthelogical."Knowledgewhenacquiredmustbethrownintologicalform
andweareobligedtoadoptthelanguageoflogicsinceonlylogichasacommunicablelanguage."Thislast
is a perplexing claim since elsewhere Radhakrishnan clearly recognizes that meaning is conveyed in
symbols,poetry,andmetaphors.PerhapswhatRadhakrishnanmeansisthatlogicistheonlyvalidmeans
bywhichweareabletoorganizeandsystematizeempiricalfacts.Regardless,accordingtoRadhakrishnan,
thepresentationoffactsinlogicalformcontributesto"aconfusionbetweendiscoveryandproof"(IVL177).
Conversely,Radhakrishnanoffersapositiveargumentfortheplaceofintuitionindiscursivereasoning."If
theprocessofdiscoveryweremeresynthesis,anymechanicalmanipulatorofpriorpartialconceptswould
havereachedtheinsightanditwouldnothavetakenageniustoarriveatit"(IVL178).Apurelymechanical
accountofdiscursivereasoningignorestheinherentlycreativeanddynamicdimensionofintuitiveinsight.
InRadhakrishnan'sviewthemechanicalapplicationoflogicaloneiscreativelyempty(IVL181).
However,Radhakrishnanholdsthatthe"creativeinsightisnotthefinallinkinachainofreasoning.Ifit
werethat,itwouldnotstrikeusas"inspiredinitsorigin"(IVL178).Intuitionisnottheend,butpartofan
everdevelopingandeverdynamicprocessofrealization.Thereis,forRadhakrishnan,acontinualsystem
of "checks and balances" between intuition and the logical method of discursive reasoning. Cognitive
intuitions "are not substitutes for thought, they are challenges to intelligence. Mere intuitions are blind
whileintellectualworkisempty.Allprocessesarepartlyintuitiveandpartlyintellectual.Thereisnogulf
betweenthetwo"(IVL181).
2)PsychicExperience
Perhaps the most understudied dimension of Radhakrishnan's interpretations of experience is his

recognition of "supernormal" experiences. As early as his first volume of Indian Philosophy (1923),
Radhakrishnanaffirmsthevalidityofwhatheidentifiesas"psychicphenomena".Radhakrishnanaccounts
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for such experiences in terms of a highly developed sensitivity to intuition. "The mind of man,"
Radhakrishnan explains, "has the three aspects of subconscious, the conscious, and the superconscious,
and the abnormal' psychic phenomena, called by the different names of ecstasy, genius, inspiration,
madness, are the workings of the superconscious mind" (IP1 28). Such experiences are not "abnormal"
accordingtoRadhakrishnan,noraretheyunscientific.Rather,theyaretheproductsofcarefullycontrolled
mentalexperiments.IntheIndianpast,"Thepsychicexperiences,suchastelepathyandclairvoyance,were
considered to be neither abnormal nor miraculous. They are not the products of diseased minds or
inspiration from the gods, but powers which the human mind can exhibit under carefully ascertained
conditions"(IP128).PsychicintuitionsarenotaskewwithRadhakrishnan'sunderstandingoftheintellect.
Infact,theyareevidenceoftheremarkableheightstowhichtheundeveloped,limitedintellectiscapable.
Theyare,forRadhakrishnan,accomplishmentsratherthanfailuresofhumanconsciousness.
Ashighlydevelopedpowersofapprehension,psychicexperiencesareastateofconsciousness"beyondthe
understanding of the normal, and the supernormal is traced to the supernatural" (IVL 94). Moreover, in
what Radhakrishnan might recognize as an "intuitive hunch" in the articulation of a new scientific
hypothesis,psychicpremonitions,aspartialormomentaryastheymaybe,lendthemselvestothe"psychic
hypothesis" that the universal spirit is inherent in the nature of all things (IVL 110). For Radhakrishnan,
psychic intuitions are suprasensory: "We can see objects without the medium of the senses and discern
relationsspontaneouslywithoutbuildingthemuplaboriously.Inotherwords,wecandiscerneverykindof
reality directly" (IVL 143). In a bold, albeit highly problematic, declaration, Radhakrishnan believes that
the"factsoftelepathyprovethatonemindcancommunicatewithanotherdirectly"(IVL143).
3)AestheticExperience
"Allart,"Radhakrishnandeclares,"istheexpressionofexperienceinsomemedium"(IVL182).However,
theartisticexperienceshouldnotbeconfusedwithitsexpression.Whiletheexperienceitselfisineffable,
thechallengefortheartististogivetheexperienceconcreteexpression."Thesuccessofartismeasuredby
theextenttowhichitisabletorenderexperiencesofonedimensionintotermsofanother.(IVL187)For
Radhakrishnan, art born out of a "creative contemplation which is a process of travail of the spirit is an
authentic "crystallization of a life process" (IVL 185). At its ultimate and in its essence, the "poetical
characterisderivedfromthecreativeintuition(thatis,integralintuition)whichholdssound,suggestion
andsenseinorganicsolution"(IVL191).
InRadhakrishnan'sview,withouttheintuitiveexperience,artbecomesmechanicalandarehearsalofold
themes. Such "art" is an exercise in (re)production rather than a communication of the artist's intuitive
encounter with reality. "Technique without inspiration," Radhakrishnan declares, "is barren. Intellectual
powers,sensefactsandimaginativefanciesmayresultincleververses,repetitionofoldthemes,butthey
areonlymanufacturedpoetry"(IVL188).Itisnotsimplyadifferenceofqualitybuta"differenceofkindin
thesourceitself"(IVL189).ForRadhakrishnan,trueartisanexpressionofthewholepersonality,seizedas
itwaswiththecreativeimpulseoftheuniverse.
Artistic intuition mitigates and subdues rational reflection. But "[e]ven in the act of composition,"
Radhakrishnan believes, "the poet is in a state in which the reflective elements are subordinated to the
intuitive.Thevision,however,isnotoperativeforsolongasitcontinues,itsverystressactsasacheckon
expression"(IVL187).
ForRadhakrishnan,artisticexpressionisdynamic.Havinghadtheexperience,theartistattemptstorecall
it. The recollection of the intuition, Radhakrishnan believes, is not a plodding reconstruction, nor one of
dispassionate analysis. Rather, there is an emotional vibrancy: "The experience is recollected not in
tranquility...butinexcitement"(IVL187).Toputthemattersomewhatdifferently,theemotionalvibrancy
oftheaestheticexperiencegivesoneknowledgebybeingratherthanknowledgebyknowing(IVL184).
ArtandScience
ThereisinRadhakrishnan'sminda"scientific"temperamenttogenuineartisticexpression.Inwhatmight
be called the science of art, Radhakrishnan believes that the "experience or the vision is the artist's
counterparttothescientificdiscoveryofaprincipleorlaw"(IVL184).Thereisaconcordanceofagendasin
artandscience."Whatthescientistdoeswhenhediscoversanewlawistogiveaneworderingtoobserved
facts.Theartistisengagedinasimilartask.Hegivesnewmeaningtoourexperienceandorganizesitina
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differentwayduetohisperceptionofsubtlerqualitiesinreality"(IVL194).
Despitethissyntheticimpulse,Radhakrishnaniscarefultoexplainthatthetwodisciplinesarenotwholly
the same. The difference turns on what he sees as the predominantly aesthetic and qualitative nature of
artisticexpression."Poetictruthisdifferentfromscientifictruthsinceitrevealstherealinitsqualitative
uniqueness and not in its quantitative universality" (IVL 193). Presumably, Radhakrishnan means that,
unlike the universal laws with which science attempts to grapple, art is much more subjective, not in its
creative origin, but in its expression. A further distinction between the two may lend further insight into
Radhakrishnan's open appreciation for the poetic medium. "Poetry," he believes, "is the language of the
soul,whileproseisthelanguageofscience.Theformeristhelanguageofmystery,ofdevotion,ofreligion.
Proselaysbareitswholemeaningtotheintelligence,whilepoetryplungesusinthemysteriumtremendum
oflifeandsuggeststhetruthsthatcannotbestated"(IVL191).
4)EthicalExperience
Notsurprisingly,intuitionfindsaplaceinRadhakrishnan'sethics.ForRadhakrishnan,ethicalexperiences
are profoundly transformative. The experience resolves dilemmas and harmonizes seemingly discordant
pathsofpossibleaction."Ifthenewharmonyglimpsedinthemomentsofinsightistobeachieved,theold
orderofhabitsmustberenounced"(IVL114).Moralintuitionsresultin"aredemptionofourloyaltiesand
aremakingofourpersonalities"(IVL115).
That Radhakrishnan conceives of the ethical development of the individual as a form of conversion is
noteworthyasitunderscoresRadhakrishnan'sidentificationofethicsandreligion.ForRadhakrishnan,an
ethical transformation of the kind brought about by intuition is akin to religious growth and heightened
realization. The force of this view is underscored by Radhakrishnan's willing acceptance of the
interchangeabilityoftheterms"intuition"and"religiousexperience".
Ofcourse,notallethicaldecisionsoractionspossessthequalityofbeingguidedbyanintuitiveimpulse.
Radhakrishnanwillinglyconcedesthatthevastmajorityofmoraldecisionsaretheresultofconformityto
wellestablished moral codes. However, it is in times of moral crisis that the creative force of ethical
intuitions come to the fore. In a less famous, though thematically reminiscent analogy, Radhakrishnan
accountsforgrowthofmoralconsciousnessintermsofthecreativeintuitiveimpulse:"Inthechessboardof
life,thedifferentpieceshavepowerswhichvarywiththecontextandthepossibilitiesoftheircombination
arenumerousandunpredictable.Thesoundplayerhasasenseofrightandfeelsthat,ifhedoesnotfollow
it,hewillbefalsetohimself.Inanycriticalsituationtheforwardmoveisacreativeact"(IVL196197).
Bydefinition,moralactionsaresociallyrooted.Assuchtheeffectsofethicalintuitionsareplayedouton
the social stage. While the intuition itself is an individual achievement, Radhakrishnan's view is that the
intuition must be not only translated into positive and creative action but shared with others. There is a
senseofurgency,ifnotinevitability,aboutthis.Radhakrishnantellsusone"cannotaffordtobeabsolutely
silent"(IVL97)andthesaints"lovebecausetheycannothelpit"(IVL116).
Theimpulsetosharethemoralinsightprovidesanopportunitytotestthevalidityoftheintuitionagainst
reason.Themoralhero,asRadhakrishnanputsit,doesnotlivebyintuitionalone.Theintuitiveexperience,
while it is the creative guiding impulse behind all moral progress, must be checked and tested against
reason.Thereisa"scientific"and"experimental"dimensiontoRadhakrishnan'sunderstandingofethical
behavior.Thosewhoselivesareprofoundlytransformedandwhoareguidedbytheethicalexperienceare,
forRadhakrishnan,moralheroes.ToRadhakrishnan'smind,themoralhero,guidedasheorsheisbythe
ethicalexperience,whocarvesoutanadventurouspathisakintothediscovererwhobringsorderintothe
scatteredelementsofascienceortheartistwhocomposesapieceofmusicordesignsbuildings"(IVL196).
Inasense,thereisverymuchanartandsciencetoethicalliving.
Radhakrishnan's moral heroes, having developed a "large impersonality" (IVL 116) in which the joy,
freedomandblissofalifeuninhibitedbytheconstraintsofegoandindividualityarerealized,become"self
sacrificing"exemplarsforothers."Feelingtheunityofhimselfandtheuniverse,themanwholivesinspirit
isnomoreaseparateandselfcenteredindividualbutavehicleoftheuniversalspirit"(IVL115).Likethe
artist,themoralherodoesnotturnhisbackontheworld.Instead,"[h]ethrowshimselfontheworldand
livesforitsredemption,possessedasheiswithanunshakablesenseofoptimismandanunlimitedfaithin
the powers of the soul" (IVL 116). In short, Radhakrishnan's moral hero is a conduit whose "world
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consciousness"delights"infurtheringtheplanofthecosmos"(IVL116).
Radhakrishnan believes that ethical intuitions at their deepest transcend conventional and mechanically
constructedethicalsystems.MoralheroesexemplifyRadhakrishnan'sethicalidealwhileatthesametime
provokinginthosewhoaccepttheethicalstatusquotoevaluateandtoreconsiderlessthanperfectmoral
codes.Asthemoralherois"fightingforthereshapingofhisownsocietyonsounderlines[his]behavior
mightoffendthesenseofdecorumofthecautiousconventionalist"(IVL197).Thecontributionofethically
realized individuals is their promotion of moral progress in the world. "Though morality commands
conformity,allmoralprogressisduetononconformists"(IVL197).Themoralheroisnolongerguidedby
externalmoralcodes,butbyan"innerrhythm"ofharmonybetweenselfandtheuniverserevealedtohim
intheintuitiveexperience."Byfollowinghisdeepernature,hemayseemtobeeitherunwiseorunmoralto
thoseofuswhoadoptconventionalstandards.Butforhimthespiritualobligationismoreofaconsequence
thansocialtradition"(IVL197).
5)ReligiousExperience
Forthesakeofclarity,wemustattheoutsetmakeatentativedistinctionbetweenreligiousexperienceon
the one hand and integral experience on the other. Radhakrishnan's distinction between "religion" and
"religions" will be helpful here. At its most basic, religions, for Radhakrishnan, represent the various
interpretationsofexperience,whileintegralexperienceistheessenceofallreligions."Ifexperienceisthe
soulofreligion,expressionisthebodythroughwhichitfulfillsitsdestiny.Wehavethespiritualfactsand
their interpretations by which they are communicated to others" (IVL 90). "It is the distinction between
immediacyandthought.Intuitionsabide,whileinterpretationschange"(IVL90).Buttheinterpretations
shouldnotbeconfusedwiththeexperiencesthemselves.ForRadhakrishnan,"[c]onceptualexpressionsare
tentative and provisional... [because] the intellectual accounts... are constructed theories of experience"
(IVL119).Andhecautionsusto"distinguishbetweentheimmediateexperienceorintuitionwhichmight
conceivablybeinfallibleandtheinterpretationwhichismixedupwithit"(IVL99).
ForRadhakrishnan,thecreedsandtheologicalformulationsofreligionarebutintellectualrepresentations
andsymbolsofexperience."TheideaofGod,"Radhakrishnanaffirms,"isaninterpretationofexperience"
(IVL186).Itfollowsherethatreligiousexperiencesare,forRadhakrishnan,contextrelativeandtherefore
imperfect. They are informed by and experienced through specific cultural, historical, linguistic and
religious lenses. Because of their contextuality and subsequent intellectualization, experiences in the
religious sphere are limited. It is in this sense that we may refer to experiences which occur under the
auspices of one or other of the religions as "religious experiences". Radhakrishnan spends little time
dealingwith"religiousexperiences"astheyoccurinspecificreligioustraditions.Andwhatlittlehedoessay
is used to demonstrate the theological preconditioning and "religious" relativity of such experiences.
However, "religious experiences" have value for Radhakrishnan insofar as they offer the possibility of
heightening one's religious consciousness and bringing one into ever closer proximity to "religious
intuition".
Much to the confusion and chagrin of readers of Radhakrishnan, Radhakrishnan uses "religious
experience"torefertosuch"sectarian"religiousexperiences(asdiscussedimmediatelyabove)aswellasto
referto"religiousintuitions"whichtranscendnarrowsectarianandreligiousboundariesandareidentical
tointuitionitself(takenupinthesectionon"Intuition"above(B.I.)andrevisitedimmediatelybelow).
Radhakrishnanisexplicitandemphaticinhisviewthatreligiousintuitionisauniqueformofexperience.
Religiousintuitionismorethansimplytheconfluenceofthecognitive,aesthetic,andethicalsidesoflife.
Howevervitalandsignificantthesesidesoflifemaybe,theyarebutpartialandfragmentedconstituentsof
agreaterwhole,awholewhichisexperiencedinitsfullnessandimmediacyinreligiousintuition.
ToRadhakrishnan'smind,religiousintuitionisnotonlyanautonomousformofexperience,butaformof
experience which informs and validates all spheres of life and experience. Philosophical, artistic, and
ethicalvaluesoftruth,beauty,andgoodnessarenotknownthroughthesensesorbyreason.Rather,"they
are apprehended by intuition or faith..." (IVL 199200). For Radhakrishnan, religious intuition informs,
conjoins,andtranscendsanotherwisefragmentaryconsciousness.
InformingRadhakrishnan'sinterpretationofreligiousintuitionishisaffirmationoftheidentityoftheself
and ultimatereality. Throughouthis life,Radhakrishnan interpretedthe Upaniadicmahavakya, tattvam
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asi,asadeclarationofthenonduality(advaita)ofAtmanandBrahman.Hisadvaiticinterpretationallows
him to affirm the ineffability of the truth behind the formula. Radhakrishnan readily appropriates his
acceptanceof thenondualexperience tohisinterpretationof religiousintuition.Radhakrishnan notonly
claimedtofindsupportforhisviewsintheUpaniads,butbelievedthat,correctlyunderstood,theancient
sages expounded his interpretation of religious intuition. Any attempt at interpretation of the intuition
could only approximate the truth of the experience itself. As the ultimate realization, religious intuition
must not only account for and bring together all other forms of experience, but must overcome the
distinctionsbetweenthem.Radhakrishnangoessofarastoclaimthatintuitionofthissortistheessenceof
religion.Allreligionsareinformedbyit,thoughallfailtovaryingdegreestointerpretit."Herewefindthe
essence of religion, which is a synthetic realization of life. The religious man has the knowledge that
everythingissignificant,thefeelingthatthereisharmonyunderneaththeconflictsandthepowertorealize
thesignificanceandtheharmony"(IVL201).
With this, the present discussion of intuition and the varieties of experience has come full circle.
Radhakrishnan identifies intuition in all its contextual varieties with integral experience. The two
expressions are, for Radhakrishnan, synonymous. Integral experience coordinates and synthesizes the
range of life's experiences. It furnishes the individual with an everdeepening awareness of and
appreciation for the unity of Reality. As an intuition, integral experience is not only the basis of all
experience but the source of all creative ingenuity, whether such innovation be philosophical, scientific,
moral, artistic, or religious. Moreover, not only does integral experience find expression in these various
spheres of life, but such expression, Radhakrishnan believes, quickens the intuitive and creative impulse
amongthoseittouches.
c.ReligiousPluralism
Radhakrishnan's hierarchy of religions is wellknown. "Hinduism," Radhakrishnan affirms, "accepts all
religiousnotionsasfactsand arrangesthemintheorderoftheirmore orlessintrinsicsignificance":"The
worshippers of the Absolute arethe highest in rank second to them arethe worshippers of the personal
GodthencometheworshippersoftheincarnationslikeRama,Ka,Buddhabelowthemarethosewho
worship ancestors, deities and sages, and the lowest of all are the worshippers of the petty forces and
spirits"(HVL32).
Radhakrishnanuseshisdistinctionsbetweenexperienceandinterpretation,betweenreligionandreligions,
to correlate his brand of Hinduism (that is, Advaita Vedanta ) with religion itself. "Religion,"
Radhakrishnanholds,is"akindoflifeorexperience."Itisaninsightintothenatureofreality(darsana),
orexperienceofreality(anubhava).Itis"aspecificattitudeoftheself,itselfandnotother"(HVL15).Ina
short,butrevealingpassage,Radhakrishnancharacterizesreligionintermsof"personalexperience."Itis
"anindependentfunctioningofthehumanmind,somethingunique,possessingandautonomouscharacter.
Itissomethinginwardandpersonalwhichunifiesallvaluesandorganizesallexperiences.Itisthereaction
to the whole of man to the whole of reality. [It] may be called spiritual life, as distinct from a merely
intellectualormoraloraestheticactivityoracombinationofthem"(IVL8889).
ForRadhakrishnan,integralintuitionsaretheauthorityfor,andthesoulof,religion(IVL8990).Itishere
that we find a critical coalescence of ideas in Radhakrishnan's thinking. If, as Radhakrishnan claims,
personalintuitiveexperienceandinnerrealizationarethedefiningfeaturesofAdvaitaVedanta,andthose
same features are the "authority" and "soul" of religion as he understands it, Radhakrishnan is able to
affirmwiththeconfidencehedoes:"TheVedantaisnotareligion,butreligionitselfinitsmostuniversal
anddeepestsignificance"(HVL23).
For Radhakrishnan, Hinduism at its Vedantic best is religion. Other religions, including what
RadhakrishnanunderstandsaslowerformsofHinduism,areinterpretationsofAdvaitaVedanta.Religion
and religions are related in Radhakrishnan's mind as are experience and interpretation. The various
religions are merely interpretations of his Vedanta. In a sense, Radhakrishnan "Hinduizes" all religions.
Radhakrishnan appropriatestraditional exegetical categories toclarify further the relationship:"We have
spiritualfacts andtheirinterpretationsby whichtheyarecommunicated toothers,rutior whatisheard,
and smti or what is remembered. akara equates them with pratyaka or intuition and anumana or
inference. It is the distinction between immediacy and thought. Intuitions abide, while interpretations
change"(IVL90).
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The apologetic force of this brief statement is clear. For Radhakrishnan, the intuitive, experiential
immediacy of Advaita Vedanta is the genuine authority for all religions, and all religions as intellectually
mediatedinterpretationsderivefromandmustultimatelydefertoAdvaitaVedanta.Putsuccinctly:"While
theexperientialcharacterofreligionisemphasizedintheHindufaith,everyreligionatitsbestfallsbackon
it"(IVL90).
ForRadhakrishnan,thereligionsarenotonanevenfootingintheirapproximationsandinterpretationsof
acommonexperience.TotheextentthatalltraditionsareinformedbywhatRadhakrishnanclaimstobea
common ground of experience (that is, Advaita Vedanta ), each religion has value. At the same time, all
religions as interpretations leave room for development and spiritual progress. "While no tradition
coincides with experience, every tradition is essentially unique and valuable. While all traditions are of
value,noneisfinallybinding"(IVL120).Moreover,accordingtoRadhakrishnan,thevalueofeachreligion
isdeterminedbyitsproximitytoRadhakrishnan'sunderstandingofVedanta.
d.AuthorityofScriptureandtheScientificBasisofHinduism
Radhakrishnan argues that Hinduism, as he understands it, is a scientific religion. According to
Radhakrishnan, "[i]f philosophy of religion is to become scientific, it must become empirical and found
itselfonreligiousexperience"(IVL184).Truereligion,arguesRadhakrishnan,remainsopentoexperience
and encourages an experimental attitude with regard to its experiential data. Hinduism more than any
otherreligionexemplifiesthisscientificattitude."TheHinduphilosophyofreligionstartsfromandreturns
to an experimental basis" (HVL 19). Unlike other religions, which set limits on the types of spiritual
experience,the"Hinduthinkerreadilyadmitsofotherpointsofviewthanhisownandconsidersthemto
be just as worthy of attention" (HVL 19). What sets Hinduism apart from other religions is its unlimited
appealtoandappreciationforallformsofexperience.Experienceandexperimentationaretheoriginand
endofHinduism,asRadhakrishnanunderstandit.
Radhakrishnanarguesthatascientificattitudehasbeen thehallmarkofHinduismthroughoutitshistory.
In a revealing passage, Radhakrishnan explains: "The truths of the is are not evolved as the result of
logical reasoning or systematic philosophy but are the products of spiritual intuition, dti or vision.
The is are not so much the authors of the truths recorded in the Vedas as the seers who were able to
discern the eternal truths by raising their lifespirit to the plane of universal spirit. They are the pioneer
researchersintherealmofthespiritwhosawmoreintheworldthantheirfollowers.Theirutterancesare
notbasedontransitoryvisionbutonacontinuousexperienceofresidentlifeandpower.WhentheVedas
are regarded as the highest authority, all that is meant is that the most exacting of all authorities is the
authorityoffacts"(IVL8990).
Iftheancientseersare,asRadhakrishnansuggests,"pioneerresearchers,"theUpaniadsaretherecordsof
their experiments. "The chief sacred scriptures of the Hindus, the Vedas register the intuitions of the
perfected souls. They are not so much dogmatic dicta as transcripts from life. They record the spiritual
experiences of souls strongly endowed with the sense of reality. They are held to be authoritative on the
groundthattheyexpresstheexperiencesoftheexpertsinthefieldofreligion"(HVL17).
Radhakrishnan'sunderstandingofscriptureasthescientificrecordsofspiritualinsightsholdsnotonlyfor
Hinduism,butforallreligiouscreeds.Correctlyunderstood,thevariousscripturesfoundinthereligionsof
theworldarenotaninfalliblerevelation,butscientifichypotheses:"Thecreedsofreligioncorrespondto
theoriesofscience"(IVL86).Radhakrishnanthusrecommendsthat"intuitionsofthehumansoul...should
bestudiedbythemethodswhichareadoptedwithsuchgreatsuccessintheregionofpositivescience"(IVL
85).Therecordsofreligiousexperience,ofintegralintuitions,thataretheworld'sscripturesconstitutethe
"facts"ofthereligiousendeavor.So,"justastherecanbenogeometrywithouttheperceptionofspace,even
sotherecannotbephilosophyofreligionwithoutthefactsofreligion"(IVL84).
Religious claims, in Radhakrishnan's mind, are there for the testing. They ought not be taken as
authoritativeinandofthemselves,foronlyintegralintuitionsvalidatedbythelightofreasonarethefinal
authority on religious matters. "It is for philosophy of religion to find out whether the convictions of the
religious seers fit in with the tested laws and principles of the universe" (IVL 85). "When the prophets
reveal in symbols the truths they have discovered, we try to rediscover them for ourselves slowly and
patiently"(IVL202).
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The scientific temperament demanded by "Hinduism" lends itself to Radhakrishnan's affirmation of the
advaitic Absolute. The plurality of religious claims ought to be taken as "tentative and provisional, not
becausethereisnoabsolute,butbecausethereisone.Theintellectualaccountsbecomebarrierstofurther
insights if they get hardened into articles of faith and forget that they are constructed theories of
experience"(IVL199).
ForRadhakrishnan,themarginalizationofintuitionandtheabandonmentoftheexperimentalattitudein
mattersofreligionhasleadChristianitytodogmaticstasis."Itisanunfortunatelegacyofthecoursewhich
Christian theology has followed in Europe that faith has come to connote a mechanical adherence to
authority.Ifwetakefaithinthepropersenseoftruthorspiritualconviction,religionisfaithorintuition"
(HVL16).ThereligiousculdesacinwhichEuropeandChristiantheologyfindthemselvestestifiestotheir
reluctancetoembracetheHindumaximthat"theory,speculations,[and]dogmachangefromtimetotime
as the facts become better understood" (IVL 90). For the value of religious "facts" can only be assessed
"from their adequacy to experience" (IVL 90). Just as the intellect hasdominated Western philosophy to
thedetrimentofintuition,sotoohasChristianityfollowedsuitinitssearchforatheologicaltouchstonein
scripture.
e.PracticalMysticismandAppliedEthics
Radhakrishnan's appeal to intuition underlies his vision for an ethical Hinduism, a Hinduism free from
ascetic excesses. The ethical potency of intuition affirms the validity of the world. "Asceticism,"
Radhakrishnanemphasizes,"isanexcessindulgedinbythosewhoexaggeratethetranscendentaspectof
reality."Instead,therationalmystic"doesnotrecognizeanyantithesisbetweenthesecularandthesacred.
Nothingistoberejectedeverythingistoberaised"(IVL115).
Radhakrishnan'sethicalmysticdoesnotsimplyseetheinherentvalueoftheworldandengageinitsaffairs.
Rather, the ethical individual is guided by an intuitive initiative to move the world forward creatively,
challenging convention and established patterns of social interaction. For Radhakrishnan, this ethically
integratedmodeofbeingpresentsapositivechallengetomoraldogmatism.Thepositivechallengetomoral
convention,accordingtoRadhakrishnan,isthecreativepromotionofsocialtoleranceandaccommodation.
JustasRadhakrishnan'sHinduismrejectsabsoluteclaimstotruthandthevalidityofexternalauthority,so
toohasHinduism"developedanattitudeofcomprehensivecharityinsteadofafanaticfaithinaninflexible
creed"(HVL37).
i.EthicsofCaste
Radhakrishnan affirms that the caste system, correctly understood, is an exemplary case of ethical
tolerance and accommodation born out of an intuitive consciousness of reality. "The institution of caste
illustrates the spirit of comprehensive synthesis characteristic of the Hindu mind with its faith in the
collaborationofracesandthecooperationofcultures.Paradoxicalasitmayseem,thesystemofcasteis
theoutcomeoftoleranceandtrust"(HVL93)Basednotonthemechanicalfatalismofkarma,assuggested
byHinduism'scritics,butonarecognitionofHinduism'sspiritualvaluesandethicalideals,casteaffirms
the value of each individual to work out his or her own spiritual realization, a spiritual consciousness
Radhakrishnan understands in terms of integral experience. Just as Radhakrishnan sees his ranking of
religionsasaffirmingtherelativevalueofeachreligionintermsofitsproximitytoVedanta,theinstitution
ofcasteisasocialrecognitionthateachmemberofsocietyhastheopportunitytoexperimentwithhisor
her own spiritual consciousness free from dogmatic restraints. In Radhakrishnan's eyes, herein lies the
ethicalpotencyandcreativegeniusofintegralexperience.Casteisthecreativeinnovationofthose"whose
livesarecharacterizedbyanunshakablefaithinthesupremacyofthespirit,invincibleoptimism,ethical
universalism, and religious toleration" (IVL 126). [For a discussion of the democratic basis of caste in
Radhakrishnan'sthinking,seeRobertMinor,Radhakrishnan:AReligiousBiography(1989).]
3.Criticism
TherearenumerouscriticismsthatmayberaisedagainstRadhakrishnan'sphilosophy.Whatfollowsisnot
anexhaustivelist,butthreeofthemostcommoncriticismswhichmaybeleviedagainstRadhakrishnan.
a.EpistemicAuthority
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Thefirstisacriticismregardingthelocusofepistemicauthority.Onemightaskthequestion:Doesthetest
for knowledge lie in scripture or in experience? Radhakrishnan's view is that knowledge comes from
intuitive experience (anubhava). Radhakrishnan makes this claim on the basis of scripture, namely the
Upaniads. The Upaniads, according to Radhakrishnan, support a monistic ontology. Radhakrishnan
makesthisclaimonthebasisthattheUpaniadsaretherecordsofthepersonalexperiencesoftheancient
sages.Thus,thevalidityofone'sexperienceisdeterminedbyitsproximitytothatwhichisrecordedinthe
Upaniads. Conversely, the Upaniads are authoritative because they are the records of monistic
experiences.Thereisacircularityhere.ButthiscircularityisonewithwhichRadhakrishnanhimselfwould
likely not only acknowledge, but embrace. After all, Radhakrishnan might argue, intuitive knowledge is
nonrational. An intuitive experience of Reality is not contrary to reason but beyond the constraints of
logicalanalysis.
b.CulturalandReligiousConstructions
AsecondcriticismofRadhakrishnan'sviewssurroundshischaracterizationsofthe"East"andthe"West."
Radhakrishnan characterizes the West, as well as Christianity, as inclined to dogmatism, the scientific
method whose domain is limited to exploration of the outer natural world, and a reliance upon second
hand knowledge. The East, by contrast, is dominated by an openness to inner experience and spiritual
experimentation.TheWestisrationalandlogical,whiletheEastispredominantlyreligiousandmystical.
As pointed out by numerous scholars working in the areas of postcolonial studies and orientalism,
Radhakrishnan's constructions of "West" and "East" (these categories themselves being constructions)
acceptandperpetuateorientalistandcolonialistformsofknowledgeconstructedduringthe18thand19th
centuries.Arguably,thesecharacterizationsare"imagined"inthesensethattheyreflectthephilosophical
andreligiousrealitiesofneither"East"nor"West."
c.SelectivityofEvidence
A separate but related criticism that might be levied against Radhakrishnan's views has to do with his
theoryofreligiouspluralismandhistreatmentofthereligioustraditionswithwhichhedeals.
First,Radhakrishnanminimizesthecontributionsofthemonisticphilosophersandreligiousmysticsofthe
West. While Radhakrishnan acknowledges the work of such thinkers as Henri Bergon, Goethe, and a
varietyofChristian,Jewish,andMuslimmystics,heseemstoimplythatsuchapproachestoreligiousand
philosophicallifeintheWestareexceptionsratherthantherule.Infact,Radhakrishnangoessofarasto
suggest that such figures are imbued with the spirit of the East, and specifically Hinduism as he
understandsit.
Second, while Radhakrishnan readily acknowledges the religious diversity within "Hinduism," his
treatment of Western traditions is much less nuanced. In a sense, Radhakrishnan homogenizes and
generalizesWesterntraditions.Inhishierarchyofreligions(see Section2cabove),oneoranotherformof
Hinduism may be located within each of his religious categories (monistic, theistic, incarnational,
ancestoral, and natural). By contrast, Radhakrishnan seems to imply that the theistic (second) and the
incarnational(third)categoriesarethedomainsofUnitarianandTrinitarianChristianityrespectively.
4.ListofAbbreviations
HVLTheHinduViewofLife(1927)
IP1IndianPhilosophy:Volume1(1923)
IVLAnIdealistViewofLife(1929)
MSTMySearchforTruth(1937)
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AuthorInformaiton
MichaelHawley
Email:MHawley@mtroyal.ca
MountRoyalCollege
Canada
ArticleprintedfromInternetEncyclopediaofPhilosophy:http://www.iep.utm.edu/radhakri/
CopyrightTheInternetEncyclopediaofPhilosophy.Allrightsreserved.
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Perhaps the most understudied dimension of Radhakrishnan's interpretations of experience is his

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