AN INTRODUCTION TO

SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH

E. BRIGHT WILSON, JR.

Theodore William Richards Professor of
Chemistry, Emeritus, Harvard University

DOVER PUBLICATIONS, INC.

New York

CONTENTS
PREFACE TO THE DOVER EDITION
PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION
INTRODUCTION

iii
v
xiii

CHAPTER 1. THE CHOICE AND STATEMENT OF

A RESEARCH PROBLEM
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
1.5

Problems in Pure Science

Problems in Applied Science
The Cost of Experiments
Priority and Similar Questions
Moral Considerations

1
3
6
7
8

CHAPTER 2. SEARCHING THE LITERATURE

2.1
2.2
2.3
2.4

Necessity for a Search

The Structure of the Scientific Literature
Suggestions for Searching
Notes and Indexes

10
11
17
18

CHAPTER 3. ELEMENTARY SCIENTIFIC METHOD

3.1
3.2
3.3
3.4
3.5
3.6
3.7
3.8
3.9
3.10
3.11

Authority in Science
Observation and Description
Cause and Effect
Analysis and Synthesis
Hypothesis.
Deduction
The Testing of Hypotheses
Models and Mathematics
The Search for Causes
Fallacies
Notes and References

" .

21
22
23
24
25
27
27
30
32
34
35

CHAPTER 4. THE DESIGN OF EXPERIMENTS

4.1
4.2
4.3
4.4
4.5

Some First Principles

Variables
Comparative versus Absolute Measurements
Choice of Sample
Controls and Standards
vii

36
37
38
38
40

Vlll

4.6
4.7
4.8
4.9
4.10
4.11
4.12
4.13
4.14
4.15

CONTENTS

Psychological Bias
Replication
Factorial Design
Irrelevant Variables
Randomization in Factorial and Other Experiments
Level of Significance
Fractional Replication and Confounding
Latin Squares
Detection of Rare Events
Notes and References

43
46
48
52
54
57
61
63
66
67

CHAPTER 5. THE DESIGN OF APPARATUS

5.1
5.2
5.3
5.4
5.5
5.6
5.7
5.8
5.9
5.10
5.11
5.12
5.13
5.14
5.15
5.16
5.17
5.18
5.19
5.20
5.21
5.22
5.23
5.24
5.25

The Need for Specifications

Improvisation versus Planning
The Importance of Accessibility and Demountability . . . .
Questions of Operating Convenience
Test Facilities
Control of Disturbing Factors
Direct versus Null Measurements
Calibration and Standards
Use of Standard Parts
Interconnection of Adjustments
Automatic Recording and Other Automatic Mechanisms . . .
Amplification and Magnification
Measurement of Quantities Which Vary with Time
Matching of Impedances. . . -.
Feedback
Servo Systems
Modulation
Kinematic Design
Wear in Mechanical Parts
Use of Self-correcting Methods of Manufacture
Some Remarks on Electrical Apparatus
Some Remarks on Optical Apparatus
" Noise" as a Fundamental Limitation on All Measurements . .
Some Causes of Failure
Notes and References
;

69
71
73
75
77
78
82
83
84
85
86
90
93
96
97
100
102
104
108
109
110
112
116
119
121

CHAPTER 6. THE EXECUTION OF EXPERIMENTS

6.1
6.2
6.3
6.4
6.5

Some General Suggestions

Notebooks and Records
Psychological Questions
Bringing an Apparatus under Control
Search Principles

127
130
134
137
140

6.6
6.7
6.8

CONTENTS

IX

Trouble Shooting
Getting the Most out of Observations
Notes and References

145
148
149

CHAPTER 7. CLASSIFICATION, SAMPLING, AND MEASUREMENT

7.1
7.2
7.3
7.4
7.5
7.6
7.7
7.8
7.9

Classes of Things
Practical Definition of Classes
Induction
Sampling .
Induction in Science
Further Remarks on Sampling
The Definition of Measurable Scientific Quantities
The Operational Viewpoint
Notes and References

151
151
153
354
159
161
164
166
167

CHAPTER 8. THE ANALYSIS OF EXPERIMENTAL DATA

8.1
8.2
8.3
8.4
8.5
8.6
8.7
8.8
8.9
8.10
8.11
8.12
8.13
8.14
8.15
8.16

The Testing of Hypotheses

Testing More Complex Hypotheses
Results Which Appear "Too Good"
The Estimation of Parameters
Experiment as a Sampling Process
Sampling for AttributesThe Binomial Distribution
. . . .
Sampling from a Normal Population
Accuracy of Counting: The Poisson Distribution
The Multinomial Distribution
The x 2 Distribution
The Analysis of Variance
; .
Curve Fitting
; .
The Method of Least Squares
: .
Sequential Experiments
; .
Methods of Point Estimation
. . . : ; .
Notes and References
; :

.
.
.
.
;

169
175
176
177
178
179
189
191
195
197
202
215
217
223
226
228

CHAPTER 9. ERRORS OF MEASUREMENT

9.1
9.2
9.3
9.4
9.5
9.6
9.7
9.8
9.9

Classification of Errors
The Normal Law of Error
Applicability of the Normal Law
Treatment of Nonnormal Data
Importance of Size of Scale Divisions
Limits on Gain in Accuracy by Replication
Ways of Expressing Limits of Error
The Rejection of Observations
Quality Control and Experimentation

232
234
246
247
251
252
254
256
258

CONTENTS

9.10 The Quality-control Chart and Other Tests

9.11 Compounding of Errors
9.12 Notes and References

263
272
274

CHAPTER 10. PROBABILITY, RANDOMNESS, AND LOGIC

10.1
10.2
10.3
10.4
10.5
10.6
10.7

Probability
Random Processes
The Practical Use of Tables of Random Numbers
The Algebra of Classes
Symbolic Logic
Scientific Inference
Notes and References

277
283
286
287
289
293
299

CHAPTER 11. MATHEMATICAL WORK

11.1
11.2
11.3
11.4
11.5
11.6
11.7
11.8
11.9
11.10
11.11
11.12
11.13

The Starting Point for Mathematical Deduction

Figures and Notation
Existence Theorems
Generality versus Specialization
Symmetry
Checking Mathematical Work
Approximations
Formal Systems
Some General Methods of Proof
Dimensions
Dimensional Analysis
Use of Dimensionless Variables
Notes and References.

303
304
306
307
308
312
313
315
317
317
322
328
330

CHAPTER 12. NUMERICAL COMPUTATIONS

12.1
12.2
12.3
12.4
12.5
12.6
12.7
12.8
12.9
12.10
12.11
12.12
12.13
12.14

General Considerations
Mental Arithmetic
The Slide Rule
Nomographs, or Alignment Charts
Logarithms and Other Tables
Keyboard Calculating Machines
Punched-card Computers
Checking Numerical Work
Analog Computers
Digital Computers
Interpolation
'.
Differentiation and Integration
Numerical Solution of Equations
Notes and References

.
. . .

332
333
335
336
339
340
342
343
344
345
346
348
350
351

CONTENTS

XI

CHAPTER 13. REPORTING THE RESULTS OF RESEARCH

13.1
13.2
13.3
13.4
13.5
13.6

Types of Reports
Organization of Reports and Papers
The Title and Abstract
The Text
Acknowledgments
Notes and References-.

354
356
358
359
363
363

CONCLUSION

365

INDEX

367