OIL

OCCURANCE AND HISTORY

Petroleum formed several million years ago from organic matter of marine deposits in a
deficiency of oxygen (anaerobic condition). Selective bacterial attack destroyed proteins and
carbohydrates, leaving fats to accumulate as oil reserves.
FRACTIONS OBTAINED:

USES:

1. Fixed and liquefiable gases

Fuel gases, Alcohols, Light

Naphtha, Petroleum ether

2. Light Distillates

Gasoline, Naphtha, Kerosene,

Solvents, Light lubricant oils

3. Intermediate Distillates
a) Heavy gas oil
b) Light neutral oil

Gas oil
Heating fuels
Cracking stock
Absorber oil, Diesel

4. Heavy Distillates
(Heavy Neutral)

White oil
Emulsifying oils,
(Insulating oils) Floatation
oil Lubricating oils.

5. Residue after Vacuum distillation

Petroleum
Greases, coke,
Asphalt.
Sulphuric acid, sulfonic
Acids, Acid coke, fuel oil

6. Refinery sludge

All the crude oil consists mainly of hydrocarbons, but they differ in proportion of type of
hydrocarbons.
1. Paraffinic base crude
2. Naphthenic base crude
3. Aromatic crude.
In order to obtain the different kind of oils for suitable application where it is
required, the crude must be refined through several process of distillation.

condenser

distillation
column

LPG
Aviation Petrol
Petrol

Crude oil feeding

Diesel
Kerosene
T.O (Insulating) oil
Furnace oil
Tar

Normally in many Thermal Power station we can mainly divide in to three divisions
1
2
3

.BOILER
Furnace Oil (F.O.)
Low Sulphur Heavy Stock (LSHS)
Light Diesel Oil (LDO)

TURBINE
Lubricating oil

TRANSFORMER
Transformer oil

1. FURNACE OIL
Indian Standard for Furnace Fuel Oil is IS 1593-1982
Reaffirm in 1997
These fuel oils are primarily indented for oil-fired furnaces. This low viscosity oils is
divided in to four grades.

SPECIFICATIONS REQUIRED AS PER IS STANDARD

S.No.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9

Characteristics

LV

Acidity
Ash % mass Max
Gross Calorific Value Kcal/Kg
Relative Density 15/15 0C
Kinematics Viscosity at 50 0C
Flash point 0C
Sediment % by Mass Max
Sulphur
Water content ppm

1. Grade LV
2. Grade MV1
3. Grade MV2
4. Grade HV

-----

MV1

Nil
0.1
Not limited

80 cst
66
0.25
3.5
1.0

MV2

HV

Nil
0.1
10000

Nil
0.1
10000

Nil
0.1
10000

125
66
0.25
4.0
1.0

180
66
0.25
4.0
1.0

370
66
0.25
4.5
1.0

Low Viscosity
Medium Viscosity
Medium Viscosity
High Viscosity

Definition:
A dark viscous residual fuel obtained from blending mainly heavier components from
crude distillation unit, short residue and calorified oil from fluidized catalytic cracker unit.
NOMENCLATURE:
Bunker Fuel, Furnace oil, fuel oil are other names for the same product though fuel oil is
general term applied to any oil used for generation of power or heat. Fuel oil can include distillate
and blends of distillate and residue such as light diesel oil.
END USE:
Broadly the applications can be classified as:
Steam rising

In the

and thermal power stations.

 Industrial Furnace

Metallurgical furnace, Pottery and brick kilns,

Cement and limekilns, glass furnaces etc.,
Special applications:
Includes the following:
i.
Marine engines and slow speed engines, i.e.
generator for power generation
ii.
Tea manufacturer.
Indirect firing process and direct process can be used. If latter is used low sulphur furnace oil is
needed for tea manufacture.
I. FLASH POINT:
As per controller of Explosives classification, furnace oil falls ClassC category
with minimum flash point. Standard of 66 oC. Since Penskey Martens closed cup method is used, it
is apparent that a small quantity of low boiling point hydrocarbons is sufficient to lower the flash
point drastically.
DEFINITION:
It is the lowest temperature to which oil should be heated to generate enough vapor
and to give a momentary flash when brought in contact with the test flame.
Description of Pensky-Martins closed cup apparatus:
This is the most commonly used apparatus for determination of flash point of
oils having flash points between 50 0C to 370 0C.
The apparatus consists of brass cup, which is 5 cm in diameter, 5.5cm in depth.
The level up to which oil is to be filled in the cup is marked at about 1 cm below the top of the
cup. Its flange supports the cup over a heating vessel in such a way that there is a clearance
between the cup and the heating vessel. The cover for the cup is
provided with four openings of standard dimensions, which are meant for a special type of stirrer,
a standard thermometer, an air inlet and a device for introducing the standard flame. The shutter
is provided at the top of the cup has a lever mechanism. When the shutter is turned, openings fr
the test flame and air are opened and the flame exposure device dips into the opening over the
surface of the oil. The test flame gets extinguished when it is introduced into the opening for the
test, but as soon s t returns to its original position on closing the shutter, the flame is
automatically lighted again by the pilot burner.
Procedure:
Wash the cup provided for the test and its accessories with Benzene and dry perfectly.
The oil is poured into the cup up to the mark. The lid is placed then, and the thermometer is fixed.
The oil is heated at a steady rate by adjusting the theostat for oils with flash point between 40 0C
to 150 0C, the rate is 5 to 4 0C per minute. For higher flash point (5 to 7 0C) ensuring constant
stirring with a approximate 60 revolution/minute.
When the oil temperature reaches 15 to 20 0C below the expected flash point, start
introducing the test flame. The flames size should be adjusted to 3 to 4 mm. Do not stir the oil
during the application of the fl

A blue halo around the test flame indicates that the flash point is heating. The
temperature recorded on the thermometer when a distinct flash appears for the first time inside
the cup is to be taken as the flash point of the oil.
Oils containing minute quantities of volatile organic substances are liable to flash
below the true flash point of the oil. Although a small slash may be observed in such cases, it
should not be confused with the true flash, since its intensity does not increase with increased
temperature as occurs when the true flash point reached.
The minimum closed-cup flash point required for turbine oil is 165 oC and that for
insulating oils is 145 0C.
The flash point /fire point of the oils = ----0C.
This is also calculated by multiplying the
Heat of combustion KJ Mol -1 [Heat of combustion KJ gm -1 x mol. Wt.] by vapour pressure
[in bar] at 300 K (27 0C).
II. POUR POINT:
It is a very rough indication of the lowest temperature at which furnace oil is
readily pumpable. However, since practical conditions are quite different from those under which
the laboratory test is conducted, many fuels can be pumped at temperatures well below their
laboratory pour point.
III. WATER:
Water may be present in free or emulsified form and on combustion can cause
damage to the inside furnace surfaces especially it is contains dissolved salts. It can also cause
spittering of the flame at the burner tip. Water content of furnace oil when supplied is normally
very low as the product at refinery site is handled hot and maximum limit of 1% is specified in the
standard. The higher the specific gravity and viscosity of a fuel, the greater the quantities of water
it can hold in suspension
IV SEDIMENTS:
Furnace oil being a blend of residues contains some quantity of sediments. These
have adverse effect on the burners and cause blockage of filters etc. However the typical values are
normally much lower than the stipulated value of maximum 0.25% by mass. The higher the
specific gravity and viscosity of a fuel, the greater the quantities of sediments it can hold in
suspension. Large quantities of sediment can affect the combustion of the fuel. And if abrasive,
may cause excessive wear of the closely fitting parts of fuel pumps and injectors. It may also clog
filters EX: a)In TS-II so many tones of sediments kept in drums. Carried out variety of experiments
to utilize but not feasible. b) Gas Turbines: It is suitable fuel for power generation by gas turbines.
However, the extent to which pre-treatment of fuel is required is high, frequency of shutting down
for over washing is very high and hence significant use of furnace oil has yet not started in this
application. c) Fertilizer Plants: As a feed stock for fertilizer manufacture.
SPECIFICATION:
Furnace oil in the current marketing range meets Bureau of Indian Standards
Specification IS: 1593 1982 for Fuel oils grade MV2.

SIGNIFICANCE OF PROPERTIES:
Viscosity: is the most important characteristic in the furnace oil specification. It influences
the degree of pre-heat required for handling, storage and satisfactory atomization. If the oil is too
viscous it may become difficult to pump, burner may be hard to light and operation may be erratic.
Poor atomization may result in the carbon deposits on the burner tips or on the walls. The upper
viscosity limited for furnace oil is such that it can be handled without heating in the storage tanks
excepting under severe cold conditions. Pre heating is necessary for proper atomization.
Over a period of time with the addition of secondary processing facilities to extract more
light and individual distillate the viscosity of furnace oil has gradually increased
Example:
Good

poor

CALORIFIC VALUE:
Calorific value of the fuel is the quantity of heat generated in kilocalories by complete
burning of one-kilogram weight of fuel.
Gross calorific value is higher that net calorific value of the extent of heat
required changing the water formed by combustion into water vapour. Former is more commonly
used in practice EX: Bomb calorimeter.
DENSITY:
At a given temperature it is the weight of a unit volume of oil and in metric system
expressed as gm/ml at 15 0C usually. Furnace oil marketed on volume basis. Density of furnace oil,
like for other petroleum products varies from batch to batch depending on numerous variables.
Density becomes important in certain applications where pre-treatment includes
centrifuging to separate water as in the case of marine applications.

LOW SULPHUR HEAVY STOCK (LSHS) AND HEAVY

PETROLEUM STOCK (HPS):
Definition:
LSHS/HPS are residual fuels produced by processing of indigenous crude and
Mixture of indigenous and Middle East crude respectively. These are obtained in lieu of Furnace oil
and are different from FO in respect in viscosity. This requires handling at temperatures above
atmospheric level because of very high pour point.
This HPS is mainly used in Power plants, steel plants and other industries fuel. In Fertilizer
plant as fuel as well as feedstock. In certain industries such as steel production where the products
being heated directly comes in contact with the flame, the sulphur content of the fuel is important
and may have undesirable effect in the quality of finished product HPS is produced in two grades.
1.Low Sulphur content
2.High Sulphur content
HPS being solid at ambient temperature it has to be heated up before loading for transport by
TOH wagon. Before decanting it has to be heated by steam. After melting the oil is transported
to storage tank, which invariably heated and insulated.

REQUIRED SPECIFICATION AS PER IS STANDARD

S.No. Characteristics
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10

Pour point
C Min.
Flash Point 0C Max.
Kinematic Viscosity m2/s @ 100 0C
Relative Density @ 15/15 0C
Gross Calorific value (above) Kcal/Kg
Acidity inorganic
As % by Mass Max.
Sediment by Mass Max.
Total Sulphur by mass max.
Water content % by volume

Grade I LS

Grade II HS

66
76
50
0.90
10000
Nil
0.1
0.25
1.0
1.0

72
66
50
0.90
10000
Nil
0.1
0.25
4.5
1.0

Nomenclature:
Residual Fuel oil, Hot Heavy stock, Fertilizer Feed stock are nomenclatures other than
LSHS/HPS for the same product.
END USE:
These are used in lieu of furnace oil in the same applications where furnace oil is suitable.

FACILITIES REQUIREMENTS FOR LSHS/HPS:

LSHS/HPS are marketed on weight basis as they are solids at ambient temperature.
Therefore, product has to be filled hot a temperature of about 10 0C above pour point, in
tank/lorries/tank-wagons. Means are available to heat the product if needed at consumers premises,
for which tanker lorries or tenor-wagons are having steam coils and in certain areas heat traveling
taps are around the tanker lorries. To reduce heat loses the tanker lorries and tanker wagons are
insulated in certain cases. At the unloading point, saturated steam should be available at 3-bar
pressure for heating tanker lorries and tanker wagons with steam coils.
The entire network of pipelines from tanker lorry unloading point to burners is steam
tracked or auto electrical tape tracked and insulated.
oil

Fuel oil pump house

Boiler burner
Steam

Main storage tanks and service tanks should have thermostatically controlled floor
steam coils for maintain temperature or shall be tracked with electrical auto tracking.
Pumps normally of the positive displacement type are used for furnace oil. These are
to be suitably tracked/steam jacketed and insulated.
FLUSHING SYSTEM:
To take care of start up after prolonged shut down as well as emergency
shut down, it is necessary; to provide for flushing the fuel oil lines with same low pour point
class C category fuel such as furnace oil. For this purpose a separate storage tank, pimps lines
arrangements should be present.
SAFETY PRECAUTIONS IN HANDLING LSHS/HPS:
Water in main storage tanks if present should be drained out periodically through
drain valve. To prevent boil-over of product, care should be taken to regulate the temperature to
maximum of 90 0C. At least two thermometers of good accuracy; should be provided at different
levels to measure product temperature in the tank. Minimum of two free vents should be provided
on the roof of the storage tanks with size bigger than the product receipt line. Automatic temperature
controllers are recommended on steam inlet to storage tanks. Testing of steams coils should be
undertaken at least once in every two years. Only dry chemical powder fire extinguisher should be
installed. Precaution should be taken that during boil-over, foam is that injected in to the storage tanks
as this would only aggravate the boil over.

DIESEL FUELS:
REQUIRD SPECIFICATION AS PER IS:1460- 2000 STANDARD
S.No.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9

Characteristics
Total acidity
Ash Max.
Carbon residue %
Pour point
K.Viscosity @ 380C
Flash point
Sediment Max
Total sulphur Min.
Water Content % by mass

Requirements
Nil
0.2
1.50
12 0C (W ) 2 1 0C (S)
2.52 to 15.7 cst
66
0.10
1.8
0.25

a. Definition:
A diesel fuel I any fuel suitable for burning or compression ignition engines.
b. NOMENCLATURE:
Two main grades of diesel fuel are marketed in India, High Speed Diesel ,(HSD)
and Light Diesel Oil (LDO). The former is a 100% distillate fuel while the latter is blend of distillate
fuel with a small proportion of residual fuel.
c. END USE:
HSD is normally used as a fuel for high speed diesel engines operating above 750 rpm i.e.
buses, lorries, generator seta, locomotives, pumping sets etc. LDO is used for diesel engines generally
of the stationary type operating below 750 rpm..
d. SIGNIFICANCE OF PROPERTIES:
e. Ignition quality:
When fuel is injected in to the combustion chamber of a diesel engine, ignition does not occur
immediately. The interval between the commencement of fuel injection and the commencement of
combustion is known as the ignition delay and is a measure of the ignition quality of the fuel.
f. Cetane number:
The most accurate method of assessing the ignition quality of a diesel fuel is by measuring its
cetane number in a test engine, the higher the cetane number the higher the ignition quality.
g. Viscosity:
When we move our finger through water contained in a tank, we experience a resistance.
This shows that water offer a frictional force. This frictional force will be more in the case of glycerin
and castor oil. This force offered by the liquid is known as viscous force and is due to a property
known as the viscosity of the liquid. When a liquid flows slowly and steadily through a pipe the layer

A of the liquid in contact with the walls of the pipe is practically stationary while the liquid along the
axial line C has a maximum velocity. The layers in between A & C have progressively increasing
velocities. The length of the arrows represents the progressively increasing velocities of the layers
from A & C.
A

If the viscosity of the fuel is too high it will impede the flow of fuel to the pump, giving rise to
poor atomization and excessive penetration with in efficient combustion of fuel.
h. CARBON RESIDUE:
Different fuels have different tendencies to crack and leave carbon deposits
when heated under similar conditions. A sample of fuel is heated without contact with air under
specified conditions and weight of carbon residue remaining after the test is expressed as a % of
the weight of the sample.
i. VELOCITY:
As a rule, the higher the viscosity of a liquid fuel the lower its velocity.
j. TOTAL SULPHUR:
This is significant because it governs the amount of sulphur oxides formed
during combustion. Water from combustion of fuel collects on the cylinder walls, whenever the
engine operates at low jacket temperatures. Under such conditions, sulphurous and sulphuric
acids are formed which attack the cylinder walls and piston rings, promote corrosion and thus
cause engine wear and deposits.
The above effects can do some extent be overcome by the use of lubricant
containing alkaline additives. If the diesel fuel is refined from a very high sulphur crude, it may
become necessary to desulpurise it before marketing.

k. CORROSIVE SULPHUR:
It is important that diesel fuels shall be free of these sulphur compound
which in themselves attack metal parts of the engine or the fuel system. This characteristic is
tested by; the copper strip corrosion test, a severe discoloration or pitting of the polished strip
indicating the presence of corrosive sulphur compounds in the fuel.

l. ACIDITY:
This should be low in order that corrosion of metals in contact
with the fuel during storage and distribution is minimized.
m. INORGANIC OR MINERAL ACIDITY:
Where diesel fuels are tested with mineral acid as part of the refining
procedure, traces of minerals acid remaining in the final product would obviously be undesirable.
Hence, zero limits is usually specified for this property.
n. ORGANIC ACIDIY:
This is due acids of the naphthemic type which are constituents of crude
petroleum. Although much weaker than mineral acids, they may attack galvanized metal and this
is why the use of galvanized containers for the storage of diesel fuel is not recommended..
o. ASH CONTENT:
Ash is a measure of the incombustible material present in a fuel and is
expressed as a percentage of the weight of the fuel sample. In the case of distillate fuels, it
usually consists of rust, tank scale or sand, which settles out readily. Blends of distillate and
residual fuel Ex: LDO may additionally contain metal oxides derived from oil soluble and
insoluble metallic compounds. As is significant because it can give rise to deposit problems such
as abrasion, malfunctioning of injectors and high temperature corrosion, particularly with residual
fuel.
p. SEDIMENT AND WATER:
q. POUR POINT:

Undesirable.
Lowest temperature at which fuel flows.

r. COLD FILTER PLUGGING POINT: (CFPP)

Defined as the highest temperature at which the fuel, when cooled under
prescribed conditions, either will not flow through the filter (45 microns) or will require more
than 60 seconds for 20 ml to pass through. This is the temperature at which wax crystals begin to
cause blockage of filters.
s. FLASH POINT:
Important largely from the point of view of safety in handling the fuel. LDO flash
0
point 66 C . Class C.
t. SPECIFIC GRAVITY:
Defined as the ratio of the weight of a given volume oil to the weight of the same
volume of water at a given temperature. Another index is mass per unit value at a standard
temperature.
Ex:
100 ml of oil weighs
=
89 gms
100 ml of water weighs =
100 gms
Sp. Gr. of oil
=
89/100 0.89

TRANSFORMER OIL
SPECIFICATIONS REQUIRED AS PER IS: 335-1993 FOR NEW T.O OIL
S.No.

Characteristics

Appearance

2
3
4
5
6
7
8

Density @ 29.5 0C
Kinematic Viscosity at 27 0C
Interfacial tension @ 27 0C min.
Flash point
Pour point
Acidity max.
Elect. Strength (BDV)
a) New Oil
b) After filtration

9
10
11
12

Di-electric dissipation factor tan

@ 90 0C max.
Sp. Resistance (Receptivity)
a) @ 90 0C
b) @ 27 0C
Neutralization value after oxidation
max.
Water Content ppm max.

Requirement
The oil should be clear and transparent
and free from suspended matter of
sediments.
0.89 gm/cm2
27 cst
0.04 N/m
140 0C
- 6 0C
0.03 mg of KOH/g
30 KV
If the above value is not attained the oil
shall be filtered
60 KV
0.002
35 x 1012 ohm-cm
1500 x 1012 ohm-cm
0.4 mg KOH/g
35

SPECIFICATIONS REQUIRED AS PER IS: 1886 1983 FOR MAINTENANCE AND

SUPERVISION OF MINERAL INSULATING OIL IN EQUIPMENT

S.No.

Tests

Transformer Voltage
Rating

1
2

Interfacial tension N/m

Flash point 0C

Neutralization value of mg of For all voltages

KOH/g
Break down voltage (BDV)
Above 170 KV
Between 72.5 to 170 KV
Below 72.5 KV
Dielectric dissipation factor @ Above 170 KV
90 0C
Below 170 KV
Resistivity (x 1012 Ohm-cm)
For all voltages
Water content ppm
Above 170 KV
Between 72.5 to 170 KV
Below 72.5 KV
Sediment & sludge
For all Voltages

4
5
6
7
8

For all voltages

For all voltages

Limits
0.015 Max
Decrease by 15
0C
0.3 max
30 min50 min
40 min
0.2 max
1.0 max
0.1 min
20 max
20 max
No free moisture
Nil

Electricity is now an integral component of modern civilization and an essential input

for Agriculture, Industry, Transport and quality of life. With the extension of electricity to rural
areas, the number of transformers both power and distribution type installed in the country are
about twenty lakes with increasing annual average rate of around 10%. The failure rate of
distribution transformers varies from 9% to 20% in different states, which is very high when
compared to international standards. In advanced countries the failure rate is generally less 2%.
The main reason for failure of Distribution Transformers (DT) can be broadly divided
in three categories:
1. Due to poor quality of Transformers
2. Due to improper maintenance
3. Due to poor protection.
The majority of Distribution Transformer failure comes under first two categories where
transformer oil is one of the main reason initiating and causing failure of DTs.
INTRODUCTION:
Transformer oil is a product of petroleum origin. Oil is said to be composed of
hydrocarbons and non-hydrocarbons. The hydrocarbons present are more in numbers. It
can be divided in three major groups.

4. Paraffinic base crude

5. Naphthenic base crude
6. Aromatic crude.
The manufacture of Transformer oil is by the fractional distillation of crude under reduced
pressure. The highest fraction obtained after dewaxing with propane is further refined by
chemical means to yield transformer oil.
In order to accomplish multiple role by transformer oil like
1. The role of dielectric medium
2. Heat transfer agent or coolant
3. Arc-quencher.
The oil must possess following basic properties:
1.
2.
3.
4.

High electric strength

Sufficient low viscosity
Adequate low temp. Properties
Proper oxidation resistance

Transformer oil in service is subject to deterioration due to condition of its use,

elevated temperature, presence of metals, organic compounds or both. Air acting as oxidation
promotor. At an advance stage of oxidation, separation of sludge may occur. Similarly change
in colour formation of acidic compounds and dielectric properties may be impaired. In
addition, many other contaminants like water, solid particles and oil soluble *polar
compounds may accumulate in the oil during service
Polar compounds = Soluble in water.

POLAR COMPUNDS:
In Power Transformers, transformer oil heats up at winding due to the power loss in the
coil and the magnetic core and transfer heat to the cool walls of transformer tank. In high voltage
oil circuit breakers, the liquid dielectric serves not only to insulate the conductivity parts but also
as a suppressive medium that quenches an arc discharge between the disengaging contacts.

MAIN CAUSES FOR DETERIORATION OF OIL OR:

MAIN CAUSES FOR DETERIORATION OF OIL
1.Physical contaminating:- due to
Contact with construction particles
Fibrous materials
Dissolution of varnish
Moisture
2.Chemical contamination:- due to
Thermal decomposition
Oxidation
Catalytic effect of construction materials
Reaction of acids with paper and metal parts
Sludge.
3.Contamination by gases: Gases those dissolve in oil from atmosphere
Gases those are generated due to various reaction.
TESTING
The testing of fresh oil samples used oil samples or deteriorated oil samples can be done
by physical, chemical and electrical testing.
Physical Test:
Appearance
Density
Viscosity
Pour point
Flash point
Interface tension
B. Chemical Test:
1.Neutralisation Number:
Is the determination of acidic constituents in the insulating oils.
Leads to formation of sludge, metal surface corrosion and lowering of electric strength
2. Corrosive Sulphur:
Indicates presence of Sulphur, which is corrosive in nature and corrodes the copper
surfaces.
Oxidation Stability:

 Covers the evaluation of acid and sludge priming tendency of new mineral oils.
Water Content:
by moisture entry into oil
by accidental leakage
by breathing action.
During oil filling or topping up.
Chemical reaction.
C.ELECTRICAL TEST;Electrical strength:(Break down voltage - BDV)
is the voltage at which arc discharge occurs between the electrodes with 2.5 mm gap.
Dieletric dissipation factor:
Dissipation factor = Power loss in electric / apparent power (volt-ampere)
is the measure of dielectric losses in oil and hence the amount of heat dissipated.
Low value indicates low losses.
Resistivity:
Provides a sensitive method of determining the conducting impurities.
affects the electrical losses and causes deterioration of oil causing equipment
failure.
GAS IN OIL ANALYSIS.
Is used to evaluate physical condition of transformer with regard to arcing, hot spot and paper
deterioration. For this analysis high performance liquid chromatography (HPCL) and gas
chromatography (GC) techniques are used.
Gas observed in oil
1. N2 + 5% or less O2
2. N2 + more than 5% O2
3. N2 + CO2 + CO
4. Nitrogen + H2 + Methane
5. N2 + H2 + other hydro- Carbon including Acetylene

STATE OF ART OF TRANSFORMER OIL:

CONSTITUENTS OF PETROLEUM:
The main elemental constituents of petroleum are carbon and hydrogen, together with
small amount of metals such as vanadium, sodium, nickel and iron. The carbon and hydrogen are
present in paraffinic, naphthaenic and aromatic hydrocarbons: whilst sulphur, nitrogen and
oxygen are present with carbon and hydrogen in what is termed as hetero compounds.
PRODUCTION OF INDEGENOUS TRANSFORMER OIL:
The indigenous production of insulating oils commenced in 1969. Till then the product
was being imported from western sources. Important characteristics of the transformer oil feed
stock (TOFS) are sulphur content, aniline point, pour point, viscosity and armatic content must be
kept within permissible limits.
INSTALLED CAPACITY AND DEMAND:
A working group of the Planning commission estimated in 1966 the requirement of new
transformer oil as 1100 MT for addition of every one million kilowatts (I.e 1000 mega watts) of
power for growth in power generation capacity: Based on these norms and the plan forecasts for
growth in Power generation capacity, Government initially licensed in 1966 the organized sector
to manufacture 30,000 MT of Transformer oil. Subsequently, based on the committees power
plan further about 65,000 MT were licensed/registered in the medium and small sector. The
manufacturing capacity in various different regions of the country given at present is more than
1.0 lakh MT.

CHEMISTRY AND MANUFACTURE OF TRANSFORMER OIL:

In power transformers, transformer oil heats up at windings due to the power loss
in the coil and the magnetic core and transfers heat to the cool walls of transformer tank. In high
voltage oil circuit breakers, the liquid dielectric server not only to insulate the conducting parts
but also as a suppressive medium that quenches as arc discharge between the disengaging
contacts.
Of all the liquid dielectric petroleum oils are mostly widely spread. These
petroleum oils are obtained by the fractional distillation of petroleum, which is a complex
process.

CRUDE DISTILLATION:
The first step in producing transformer oil is distillation of crude to produce a
suitable distillate feed stock. The distillate can be taken as a side stream product from either the
atmospheric tower or vacuum tower.

Low boiling fractions are removed in pre-fractionation.

Middle boiling fractions are removed in Atmospheric tower.
High boiling fractions or reduced crude from the bottom of the atmospheric tower
then goes to the final or vacuum tower. This is done in order to keep the boiling
point of fractions well below cracking temperature. The distillate obtained during
this process will be call as Transformer oil feed stock.

REFINING OF DISTILLATE:
a)CHEMICAL REFINING:
Acid Treating:
In this process the oil fraction is treated with concentrated sulphuric acid. The oxygen,
sulphur and nitrogen compounds along with undesirable hydrocarbon are removed in the form
sludge. The amount of acid used and the time of contact depend upon the concentration of
impurities in oil. During this treatment, the oil is continuously agitated and reacted in large
vessels with conical bottoms for sludge drainage. After the sludge has settled down, the oil is
drained off, washed with water and treated with 10-25 % solution of NaOH (alkali wash). This
alkali neutralizes the acids completely and subsequently removed by water washings.

Acid Treating:
H2SO4
Water

Alkali wash 10-25 % NaOH

Oil
Oil

Oil
Neutralized oil

O,S,N compounds + Hydrocarbon

as sludge
Clay Treating:

Alcohol water
Neutralized oil

Electrical
Insulating oil
Steam
Residual traces of Sodium
Sulphonate
b) Hydro Treating:
This process makes use of hydrogen, which reacts with sulphur,
nitrogen and oxygen compounds of the oil. The reaction takes place at elevated temperatures and
pressure over a fixed bed catalyst. Generally a pressure of 35-40 tonnes per sq. mtr. And a
temperature of 300-400 oC over cobalt or molybdenum sulphide or alumina as catalyst are
employed.
The products of reactions are stable hydrocarbons similar to ammonia naturally occurring
hydrocarbons. Gases such as hydrogen sulphide, ammonia and water are removed. After hydro
treating step, the oil goes to steam stripper where the gaseous reaction products are removed. The
hydro treated oil by itself is not usually a satisfactory product. The process is too mild to remove
all deleterious compounds. Therefore clay percolation or solvent extraction must be used to arrive
at finished oil.
c. Solvent Extraction:
This process is used in conjunction with the acid or hydro refining and is
applied to crude distillate shaving high aromatic content. In this process, the distillate is mixed
with a solvent and is allowed to settle (using immiscible or partly miscible). The solvent should
be more dense than the oil and selective or aromatics. The extracted oil (raffinate) containing
some dissolved solvent goes to stripping system where the solvent is recovered and reused. The
solvents that are used to treat transformer oil or phenol, n-mthryl-pyrolidine and liquid sulphur
dioxide.

d.Solvent Dewaxing:
Dewaxing is not required if the crude is Naphthaenic but is required for oils
made from paraffinic crude or waxy napthenic crude. In this process, waxy oil is mixed with a
suitable anti-solvent for wax and chilled to a low temperature to cause, the n-paraffins to
precipitate. The wax is then filtered off usually as a rotary filter. The solvent is recovered from
the dewaxed oil and wax for reuse. The typical solvents that can be used for the process are liquid
propane, methyl ethyl ketone and methyl isobutyl ketone.
e.Catalytic Dewaxing:
The equipment used is similar to that used in hydro treating. The dewaxing
catalyst mordenite can be best visualized as hollow sphere with hoes in the sides leading into
the interior cavity. The hole size is such that a straight chain hydrocarbon (n-paraffin) can
protrude through the hole into the interior but the branched chain iso paraffin or cyclic structure
cannot encounter the catalyst. If the waxy oil fed into unit is mixed with hydrogen gas at elevated
temperature and pressure and allowed to flow over the catalyst just as in hydro treating. The
normal paraffin entering the catalyst is cracked off in typical units of 3 carbons (Propane). This
process is capable of producing dewaxed oils with very low pour points. (50 oC)

PHYSICO-CHEMICAL ASPECTS OF REFINING:

PARAFFIN:
n-paraffins are removed by solvent dewaxing and hydro treating.
Iso paraffins and naphthalenes are not affected by any process except that small amounts may be
solublized into extract phase in solvent extraction.
Olefins are removed by acid treating, while hydro treating hydrogenation converts
them to saturated hydrocarbons, which remain in oil.
AROMATICS:
Highly condensed aromatics are removed by acid treating hydro treating converts
some of them into partially saturated hydrocarbons. Depending on the severity of process,
hydrogenation can fully saturate the aromatics. Solvents extraction fully removes condensed
aromatics. Clay treating, solvent dewaxing and hydro dewaxing have no effect on condensed
aromatics.
SULPHUR COMPOUNDS:
Benzothiophenes can be removed by acid treating. Hydro treating can totally
convert them to desulfurized hydrocarbon. Solvent extraction can also remove Benzothiphene.
Clay treating, solvent dewaxing and hydro dewaxing have no effect on Benzothiphenes.

NITROGEN COMPOUNDS:
Quinoline type compounds can be removed by acid treating and clay; treatment. Hydro
treatment with severity can convert quinoline to Denitrogenated hydrocarbon. Solvent extraction
removes partially the qunioline. Solvent dewaxing and hydro dewaxing have no effect on
quinoline content.
POLAR OXYGEN COMPOUNDS:
Naphthaoic acid type compounds are removed in acid treatment and clay treatment.
Hydro treatment converts them to saturated naphthenics. Solvent extraction. Solvent dewaxing,
hydro dewaxing have no effect.
UNIT PROCESS EFFECTS ON OIL PROPERTIES:
One can obtain transformer oil by many; different process sequences. Some of the various
combinations that have been reported are:
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
f.
g.

Acid treating, clay treating

Hydro treating, clay treating
Hydrogenation
Solvent extraction, hydro treating
Solvent extraction, hydro treating, clay treating
Solvent extraction, hydro treating, dewaxing
Hydro treating, solvent extraction, dewaxing, clay treating.

ACCEPTABLE LIMITS FOR TRANSFORMER OIL BASE STOCK

1
2
3
4
5
6
7

Properties
Density at 150 oC
Viscosity at 40 oC
Viscosity Index
Colour
Pour Point oC
Flash Point oC
Sulphur content %

Acceptance limits
0.89 to 0.905
11 13
64 70
<2
-10 to 20
150 170
1.7 2.5

ELECTRICAL PARAMETERS
1. DIELECTRIC STRENGTH:
It is the minimum voltage at which oil breaks down when subjected to a continuously ac
voltage. It is expressed in kV.
It is popularly known as Break Down voltage (BDV). BDV of oil is the ac voltage,
which sparks between two electrodes placed in the oil under test at a standard distance (generally
2.5 mm as per most standards). The voltage being applied is raised at a specific rate. BDV is the
single most important and popular test to gauge condition of oil on site. It is indicative if solid
impurities and water content present in the oil. Dry and clean oil exhibits normally high Break
down voltage. However high BDV doesnt necessarily indicate absence of all above
contaminations.
The gap between electrodes, shape of the electrodes and temperature of the sample
are important parameters, otherwise the results will not be correct one.
Electrodes
100 Kv

2.5 mm gap
Oil

Oil bath
(.5 to 1 lr.)

Connected to
Servo motor

2. SPECIFIC RESISTANCE:
Also call resistivity of DC resistance of volume of oil of unit cross
sectional area and unit length. Prevalent unit is ohm-cm. It is desirable to have Specific resistance
of oil as high as possible. Resistivity of oil varies greatly with temperature of oil, an increase in
temperature reduces the resistivity.
Resistivity of oil reduces considerably due to presence of moisture,
acidity and solid contaminants. Contamination of oil, which would not otherwise be detected by
acidity test, will immediately be indicated by changes in the value of resistivity. Resistivity
measurements are carried out at 90 oC for monitoring purpose. New oils are tested both at room
temp. (27 oC) as well as at 90 oC. A satisfactory value at 90 oC and unsatisfactory values at room

temperature is an indication of the presence of water or degradation products preciptable in the

cold but generally at a tolerable level. Unsatisfactory results at both temperatures indicate a
greater extent of contamination and it may not be possible to restore the oil to a satisfactory level
by reconditioning.
3. DIELECTRIC DISSIPATION FACTOR:
It is the tangent of the loss angle. Dielectric dissipation factor is also known as
tan-delta or loss factor. In a pure insulating media the phase angle between voltage and current
will be 90 0 and the loss will be zero. But in all practical cases the angle will never be 90 0, but
slightly lesser by an angle which causes the loss. The tangent of this loss angle is called
dielectric dissipation factor.
Dielectric dissipation factor is strongly affected by presence ionizable
contaminants present in oil. Hence it is measure of contaminants and deterioration by products
like acids sludge etc.
I

= 90 0

= 900 -

PHYSICAL PARAMETERS:
1. INTERFACIAL TENSION:
Inter facial tension between the water and oil interface is the way to
measure molecular attractive force between the molecules of water and oil. It is expressed in
Dynes/cm or mille Newton/m. It is measured using platinum ring tensiometer. A planner ring is
first placed in the interface of water and oil and then it is lifted using a torsion wine into oil. The
force required to lift the ring from the interface is proportional to the interface tension.
Interfacial tension is extremely useful for determining the presence
of polar contaminants and oil decay products. Good new oil generally exhibits high interfacial
tension. Oil oxidation contaminants lower the IFT. This is due to the reason that they have a high
affinity towards water molecules (i.e. hydrophilic in nature) as well as the oil molecules. At the
interface they extend across to the water, thus a vertical force is excerted reducing he lateral
tension. Increase in oxidation contaminants causes more reduction IFT.

SAMPLING AND TESTING OF OILS

1.
2.
3.
4.

Occurrence
Classification of Crude Petroleum
Table I
Oils---------------------------------------------------------------------------------Boiler

Turbine

Transformer

5. Furnace Oil - Definition

- Nomenclature
- End use
Analysis:

a. Flash point
b. Pour point
c. Water content
d. Sediment
e. Viscosity
f. Calorific ValueSignificance of properties.
g. Density

6. LSHS:
- Definition
- Nomenclature
- End use.
- Facilities for LSHS
- Flushing system
- Safety in handling
7. DIESEL FUELS (LDO):

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.

a. Definition
b. Nomenclature
c. End use.
d. Properties ----Ignition quality
Centane number
Viscosity
Carbon reside
Volatility
Total Sulphur
Corrosive sulphur
Acidity

9. Inorganic or mineral acidity

10. Organic acidity
11. Ash Content
12. Sediment and water
13. Pour point
14. Cold filter plugging point
15. Flash point
16. Specific gravity
17. Cleanliness

LUBRICATING OILS:
In TS-II

History
Categories of L.O.S
Viscosity
Viscosity index
Pour point
Oxidation stability
Rust prevention
Resistance to emulsification-demulsification
Resistance to foaming
Antiwear property
Oiliness and film strength
Tackiness
a. Boiler Feed pump for all 7 units
b. Main oil Tank

(3 x 7 = 21 samples) Viscosity @ 50 oC
Viscosity @ 40 oC

TRANSFORMER OIL:
-

History

----

20,00,000 transformers with 10 % increase every year.

Introduction State of art of Transformer oil.

Physical contamination
Chemical contamination
Main Causes for deterioration of oil.
Contamination by gases

-------------------------------------------------------------Constituents of
Petroleum

Production of
indigenous T.O 1969

TESTING:
PHYSICAL TEST:
-

Appearance - IS 335 *
Density
- 0.85 to 0.89 gm/cc
Viscosity
Pour point
Flash point
Interfacial tension

Installed capacity &

Demand 1100 MT
For every 1000 MW

CHEMICAL TEST:
-

Neutralization number (Total acidity and Inorganic acidity)

Corrosive sulphur
Oxidation stability
Water content

ELECTRICAL TEST:
-

Electrical strength (BDV)

Dielectric dissipation factor
Resistivity

GAS IN OIL ANALYSIS:

Methane (CH4)
Ethylene (C2H4)
Ethane
(C2H6)
Acetylene (C2H2)
Propane (C3H8)

Ppm of constituent gas =

Std. Ppm
Std. Area

Std. Ppm Conc.

Std. Area.

103
109
109
120
102

4688
7155
5149
7912
9682

Sample area x
Qty. of oil sample

Ex: Unit auxiliary Transformer:

CH4 ppm

103 x 7722 x 5.2

4688
100

= 8.82

Volume of gas evolved

PERMISSIBLE CONCENTRATION OF DISSOLVED GASES IN THE OIL OF THE

HEALTHY TRANSFORMER.IN SERVICE.

GAS
Methane
Ethane
Ethylene
Acetylene
Hydrogen
CO2
CO

LESS THAN 4 YEARS I

50/70
ppm
30/50
ppm
100/150 ppm
20/30
ppm
100/150 ppm
300/3500 ppm
200/300 ppm

4-10 YEARS
10/150
ppm
100/150 ppm
150/200 ppm
30/50
ppm
200/300 ppm
400/5000 ppm
400/500 ppm

MORE THAN 10 YEARS

200/300
ppm
800/1000
ppm
200/400
ppm
150/200
ppm
200/300
ppm
9000/12000 ppm
600/900
ppm

AN ALYS I S
In our Thermal Power Station - II there are 21 Feed pumps in total with each Unit has 3 pumps.
Main Oil Tank (MOT) = 7 Nos.
Total = 28.
The following analysis is being carried out in oil.

FURNACE OIL
Viscosity
Moisture
Sediments
Flash Point
---Calorific Value
Sulphur
Density

LUBRICATING OIL
Viscosity
Moisture
Sediments
Flash Point
Acidity
Oxidation Stability
-----

TRANSFORMER OIL
Viscosity
Moisture
Sediments
Flash Point
Aidity
Oxidation Stability
Dissolved Gas Analysis
----

1. MOISTURE
By Crackle Method:
A trace of moisture is determined by this method. A small portion of oil is
mixed well and taken in a perfectly dry test tube and heated over a sprit lamp with slight
agitation. The production of crackling sound indicates the presence of moisture.

By Dean and Stark method:

Moisture can be determined quantitatively by Dean & Stark method using
Xylene as extractor of water.
Apparatus Required: (1) Round Bottom Flask,(2) Leibig condenser, (3) Dean & Stark receiver
(entire set with assembly) (4) Heating mantle (5) Xylene.

Procedure:
Take a known weight of the oil sample and put in the Round bottom flask, add 50 ml or
required quantity of Xylene to make the sample immersed completely in Xylene. Heat it over the
heating mantle up to boiling point. The boiling point of the solvent should be greater than 100 oC
(B.P. of Xylene is 130 oC). Carry out the analysis with all fittings are in air tight with a slow
stream of water is circulated. Heat gently on the heating mantle and maintain uniform distillation
for about an hour. The evaporated water particles in the oil will condense and collected in D&S
measuring apparatus. Note the volume of water collected in the receiver.
% of Moisture = (Wt.) Volume of the water collected x 100
Weight of the oil taken.
2.VISCOSITY
Viscosity is a measure of flow ability at definite temperature. It is the most
important property of oil as at operating temperature, it is viscosity that determines fluid friction
(friction within the oil itself). Any change in viscosity indicates the contamination or oxidation
instability. Viscosity is the most important characteristic in the Furnace oil specification. It
influences the degree of free heat required for handling storage and satisfactory atomization. If
the viscosity of the fuel is too high it will impede the flow of fuel to the pump giving rise to poor
atomization and extensive penetration with in effective combustion of fuel.
Viscosities are higher if the compound has ore hydroxyl groups (network of
hydroxyl bonds) which makes flow difficult. Viscosity of a liquid decreases as temperature
increases.
Kinematic viscosity deals pure motion without reference to the masses of a fluid.
Kinematic viscosity is the quotient of absolute viscosity divided by density both at the same
temperature.
Kinematic viscosity is determined by measuring the time required for a given volume of oil to
flow through a capillary tube under the force of gravity.
The unit of kinematic viscosity is stoke or centistokes (1/100 of stoke).
Apparatus Required:
1. A Cannon & Pensky viscometer of desired viscosity range 2. Water bath for temp. at
80 oC 3. Thermometer.

Procedure:Calibration:
Note the efflux time of the viscometer with the help of A.P.I. liquid viscosity std. or
any std. viscometer supplied by the companies whose viscosity constant is known can be use.
Calculate the viscosity constant as under
C = Vk / t where

Vk = Kinamatic viscosity of the given std. oil at the test

Temperature in centistokes.
t = efflux time in seconds.

Before preceding the analysis ensure that the viscometer is cleaned perfectly with
completely volatile liquid and dried out.
Charge the viscometer with a portion of the filtered oil sample. Provide the viscometer with
a firm mounting which will eliminate disturbances in its position when it is in the bath. The water
in the bath should have its upper level at least 5 cm above the top of the liquid level in the
capillary part of the viscometer. Make certain that the viscometer is vertical when compared with
a plum line observed from two directions about 90 o apart. Introduce the stirrer to maintain
uniform distribution of temperature.
Allow the charged viscometer to remain in the bath a long enough to reach the test
temperature. When the test temperature remains steady for 10 mts suck the oil level a little above
the graduated mark and then allow it to pass. When the oil level crosses the mark, start a stop
watch at once. Note the time taken for the oil to flow up to the mark below from the top one.
Repeat the experiment.

Kinamatic Viscosity in centistokes / sec = Viscosity co-efficient of viscometer x

Time taken in seconds of flow between
two marks
= Ct.
3. ACIDITY (For Lubricating oil only)
It is defined as number of mg of KOH required to neutralize the acidity presence in 1
gm of the sample. This should be low in order to minimize the corrosion of metal where contact
with the fuel during storage and distribution.
Procedure:Alcoholic KOH 0.05N (3.22 gm of KOH is dissolved in 1 lr. of Methyl alcohol) 3.22 gm
of KOH flakes dissolved in 2 to 3 ml of DM water and then add Methanol. Take approximately 10 gm
of the oil in a conical flask, mix 30 ml of Toluene with 20 ml of Methanol and add alkaline blue
indicator. Add drops of alcoholic KOH until the colour changes from blue to wine red. Add the
mixture in the conical flask and titrated against alcoholic KOH. E.P. green to blue.
T.V x 2.805
Wt. of oil

= mgm of KOH / gm of oil.

Take 10 ml gm of the oil in a 250 ml conical flask. To a mixture of 30 ml of Toluene

and 20 ml of Methanol in another flask, add 1 to 3 ml of 2% alkali blue solution and a drop of
0.1N HCl to sensitize the indicator. Neutralize the mixture with the KOH to the appearance of a
strong wine red colour. Add the neutralized mixture to the sample in the conical flask with
swirling. If the mixture assume a purple blue colour after the sample is completely dissolved,
titrate it at once with the 0.05N KOH solution at a temp. 30oC. E.P purple to red.
Vol. of KOH consumed x Normality of KOH x 56.1
Weight of the sample taken

= mg KOH / gm of oil

4. SEDIMENTS:
Oil being a blend of residue contains some quantity of sediments. These have
adverse affect on the burners and cause blockage of filters etc. However the typical values are
normally much lower than the stipulated value of maximum 0.25% by mass. The higher the
specific gravity and viscosity of a fuel, the greater the quantities of sediments it can hold in
suspension. Large quantities of sediments have affect the combustion of the fuel and if abrasive
may cause excessive wear of closely fitting parts of fuel pump and injectors. It may also clog
filter and build up deposits in tank and piping.
Determination:
Sedimentation Cone Method:
.
Shake the sample well until the sediments are homogenously distributed and transfer 50 ml
(or a lesser amount for high viscosity oils) to a sedimentation cone. Add 50 ml of Benzene and
shake well. Allow to settle for 24 hrs.
Transfer the mixture in parts to two centrifuging tubes and continue the process
till the entire sample from the sedimentation cone is exhausted. Then filter the sediments through
42 filter paper. Wash it free of oil with Benzene
The contents are transferred to a pre-weighed and dried washing bottle and dried
in an air oven.
n at 105 oC for 10 mts and cooled in a desicator for the same period of time. Reweigh the
weighing the bottle and express the result in term of % sediments settled.

5. FLASH POINT
The minimum temperature to which the oil must be heated to give enough
vapour, which confirm a combustible mixture with air. Otherwise liquid having flashpoint <
20oC are considered to be highly flammable. A liquid is highly inflammable if its flash point is
lower the surrounding temperature.
It is the lowest temperature to which an oil should be heated to generate enough
vapors and to give a momentary flash when brought in contact with the test flame. F.P. can be
determined by using Pensky-Marteins closed apparatus.

Description of Pensky-Martins closed cup apparatus:

This is the most commonly used apparatus for determination of flash point of
oils having flash points between 50oC to 370 oC.
The apparatus consists of brass cup, which is 5 cm in diameter, 5.5cm in depth.
The level up to which oil is to be filled in the cup is marked at about 1 cm below the top of the
cup. Its flange supports the cup over a heating vessel in such a way that there is a clearance
between the cup and the heating vessel. The cover for the cup is provided with four openings of
standard dimensions, which are meant for a special type of stirrer, a standard thermometer, an air
inlet and a device for introducing the standard flame. The shutter is provided at the top of the cup
has a lever mechanism. When the shutter is turned, openings for the test flame and air are opened
and the flame exposure device dips into the opening over the surface of the oil. The test flame
gets extinguished when it is introduced into the opening for the test, but as soon s t returns to its
original position on closing the shutter, the flame is automatically lighted again by the pilot
burner.

Procedure:
Wash the cup provided for the test and its accessories with Benzene and dry perfectly.
The oil is poured into the cup up to the mark. The lid is placed then, and the thermometer is fixed.
The oil is heated at a steady rate by adjusting the theostat for oils with flash point between 40 oC
to 150 oC, the rate is 5 to 4 oC per minute . For higher flash point (5 to 7 oC) ensuring constant
stirring with a approximate 60 revolution/minute.
When the oil temperature reaches 15 to 20 oC below the expected flash point, start
introducing the test flame. The flames size should be adjusted to 3 to 4 mm. Do not stir the oil
during the application of the fl
A blue halo around the test flame indicates that the flash point is heating. The
temperature recorded on the thermometer when a distinct flash appears for the first time inside
the cup is to be taken as the flash point of the oil.
Oils containing minute quantities of volatile organic substances are liable to flash
below the true flash point of the oil. Although a small slash may be observed in such cases, it
should not be confused with the true flash, since its intensity does not increase with increased
temperature as occurs when the true flash point reached.
The minimum closed-cup flash point required for turbine oil is 165 oC and that for
insulating oils is 145 oC.

The flash point /fire point of the oils = ----o C.

This is also calculated by multiplying the
Heat of combustion Kj Mol -1 [Heat of combustion Kj gm -1 x mol. Wt.] by vapour pressure
[in bar] at 300 K (27 oC).
FIRE POINT:
The lowest temperature to which an oil should be heated to generate enough vapour and
to give sustained fire is called Fire Point.
The fire point is higher than the flash point. So continue the procedure until the fire point
Sustained.
POUR POINT
The pour point is the lowest temperature at which the oil ceases to flow when cooled under
standard condition.
Procedure:
Take the lubricating oil in a standard glass tube enclosed in an air jacket, cooled in a
freezing mixture. Take the glass tube out periodically examines and replace inside immediately.
Take the temperature at which a haze appears in the oil as the cloud point. Cool the oil further,
stir and test for its flow away by tilting the tube carefully for every 2 to 3 oC rise in temperature.
Note the temperature at which the oil eases to flow is pour point.
CALORIFIC VALUE
It is defined as number of parts of water which will heated through 1 oC by the heat
evolved by the complete combustion of one unit weight of fuel.
Determination of Calorific value:
Calorific value of a solid or liquid fuel can be known by burning a definite quantity in
a bomb calorimeter.
Bomb Calorimeter Principle:
When certain weighed quantity of a fuel is burnt in the calorimeter, the heat given out
is used up in heating the calorimeter and the water in the calorimeter. If we equate the heat given
out by the fuel with the heat taken up by the calorimeter and water, the calorific value can be
determined.
Working Procedure of Calorimeter
1. Switch on the Leco Instrument for stabilization.
2. Switch on the Electronic balance and the printer.
3. Weigh about 0.06 gm of oil sample with the oil cup provided.
4. Operate the No. 1 key to charge the instrument.
5. Enter the oil weight into the microprocessor by operating the enter switch in the
balance.
6. Put the weighed oil cup into the ring provided in lid of the bomb calorimeter and
connect the two rods in the lid with 8 cm long fuse wire above the oil cup.
7. Pour a known quantity of water in the bomb calorimeter and screw the lid with oil cup

8. Charge the bomb calorimeter with oxygen by the charging point through the microprocessor which shows the display in the screen To fill and after the filling is
(460 atmosphere) completed the charging will be stopped itself.
9. Collect 2 ltr of water in the bucket and put it in the place provided in the instrument.
10. Place the bomb calorimeter in the bucket, check for any leak and connect the two
terminals on the top of calorimeter and close the instrument with the door.
11. Press start button and give the yes command in the key board.
12. After 5 minutes of firing the bucket temperature will be displaced (25 - 27 oC) in the
screen. After the completion of firing the above display will disappear and Delta-T
will appear. This process will go for further 3 minutes. After 3 minute of the process
the actual Calorific value will be appeared on the screen.(Cal /gm).

LUBRICATING OIL
Before the advent of petroleum, lubricating oil consists of animal and vegetable oils, but
modern requirements have made petroleum the main source of supply. Fatty oils are still used to a
minor extent, generally in secondary role.
Lubricating oils manufactured from petroleum are known as mineral lubricating oils and
are derived from crude oil by a series of refining processes that select those constituents suitable
for use as lubricants. Crude oil as drawn from the wells, is a complex mixture of different types
of hydrocarbon liquids boiling at different temperatures and having different properties. Although
practically all crude oils contain fractions with viscosities with the lubricating oil range but not all
hydrocarbons possess the other properties required for good lubrication. Therefore, for the
manufacture of lubricating oils, crude oil
i. Should contain a reasonable proportion of liquid fractions of suitable viscosity and
ii. these fractions, after refining treatment, should posses the other properties desirable in
lubricants.
In India lubricating oils are manufactured from imported crudes. Indigenous crudes are
not suitable for the manufacture of lubricating oils. Only second quality lubricating oils are
manufactured from Digboi crude oil.
The uses of lubricating oils are varied and since it would be impracticable to make all the
various grades required direct from the crude oil, a limited number of primary grades i.e (base
oils) is made in the refinery. These base oils are then blended together in various proportions,
with or without additives to produce large grades suitable for specific applications. This
secondary blending is not regarded as pert of refining and is usually arrived out in a separate
lubricating oil blending plant which may be either situated within the precincts of the refinery r in
an installation i.e a distributing center, drawing supplies of base oils from one or more refineries.
Based on multiplicity of individual end-use application, industrial lubricating oils may be
broadly categorised as under.
1. Spindle Oils
2. Machinery Oils
3. Air compressor Oils
4. Refrigeration Oils
5. Gear Oils
6. Turbine Oils
7. Hydraulic oils
8. Steam cylinder Oils
9. Axe Oils
10. Transformer Oils
11. Heat transformer Oils
12. Cutting Oils

13.
14.
15.
16.

Spray Oils
Process Oils
Cable Oils
Heat treatment Oils.

From the above different categories of lubricating oils, it is obvious that the properties of
different lubricants, required for various applications, have to be different. The selection of
industrial lubricants in any mechanized industry involves a consideration of the requirements of
the equipments, available methods for handling and application of the lubricant itself and
environment condition.
Most manufacturers of equipment and lubricants have carried out considerable test work
in order to choose the proper lubricant for a particular application. It is always advisable to use
lubricants as recommended by the manufacturers of the equipment or by the oil companies in
order to ensure maximum life of the operating equipment.
However in selecting a lubricant for a given application, it is necessary t consider what
properties are required in relation to the conditions of service. In this context, we shall now
discuss the main properties listed below of lubricating oils:
1. Varicosity
2. Viscosity Index
3. Pour Point
4. Oxidation stability
5. Rust Prevention
6. Resistance to emulsification (Demulsification Value)
7. Resistance to foaming
8. Antiwear property
9. Oiliness and film strength
10. Trackiness.

1.VISCOSITY:
Viscosity of flow ability at definite temperature. It is the most important property
of an oil as at operating temperature it is viscosity that determines fluid friction (Friction within
the oil itself). Any change in viscosity indicates contamination or oxidation instability.
Conventional instruments like Redwood, Saybolt and Engler can measure viscosity. Absolute
viscosity can be measured in entipoise.
Absolute viscosity is defined as the tangential force on unit area of either one of
two parallel planes at unit distance apart when the space is filled with liquid and one of the planes
moves relative to the other with unit velocity in its own plane. The cgs (Centi-metre-gramsecond) unit of absolute viscosity is the poise (P). The centipoises are 1/100 of poise and is the
unit f absolute viscosity most commonly used. It is more convenient to us Kinematic viscosity
which is given by equation
If A is the common area between layers, V1,V2 their respective velocities and x distance
between them, then the viscous

A
V1 V2

F =

1
x
n A (V1 V2)
X

Dynamic Viscosity
Density
Kinematic Viscosity

= n m2 x

=
=

m x 1
sec
m

Kg
(m) (sec)
Kg / m3

Dynamic Viscosity
Density

The unit of Kinematic viscosity is stoke or centistokes (1/100 of stoke)

In practice the kinematic viscosity is determined by measuring the time required fr given
volume f oil t flow through a capillary rube under the force of gravity. For example Typical
Result 225 x 0.1200 = 27 cst, where 225 is seconds = Flow Time and 0.1200/sec = Viscometer
constant.
A series of viscosity levels for Industrial Oils has been established by International
Organization for Standardization (ISO), which is a federation of International Standards Institute
for specified ISO viscosity grade classification. The advantage of this standardization of ISO
viscosity grade classification is that lubricants suppliers, lubricant users and equipment designers
have a uniform and common basis for designating or selecting Industrial liquid lubricant
according to the kinematic viscosity required in a particular application.
The oil industries in India have switched over to ISO-VG viscosity classification in
respect of Industrial lubricants w.e.f. 1.10.81. In the ISO system the kinematic viscosity of an oil
is given at 40 0C with + 10% variation.

VISCOSITY INDEX:

The other most important property in selecting an oil for particular application is its
viscosity Index. The viscosity index of oil shows the variation in viscosity with temperature.
The viscosity temperature relationship in oils is designated by the viscosity index (VI)
scale. A typical Pennsylvania oil showing a small change in viscosity with changes in temperature
was given in VI of 100 and a Gulf Coast oil showing a great change was given VI 0, ASTMD567 provides a procedure for rating VI of an oil from its viscosity at 100 F and 210 F. Variation
of viscosity with temperature may be determined with considerable accuracy when the viscosities
are known at any two temperatures.
POUR POINT:
Lubricating oils containing straight-chain paraffin hydrocarbons tend to form waxy
crystals at moderately low temperatures. Such Wax crystals formed in lubricating oils at winter
temperature assume a lattice like structure which traps the liquid il and keeps it from pouring of
flowing. The temperature which this thickening takes place is the Pour Point
This is an important property t o be considered if th oil is to be used in gear cases, air
compressors, bearing etc under winter-temperature conditions or in refrigerating system. This
characteristic can be improved by adding additives i.e. Pour Point depressants.
OXIDATION STABILITY:
Air is inevitably present in the lubricant system. Therefore, lubricating oil oxidize in
service. The extent of oxidation depends n various factors such as temperature, presence of
catalysts, extent of exposure to air. Not only I oxidation more rapid at higher temperature but the
chemical reactions involved may differ from those at lower temperature. Catalysts, particularly
iron and copper, will also influence the nature of the reaction as well as accelerate oxidation.
Exposure to air may vary from the small specific surface area of oil in bulk or in thick films to
the very high specific surface area of oil mists.
Oxidation produces acids, sludge, lacquers, which affect the performance efficiency. This
property is very important to be considered if oil is to be used in turbines, transformers, hydraulic
system, circulatory system, centralized lubrication system etc. This characteristics can also be
enhanced considerably by the addition of additives i.e. anti-oxidants.

RESISTANCE TO FOAMING:
When lubricating oils are churned or agitated in the presence of air, tiny air bubbles form.
Unless these bubbles are rapidly released or broken up, a more or less persistent foam of oil and
air results. Foaming may present a serious problem under certain conditions. For example, if so
much foams in an oil-distribution system, that the pump delivers a mixture of oil and air to the
bearings, insufficient lubrication may result and eventually lead to baring or surface failure. Foam

may cause the overflow or a oil reserve of false readings of its oil content. Foam in hydraulic
lines makes hydraulic oil springy or compressible, causing improper or erratic operation of the
device. High-speed gearboxes using heavy oils generate excessive foam.
These characteristics can be improved by adding additives Antifoam additives.

ANTIWEAR PROPERTY:
So long as hydrodynamic lubrication is maintained, mechanical wear cannot be occur, but
in actual there are occasions when loads become high enough to squeeze out the lubricant, though
for only short periods and intermittently, and metal-to-metal contact occurs between moving
parts. Under these conditions, the metal surfaces will scuff, i.e. become scratched and roughened,
to an extent on the severity of the conditions (ultimately if nothing were done to prevent it, they
would weld or size.
Even under Hydrodynamic conditions, without metal-to-metal contact, wear can occur
due to the corrosive action of water or more practically aqueous solutions of strong acids. This
specially happens in Internal combustion engines. Anti corrosive additives and anti scuffing
additives are used to overcome this problem.
OLINESS AND FILM STRENGTH:
The oiliness of a lubricant is still the most fugitive and difficult quality of the lubricant
to evaluate yet its performance be overlooked. Oiliness sometimes referred to as lubricity and
defined as smoothness or slipperiness, decreases friction. Oiliness depends on both the lubricant
and the surface to which the lubricant is applied. Compounding with fatty acids enhances oiliness
of a lubricant.
TACKINESS:
In certain industrial application, oil must not drip or spatter from the bearing. For this
purpose, the oil must have greater cohesion than its viscosity would indicate and must be stringly
in texture. General purpose oils containing a tackiness agent provide economical and effective
general lubrication ornery where oil leakage and work spoilage problems i.e. food processing,
textiles, old printing and binding machines, packing machines etc. In general reduced ol loss from
bearing prolongs lubrication intervals. Gear box leakage can often be stopped with an oil
formulated with a tackiness additive.
Suitable test methods designed by standard International bodies like Institute of
Petroleum, London (IP), American Society for testing of Materials (ASTM), Indian Standard
Institute, Delhi are available to evaluate various lubricating oils for the characteristics or
properties mentioned above. These test methods are used both for control purpose during
manufacture as well as for performance evaluation of lubricating oils.

You may be wondering that the characteristics like odour, density and flash point have not
been mentioned. These characteristics have no effect as far as the performance of lubricating oils.
CONCLUSION:
The function of lubricating oil is not only to lubricate moving parts in order to reduce
friction but it has to perform many other functions. A property selected lubricating oil for a
particular application will reduce the breakdown period and maximize the life of the machinery.
STANDARD SPECIFICATION AS PER IS:1012-1958 FOR TURBINE LUBRICATING
OIL

Characteristics
Viscosity
Viscosity index
Flash Point
Pour point
Total acidity

Light LDO

Requirement
Medium LDO
Heavy LDO Extra Heavy

4.7 to 5.4
8.0
165 0C Mini.
- 3 oC
0.20

5.5 to 6.4
8.0
165 0C Mini.
- 3 oC
0.20

6.5 to 8.1
8.0
165 0C Mini.
- 3 oC
0.20

8.2 to 10.5
8.0
165 0C Mini.
- 3 oC
0.20