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5.1
5.1.1
Let be an open subset of C. Then A() will denote the space of analytic functions on
, while C() will denote the space of all continuous functions on . For n = 1, 2, 3 . . . ,
let
Kn = D(0, n) {z : |z w| 1/n for all w C \ }.
By basic topology of the plane, the sequence {Kn } has the following three properties:
(1) Kn is compact,
o
(2) Kn Kn+1
(the interior of Kn+1 ),
(3) If K is compact, then K Kn for n suciently large.
Now x a nonempty open set , let {Kn } be as above, and for f, g C(), dene
1
f g
Kn
,
d(f, g) =
n
2
1
+
f g
Kn
n=1
where
f g
Kn
sup{|f (z) g(z)| : z Kn }, Kn =
=
0,
Kn =
1
5.1.2
Theorem
The assignment (f, g) d(f, g) denes a metric on C(). A sequence {fj } in C() is dconvergent (respectively d-Cauchy) i {fj } is uniformly convergent (respectively uniformly
Cauchy) on compact subsets of . Thus (C(), d) and (A(), d) are complete metric
spaces.
Proof. That d is a metric on C() is relatively straightforward. The only troublesome part
of the argument is verication of the triangle inequality, whose proof uses the inequality:
If a, b and c are nonnegative numbers and a b + c, then
a
b
c
+
.
1+a
1+b 1+c
To see this, note that h(x) = x/(1 + x) increases with x 0, and consequently h(a)
b
c
b
c
h(b + c) = 1+b+c
+ 1+b+c
1+b
+ 1+c
. Now let us show that a sequence {fj } is d-Cauchy
i {fj } is uniformly Cauchy on compact subsets of . Suppose rst that {fj } is d-Cauchy,
and let K be any compact subset of . By the above property (3) of the sequence {Kn },
we can choose n so large that K Kn . Since d(fj , fk ) 0 as j, k , the same is true
of
fj fk
Kn . But
fj fk
K
fj fk
Kn , hence {fj } is uniformly Cauchy on K.
Conversely, assume that {fj } is uniformly
Cauchy on compact subsets of . Let > 0 and
choose a positive integer m such that n=m+1 2n < . Since {fj } is uniformly Cauchy
on Km in particular, there exists N = N (m) such that j, k N implies
fj fk
Km < ,
hence
m
m
1
fj fk
Kn
1
fj fk
Kn
2n 1 +
fj fk
Kn
2n
n=1
n=1
fj fk
Km
m
1
< .
n
2
n=1
1
fj fk
Kn
< 2.
n
2
1
+
fj fk
Kn
n=1
The remaining statements in (5.1.2) follow from the above, Theorem 2.2.17, and completeness of C.
If {fn } is a sequence in A() and fn f uniformly on compact subsets of , then
we know that f A() also. The next few theorems assert that certain other properties
of the limit function f may be inferred from the possession of these properties by the fn .
The rst results of this type relate the zeros of f to those of the fn .
5.1.3
Hurwitzs Theorem
Suppose that {fn } is a sequence in A() that converges to f uniformly on compact subsets
of . Let D(z0 , r) and assume that f (z) = 0 for |z z0 | = r. Then there is a positive
integer N such that for n N , fn and f have the same number of zeros in D(z0 , r).
Proof. Let = min{|f (z)| : |zz0 | = r} > 0. Then for suciently large n, |fn (z)f (z)| <
|f (z)| for |z z0 | = r. By Rouches theorem (4.2.8), fn and f have the same number
of zeros in D(z0 , r).
5.1.4
Theorem
5.1.5
Theorem
Let {fn } be a sequence in A() such that fn converges to f uniformly on compact subsets
of . If is connected and the fn are one-to-one on , then either f is constant on or
f is one-to-one.
Proof. Assume that f is not constant on , and choose any z0 . The sequence
{fn fn (z0 )} satises the hypothesis of (5.1.4) on the open connected set \{z0 } (because
the fn are one-to-one). Since f f (z0 ) is not identically zero on \ {z0 }, it follows from
(5.1.4) that f f (z0 ) has no zeros in \ {z0 }. Since z0 is an arbitrary point of , we
conclude that f is one-to-one on .
The next task will be to identify the compact subsets of the space A() (equipped
with the topology of uniform convergence on compact subsets of ). After introducing
the appropriate notion of boundedness for subsets F A(), we show that each sequence
of functions in F has a subsequence that converges uniformly on compact subsets of .
This leads to the result that a subset of A() is compact i it is closed and bounded.
5.1.6
Denition
5.1.7
Denition
5.1.8
Theorem
f (w)
f (w)
1
|f (z) f (z0 )|
sup
: w C(z0 , r) 2r
2
wz
w z0
f (w)
: w C(z0 , r) .
= r|z z0 | sup
(w z)(w z0 )
But by hypothesis, there exists Mr such that |f (w)| Mr for all w C(z0 , r) and all
f F. Consequently, if z D(z0 , r/2) and f F, then
f (w)
: w C(z0 , r) r|z z0 | Mr ,
r|z z0 | sup
(w z)(w z0 )
(r/2)2
proving equicontinuity of F.
We will also need the following general fact about equicontinuous families.
5.1.9
Theorem
5.1.10
Montels Theorem
Let F be a bounded subset of A(), as in (5.1.6). Then each sequence {fn } from F has
a subsequence {fnj } which converges uniformly om compact subsets of .
Remark
A set F C( is said to be relatively compact if the closure of F in C() is compact.
The conclusion of (5.1.10) is equivalent to the statement that F is a relatively compact
subset of C(), and hence of A().
Proof. Let {fn } be any sequence from F and choose any countable dense subset S =
{z1 , z2 , . . . } of . The strategy will be to show that fn } has a subsequence which converges
pointwise on S. Since F is a bounded subset of A(), it is equicontinuous on by (5.1.8).
Theorem 5.1.9 will then imply that this subsequence converges uniformly on compact
subsets of , thus completing the proof. So consider the following bounded sequences of
complex numbers:
{fj (z1 )}
j=1 , {fj (z2 )}j=1 , . . . .
{f2j }j=1 of {f1j }j=1 which converges at z2 and (necessarily) at z1 as well. Proceeding
inductively, for each n 1 and each k = 1, . . . , n we construct sequences {fkj }
j=1
converging at z1 , . . . , zk , each a subsequence of the preceding sequence.
Put gj = fjj . Then {gj } is a subsequence of {fj }, and {gj } converges pointwise on
{z1 , z2 , . . . } since for each n, {gj } is eventually a subsequence of {fnj }
j=1 .
5.1.11
Remark
Problem 6 gives an example which shows that the preceding compactness criterion fails
in the larger space C(). That is, there are closed and bounded subsets of C() that are
not compact.
5.1.12
Theorem
5.1.13
Theorem
5.1.14
Vitalis Theorem
Let {fn } be a bounded sequence in A() where is connected. Suppose that {fn }
converges pointwise on S and S has a limit point in . Then {fn } is uniformly
Cauchy on compact subsets of , hence uniformly convergent on compact subsets of to
some f A().
Proof. Suppose, to the contrary, that there is a compact set K such that {fn } is not
uniformly Cauchy on K. Then for some > 0, we can nd sequences {mj } and {nj } of
positive integers such that m1 < n1 < m2 < n2 < and for each j,
fmj fnj
K .
Put {gj } = {fmj } and {hj } = {fnj }. Now apply Montels theorem (5.1.10) to {gj }
to obtain a subsequence {gjr } converging uniformly on compact subsets of to some
g A(), and then apply Montels theorem to {hjr } to obtain a subsequence converging
uniformly on compact subsets of to some h A(). To prevent the notation from
getting out of hand, we can say that without loss of generality, we have gn g and
hn h uniformly on compact subsets, and
gn hn
K for all n, hence
g h
K .
But by hypothesis, g = h on S and therefore, by (2.4.9), g = h on , a contradiction.
Problems
1. Let F = {f A(D(0, 1)) : Re f > 0 and |f (0)| 1}. Prove that F is relatively
compact. Is F compact? (See Section 4.6, Problem 2.)
2. Let be (open and) connected and let F = {f A() : |f (z) a| r for all
z }, where r > 0 and a C are xed. Show that F is a normal family, that is,
if fn F, n = 1, 2, . . . , then either there is a subsequence {fnj } converging uniformly
on compact subsets to a function f A() or there is a subsequence {fnj } converging
uniformly on compact subsets to . (Hint: Look at the sequence {1/(fn a)}.)
3. (a) If F C(), show that F is relatively compact i each sequence in F has a
convergent subsequence (whose limit need not be in F).
(b) Prove the last statement in Theorem 5.1.11.
4. Let F A(D(0, 1)). Show that F is relatively compact i there is a sequence of
nonnegative real numbers Mn with lim supn (Mn )1/n 1 such that for all f F
and all n = 0, 1, 2, . . . , we have |f (n) (0)/n!| Mn .
5. (a) Suppose that f is analytic on and D(a, R) . Prove that
2 R
1
|f (a)|2
|f (a + reit )|2 r dr dt.
R2 0
0
(b) Let M > 0 and dene F to be the set
{f A() :
|f (x + iy)|2 dx dy M }.
.ei
S(,)
Figure 5.1.1
5.2
Throughout this section, will be a nonempty open connected proper subset of C with
the property that every zero-free analytic function has an analytic square root. Later
in the section we will prove that any open subset such that every zero-free analytic
function on has an analytic square root must be (homotopically) simply connected,
and conversely. Thus we are considering open, connected and simply connected proper
subsets of C. Our objective is to prove the Riemann mapping theorem, which states that
there is a one-to-one analytic map of onto the open unit disk D. The proof given is
due to Fejer and F.Riesz.
5.2.1
Lemma
5.2.2
Let be as in (5.2.1), that is, a nonempty, proper, open and connected subset of C such
that every zero-free analytic function on has an analytic square root. Then there is a
one-to-one analytic map of onto D.
Proof. Fix z0 and a one-to-one analytic map f0 of into D [f0 exists by (5.2.1)].
Let F be the set of all f A() such that f is a one-to-one analytic map of into D
and |f (z0 )| |f0 (z0 )|. Note that |f0 (z0 )| > 0 by (4.3.1).
Then F = (since f0 F) and F is bounded. Also, F is closed, for if {fn } is a
sequence in F such that fn f uniformly on compact subsets of , then by (5.1.5),
either f is constant on or f is one-to-one. But since fn f , it follows that |f (z0 )|
|f0 (z0 )| > 0, so f is one-to-one. Also, f maps into D (by the maximum principle), so
f F. Since F is closed and bounded, it is compact (Theorem 5.1.1). Hence by (5.1.2),
there exists g F such that |g (z0 )| |f (z0 )| for all f F. We will now show that such
a g must map onto D. For suppose that there is some a D \ g(). Let a be as in
(4.6.1), that is,
a (z) =
za
, z D.
1 az
2b ) (0)f (z0 ).
10
5.2.3
Remarks
(a) Any function g that maximizes the numbers {|f (z0 )| : f F} must send z0 to 0.
Proof. Let a = g(z0 ). Then a g is a one-to-one analytic map of into D. Moreover,
|(a g) (z0 )| = |a (g(z0 ))g (z0 )|
= |a (a)g (z0 )|
1
=
|g (z0 )|
1 |a|2
|g (z0 )| |f0 (z0 )|.
Thus a g F, and since |g (z0 )| maximizes |f (z0 )| for f F, it follows that equality
must hold in the rst inequality. Therefore 1/(1 |a|2 ) = 1, so 0 = a = g(z0 ).
(b) Let f and h be one-to-one analytic maps of onto D such that f (z0 ) = h(z0 ) = 0
and f (z0 ) = h (z0 ) (it is enough that Arg f (z0 ) = Arg h (z0 )). Then f = h.
Proof. The function h f 1 is a one-to-one analytic map of D onto D, and h f 1 (0) =
h(z0 ) = 0. Hence by Theorem 4.6.4 (with a = 0), there is a unimodular complex number
such that h(f 1 (z)) = z, z D. Thus h(w) = f (w), w D. But if h (z0 ) = f (z0 )
(which is equivalent to Arg h (z0 ) = Arg f (z0 ) since |h (z0 )| = |||f (z0 )| = |f (z0 )|), we
have = 1 and f = h.
(c) Let f be any analytic map of into D (not necessarily one-to-one or onto) with
f (z0 ) = 0. Then with g as in the theorem, |f (z0 )| |g (z0 )|. Also, equality holds i
f = g with || = 1.
Proof. The function f g 1 is an analytic map of D into D such that f g 1 (0) =
1
| 1. Thus
0. By Schwarzs lemma (2.4.16), |f (g 1 (z))| |z| and |f (g 1 (0)) g (z
0)
|f (z0 )| |g (z0 )|. Also by (2.4.16), equality holds i for some unimodular we have
f g 1 (z) = z, that is, f (z) = g(z), for all z D.
If we combine (a), (b) and (c), and observe that g (z0 ) will be real and greater than
0 for appropriately chosen unimodular , then we obtain the following existence and
uniqueness result.
(d) Given z0 , there is a unique one-to-one analytic map g of onto D such that
g(z0 ) = 0 and g (z0 ) is real and positive.
As a corollary of (d), we obtain the following result, whose proof will be left as an
exercise; see Problem 1.
(e) Let 1 and 2 be regions that satisfy the hypothesis of the Riemann mapping theorem.
Let z1 1 and z2 2 . Then there is a unique one-to-one analytic map f of 1 onto
2 such that f (z1 ) = z2 and f (z1 ) is real and positive.
Recall from (3.4.6) that if C and satises any one of the six equivalent conditions
listed there, then is called (homologically) simply connected. Condition (6) is that every
zero-free analytic function on have an analytic n-th root for n = 1, 2, . . . . Thus if
is homologically simply connected, then in particular, assuming = C, the Riemann
mapping theorem implies that is conformally equivalent to D, in other words, there is a
one-to-one analytic map of onto D. The converse is also true, but before showing this,
we need to take a closer look at the relationship between homological simple connectedness
and homotopic simple connectedness [see (4.9.12)].
5.2.4
11
Theorem
Let 0 and 1 be closed curves in an open set C. If 0 and 1 are -homotopic (in
other words, homotopic in ), then they are -homologous, that is, n(0 , z) = n(1 , z)
for every z C \ .
Proof. We must show that n(0 , z) = n(1 , z) for each z C \ . Thus let z C \ , let
H be a homotopy of 0 to 1 , and let be a continuous argument of H z. (See Problem
6 of Section 3.2.) That is, is a real continuous function on [a, b] [0, 1] such that
H(t, s) z = |H(t, s) z|ei(t,s)
for (t, s) [a, b] [0, 1]. Then for each s [0, 1], the function t (t, s) is a continuous
argument of H(, s) z and hence
n(H(, s), z) =
(b, s) (a, s)
.
2
This shows that the function s n(H(, s), z) is continuous, and since it is integer valued,
it must be constant. In particular,
n(H(, 0), z) = n(H(, 1), z).
In other words, n(0 , z) = n(1 , z).
The above theorem implies that if is -homotopic to a point in , then must be
-homologous
to 0. Thus if is a closed path in such that is -homotopic to a point,
then f (z) dz = 0 for every analytic function f on . We will state this result formally.
5.2.5
Figure 5.2.1
f (z) dz = 0
12
Remark
The converse of Theorem 5.2.5 is not true. In particular, there are closed curves
and open sets such that is -homologous to 0 but is not homotopic to a point.
Take = C \ {a, b}, a = b, and consider the closed path of Figure 5.2.1. Then
n(, a) = n(, b) = 0, hence is -homologous to 0. But (intuitively at least) we see that
cannot be shrunk to a point without passing through a or b. It follows from this example
and Theorem 5.2.4 that the homology version of Cauchys theorem (3.3.1) is actually
stronger than the homotopy version (5.2.5). That is, if is a closed path to which the
homotopy version applies, then so does the homology version, while the homology version
applies to the above path, but the homotopy version does not. However, if every closed
path in is homologous to zero, then every closed path is homotopic to a point, as we
now show.
5.2.6
Theorem
Remark
If is any open set (not necessarily connected) then the statement of the preceding
theorem applies to each component of . Therefore (1), (4), (5) and (6) are equivalent
for arbitrary open sets.
Here is yet another condition equivalent to simple connectedness of an open set .
5.2.7
13
Theorem
Let be a simply connected open set. Then every harmonic function on has a harmonic
conjugate. Conversely, if is an open set such that every harmonic function on has a
harmonic conjugate, then is simply connected.
Proof. The rst assertion was proved as Theorem 4.9.14 using the method of analytic continuation. However, we can also give a short proof using the Riemann mapping theorem,
as follows. First note that we can assume that is connected by applying this case to
components. If = C then every harmonic function on has a harmonic conjugate as in
Theorem 1.6.2. Suppose then that = C. By the Riemann mapping theorem, there is a
conformal equivalence f of onto D. Let u be harmonic on . Then u f 1 is harmonic
on D and thus by (1.6.2), there is a harmonic function V on D such that u f 1 + iV is
analytic on D. Since (u f 1 + iV ) f is analytic on , there is a harmonic conjugate of
u on , namely v = V f .
Conversely, suppose that is not simply connected. Then is not homologically
simply connected, so there exists z0 C\ and a closed path in such that n(, z0 ) = 0.
Thus by (3.1.9) and (3.2.3), the function z z z0 does not have an analytic logarithm
on , hence z ln |z z0 | does not have a harmonic conjugate.
The nal result of this section is Runges theorem on rational and polynomial approximation of analytic functions. One consequence of the development is another condition
that is equivalent to simple connectedness.
5.2.8
Runges Theorem
5.2.9
Lemma
5.2.10
Lemma
14
5.2.11
Lemma
f (w)
dw.
wz
Let > 0 be given. Then = dist( , K) > 0 because and K are disjoint compact
sets. Assume [0, 1] is the domain of and let s, t [0, 1], z K. Then
f ((t))
f ((s))
(t) z (s) z
f ((t))((s) z) f ((s))((t) z)
=
((t) z)((s) z)
f ((t))((s) (t)) + (t)(f ((t)) f ((s))) z(f ((t)) f ((s)))
=
((t) z)((s) z)
1
2 (|f ((t))||(s) (t)| + |(t)||f ((t)) f ((s))| + |z||f ((t)) f ((s))|).
Since and f are bounded functions and K is a compact set, there exists C > 0 such
that for s, t [0, 1] and z K, the preceding expression is bounded by
C
(|(s) (t)| + |f ((t)) f ((s))|.
2
Thus by uniform continuity of and f on the interval [0, 1], there is a partition
0 = t0 < t1 < < tn = 1 such that for t [tj1 , tj ] and z K,
f ((t))
f ((tj ))
(t) z (tj ) z < .
Dene
R(z) =
n
f ((tj ))
((tj ) (tj1 )), z = (tj ).
(tj ) z
j=1
15
Then R(z) is a rational function whose poles are included in the set {(t1 ), . . . , (tn )},
in particular, the poles are in \ K. Now for all z K,
n
f (w)
f ((tj ))
|2if (z) R(z)| =
dw
((tj ) (tj1 ))
(tj ) z
wz
j=1
n tj
f ((t))
f ((tj ))
=
(t) dt
(tj ) z
j=1 tj1 (t) z
1
| (t)| dt = length of .
0
z ]
16
Since (z )1 B(S), it follows from the remarks preceding the proof of Lemma 5.2.9
that (z )1 B(S). Thus V , proving that V is open. Next well show that
V U = . Let w V and let {n } be a sequence in V such that n w. Then as
we noted earlier in this proof, |n w| < dist(n , K) implies w V , so it must be the
case that |n w| dist(n , K) for all n. Since |n w| 0, the distance from w to K
must be 0, so w K. Thus w
/ U , proving that V U = , as desired. Consequently,
V and U satisfy the hypotheses of (5.2.10).
Let H be any component of U . By denition of S, there exists s S such that s H.
Now s V because S V . Thus H V = , and Lemma 5.2.10 implies that H V . We
have shown that every component of U is a subset of V , and consequently U V . Since
V U , we conclude that U = V .
5.2.12
Remarks
Theorem 5.2.8 is often referred to as Runges theorem for compact sets. Other versions
of Runges theorem appear as Problems 6(a) and 6(b).
We conclude this section by collecting a long list of conditions, all equivalent to simple
connectedness.
5.2.13
Theorem
17
Problems
1. Prove (5.2.3e).
2. Show that h(z) = z/(1 + |z|) is a homeomorphism of C onto D.
3. Let : [a, b] be a closed curve in a convex set . Prove that
H(t, s) = s(a) + (1 s)(t), t [a, b], s [0, 1]
is an -homotopy of to the point (a).
4. Show directly, using the techniques of Problem 3, that a starlike open set is homotopically simply connected.
5. This problem is in preparation for other versions of Runges theorem that appear in
Problem 6. Let be an open subset of C, and let {Kn } be as in (5.1.1). Show that in
addition to the properties (1), (2) and (3) listed in (5.1.1), the sequence {Kn } has an
additional property:
\ Kn contains a component of C
\ .
(4) Each component of C
1/n
.
4/n
-n!
Mn
1
+ n
Cn
An
Figure 5.2.2
7. Dene sequences of sets as follows:
An = {z : |z + n!| < n! +
2
},
n
Bn = {z : |z
.7
n! +
Bn
n!
Kn
n!
n!
n!
+ 2
n
4
1
| < },
n
n
18
7
1
)| < n! + },
n
n
4
Ln = { },
n
Kn = {z : |z + n!| n! +
Mn = {z : |z (n! +
0, z An
fn (z) = 1, z Bn
0, z Cn
1
},
n
7
)| n!}
n
0, z An
and gn (z) =
1, z Cn
(a) By approximating fn by polynomials (see Problem 6), exhibit a sequence of polynomials converging pointwise to 0 on all of C, but not uniformly on compact subsets.
(b) By approximating gn by polynomials, exhibit a sequence of polynomials converging
pointwise on all of C to a discontinuous limit.
5.3
5.3.1
Theorem
5.3.2
Corollary
5.3.3
19
Examples
(1) Let = C \ (, 0] and let z denote the analytic square root of z such that 1 = 1.
Then z is a one-to-one analytic map of onto the right half plane. The linear fractional
transformation
T (z) = (z 1)/(z + 1) maps the right half plane onto the unit disk D,
hence f (z) = ( z 1)/( z + 1) is a conformal equivalence of and D. Now T maps
Re z = 0 onto D \{1}, so if {zn } is a sequence in Im z > 0 that converges to (, 0),
then {f (zn )} converges to a point w D with Im w > 0. On the other hand, if {zn } lies
in Im z < 0 and zn , then {f (zn )} converges to a point w D with Im w < 0. Thus
f does not have a continuous extension to {} for any on the negative real axis.
(2) To get an example of a bounded simply connected region with boundary points to
which the mapping functions are not extendible, let
= [(0, 1) (0, 1)] \ {{1/n} (0, 1/2] : n = 2, 3, . . . }.
Thus is the open unit square with vertical segments of height 1/2 removed at each
\ is seen to be
of the points 1/2, 1/3, . . . on the real axis; see Figure 5.3.1. Then C
-1
[ , ]
1
...
iy
1/5
.
z
z2
1/4
1/3
1/2
Figure 5.3.1
connected, so that is simply connected. Let = iy where 0 < y < 1/2, and choose
a sequence {zn } in such that zn iy and Im zn = y, n = 1, 2, 3, . . . . Let f be
any conformal map of onto D. Since by (5.3.2), |f (zn )| 1, there is a subsequence
{znk } such that {f (znk )} converges to a point w D. For simplicity assume that
{f (zn )} converges to w. Set n = f (zn ) and in D, join n to n+1 with the straight
line segment [n , n+1 ], n = 1, 2, 3, . . . . Then f 1 ([n , n+1 ]) is a curve in joining
zn to zn+1 , n = 1, 2, 3, . . . . It follows that every point of [iy, i/2] is a limit point of
n f 1 ([n , n+1 ]). Hence f 1 , in this case, cannot be extended to be continuous at
w D.
As we now show, if is such that sequences of the type {zn } in the previous
example are ruled out, then any mapping function can be extended to {}.
20
5.3.4
Denition
5.3.5
Theorem
. C(z0 ,
r)
z0
Figure 5.3.2
5.3.6
Lemma
Suppose is an open set in C, z0 , and the circle C(z0 , r) has an arc lying in the
complement of which subtends an angle greater than at z0 (see Figure 5.3.2). Let g
on . If |g(z)| M for all z while
be any continuous function on which is analytic
|g(z)| for all z D(z0 , r) , then |g(z0 )| M .
Proof. Assume without loss of generality that z0 = 0. Put U = () D(0, r). (This
is the shaded region in Figure 5.3.2.) Dene h on U by h(z) = g(z)g(z). We claim
rst that U () D(0, r). For by general properties of the closure operation,
U () D(0, r). Thus it is enough to show that if z D(0, r), that is, |z| = r,
then z
/ or z
/ (). But this is a consequence of our assumption that C(0, r) has
21
.d
W1
.
a.
w1
.c
.0
W2
.p . .
w
b
2
Figure 5.3.3
of simple boundary point. No loss of generality results if we assume that f (z2j1 ) W1
and f (z2j ) W2 for all j, and that |f ((t))| > 1/2 for all t. Since f ((t2j1 )) W1 and
f ((t2j )) W2 for each j, there exist xj and yj with t2j1 < xj < yj < t2j such that one
of the following holds:
(1) f ((xj )) (0, a), f ((yj )) (0, b), and f ((t)) is in the open sector a0ba for all t
such that xj < t < yj , or
(2) f ((xj )) (0, d), f ((yj )) (0, c), and f ((t)) is in the open sector d0cd for all t
such that xj < t < yj .
See Figure 5.3.4 for this and details following. Thus (1) holds for innitely many j or
(2) holds for innitely many j. Assume that the former is the case, and let J be the set
22
xj f ((xj )),
j (t) = f ((t)),
xj t yj ,
1t
f
((y
)),
y
j
j t 1.
1yj
Thus j is the closed path whose trajectory j consists of
f(
w1
(x
)
f( j )
(
t
2j
-1
))
W1
.
0
j
C(z , r)
0
W2
..z 0
.f( (t2j ))
.f( (yj ))
.
b
w2
Figure 5.3.4
[0, f ((xj ))] {f ((t) : xj t yj } [f ((yj )), 0].
Let j be that component of C \ j such that 12 p j . Then j j . Furthermore,
j D, for if we compute the index n(j , 12 p), we get 1 because |j (t)| > 12 for xj t yj ,
while the index of any point in C \ D is 0. Let r be a positive number with r < 12 |a b|
and choose a point z0 on the open radius (0, p) so close to p that the circle C(0, r)
meets the complement of D in an arc of length greater than r. For suciently large
j J, |f ((t))| > |z0 | for all t [t2j1 , t2j ] ; so for these j we have z0 j . Further, if
z j D(z0 , r), then z {f ((t)) : t2j1 t t2j } and hence f 1 (z) ([t2j1 , t2j ]}.
Dene
j = sup{|f 1 (z) | : z j D(z0 , r)} sup{|(t) | : t [t2j1 , t2j ]}
and
M = sup{|f 1 (z) | : z D}.
23
Since M sup{|f 1 (z) | : z j }, Lemma 5.3.6 implies that |f 1 (z0 ) | j M .
Since j can be made as small as we please by taking j J suciently large, we have
f 1 (z0 ) = . This is a contradiction since f 1 (z0 ) , and the proof is complete.
We next show that if 1 and 2 are simple boundary points and 1 = 2 , then any
continuous extension f to {1 , 2 } that results from the previous theorem is one-toone, that is, f (1 ) = f (2 ). The proof requires a lemma that expresses the area of the
image of a region under a conformal map as an integral. (Recall that a one-to-one analytic
function is conformal.)
5.3.7
Lemma
Let
a conformal map of an open set . Then the area (Jordan content) of g() is
g be
2
|g
|
dx
dy.
= ( )2 + ( )2 = |g |2
v
v =
(x, y) x
x
y
x
y
x
x
y
by the Cauchy-Riemann equations. Since the area of g() is
ment of the lemma follows.
(u,v)
(x,y)
f( 2 (t r))
f
L
f o 2
.2
)=
)=
f(
f(
.
.
r
( r)
..1
D(1,1)
.
f o 1
g = f -1
f( 1 (s r))
Figure 5.3.5
24
5.3.8
Theorem
1
|2 1 |
2
(1)
and there exists , 0 < < 1, such that for t we have f (j (t))
/ D(0, ), j = 1, 2.
Also, for each r such that 0 < r , we can choose sr and tr > such that f (1 (sr )) and
f (2 (tr )) meet the circle C(0, r); see Figure 5.3.5. Let (r) be the principal value of the
argument of the point of intersection in the upper half plane of C(0, r) and C(1, 1). Now
g(f (2 (tr ))) g(f (1 (sr ))) is the integral of g along the arc r of C(0, r) from f (1 (sr ))
to f (2 (tr )). It follows from this and (1) that
1
|2 1 | |2 (tr ) 1 (sr )|
2
= |g(f (2 (tr ))) g(f (1 (sr )))|
=|
g (z) dz|
r
(r)
(r)
|g (rei) |r d.
(2)
interval
need to
and the
get
(The factor 2(r) comes from integrating 12 d from (r) to (r).) Since (r) /2, we
have
(r)
|2 1 |2
r
|g (rei )|2 d.
(3)
4r
(r)
Now integrate the right hand side of (3) with respect to r from r = 0 to r = . We obtain
(r)
|g (rei )|2 r d dr
|g (x + iy)|2 dx dy
0
(r)
25
5.3.9
Theorem
Suppose is a bounded, simply connected region with the property that every boundary
point of is simple. If f : D is a conformal equivalence, then f extends to a
homeomorphism of onto D.
Proof. By Theorem 5.3.5, for each we can extend f to {} so that f is
continuous on {}. . Assume this has been done. Thus (the extension of) f is a
map of into D, and Theorem 5.3.8 implies that f is one-to-one. Furthermore, f is
continuous at each point , for if {zn } is any sequence in such that zn then
for each n there exists wn with |zn wn | < 1/n and also |f (zn ) f (wn )| < 1/n, by
Theorem 5.3.5. But again by (5.3.5), f (wn ) f () because wn and wn . Hence
f (zn ) , proving that f is continuous on . Now D f () D, and since f () is
compact, hence closed, f () = D. Consequently, f is a one-to-one continuous map of
onto D, from which it follows that f 1 is also continuous.
Theorem 5.3.9 has various applications, and we will look at a few of these in the sequel.
In the proof of (5.3.8), we used the fact that for open subsets L D,
|g |2 dx dy
(1)
L
is precisely the
analytic function on D. Suppose
area of g(L), where g is a one-to-one
that g(z) = n=0 an z n , z D. Then g (z) = n=1 nan z n1 . Now in polar coordinates
the integral in (1), with L replaced by D, is given by
1
i 2
|g (re )| r dr d =
r dr
|g (rei )|2 d.
=
nan rn1 ei(n1)
mam rm1 ei(m1)
=
n=1
m=1
j=1 m+n=j
Since
2,
ei(nm) d =
0,
n=m
n = m
(2)
26
and the series in (2) converges uniformly in , we can integrate term by term to get
|g (re )| d = 2
i
k 2 |ak |2 r2k2 .
k=1
r dr
k 2 |ak |2 2k
k=1
2k
k|ak |2 < .
k=1
5.3.10
Theorem
Suppose
g(z) = n=0 an z n is one-to-one and analytic on D. If g(D) has nite area, then
2
n=1 n|an | < .
Now we will use the preceding result to study the convergence of the power series for
g(z) when |z| = 1. Here is a result on uniform convergence.
5.3.11
Theorem
Let g(z) = n=0 an z n be a one-to-one analytic map of Donto a bounded region such
that every boundary point of is simple. Then the series n=0 an z n converges uniformly
on D to (the extension of) g on D.
n
Proof. By the maximum principle, it is sucient
that
n=0 an z converges
to show
in
uniformly to g(z) for |z| = 1; in other words, n=0 an e
converges uniformly in to
g(ei ). So let > 0 be given. Since g is uniformly continuous on D, |g(ei ) g(rei )| 0
uniformly in as r 1 . If m is any positive integer and 0 < r < 1, we have
|g(ei )
m
n=0
m
an ein |.
n=0
The rst term on the right hand side tends to 0 as r 1 , uniformly in , so let us
consider the second term. If k is any positive integer less than m, then since g(rei ) =
27
k
an (rn 1)ein +
n=0
k
m
(1 rn )|an | +
(1 rn )|an | +
m
n=0
an rn ein |
n=m+1
|an |rn
n=m+1
n=k+1
n(1 r)|an | +
an (rn 1)ein +
n=k+1
k
n=0
m
n(1 r)|an | +
|an |rn
n=m+1
n=k+1
n1
(since 1r
< n). We continue the bounding process by observing
1r = 1 + r + + r
that in the rst
of the threeabove terms, we have n k. In the second term, we write
n(1 r)|an | = [ n(1
r)][ n|an |] and apply Schwarzs inequality. In the third term,
we write |an |rn = [ n|an |][rn / n] and again apply Schwarzs inequality. Our bound
becomes
k(1 r)
+
k
|an | +
n=0
1/2
m
n(1 r)2
n=k+1
1/2
r2n
n
n=m+1
n|an |2
n=m+1
1/2
n|an |2
n=k+1
1/2
m
(1)
Since n=0 n|an |2 is convergent, there exists k > 0 such that { n=k+1 n|an |2 }1/2 < /3.
Fix such a k. For m > k put rm = (m 1)/m. Now the
rst term in (1) is less
m
than /3 for m suciently large and r = rm . Also, since { n=k+1 n(1 rm )2 }1/2 =
m
m
{ n=k+1 n(1/m)2 }1/2 = (1/m){ n=k+1 n}1/2 < (1/m){m(m + 1)/2}1/2 < 1, the middle
term in (1) is also less than /3. Finally, consider
2n
rm
n
n=m+1
1/2
2(m+1)
rm
r2n
m + 1 n=0 m
1/2
1 n
r
m + 1 n=0 m
1/2
which evaluates to
1
1
m + 1 1 rm
1/2
=
m
m+1
1/2
< 1.
28
5.3.12
Theorem
Suppose f (z) =
an z n for z D, and
n=0
n=0
|f (re )| dr = lim
i
|f (rei )| dr < +.
|f (re )| dr
i
5.3.13
n=1
|an |
n
n=1
|an | < +.
n=1
Remark
1
For each , 0 |f (rei )| dr is the length of the image under f of the radius [0, ei ] of D.
For if (r) = rei , 0 r 1, then the length of f is given by
0
|(f ) (r)| dr =
0
|f (rei )ei | dr =
|f (rei )| dr.
Thus in geometric terms, the conclusion of (5.3.12) is that f maps every radius of D onto
an arc of nite length.
We can now give a method for constructing uniformly convergent power series that
are not absolutely convergent. Let be the bounded, connected, simply connected region
that appears in Figure 5.3.6. Then each boundary point of is simple with the possible
exception of 0, and the following argument shows that 0 is also a simple boundary point.
Let {zn } be any sequence in such that zn 0. For n = 1, 2, . . . put tn = (n1)/n. Then
for each n there is a polygonal path n : [tn , tn+1 ] such that n (tn ) = zn , n (tn+1 ) =
zn+1 , and such that for tn t tn+1 , Re n (t) is between Re zn and Re zn+1 . If we dene
= n , then is a continuous map of [0, 1) into , and (t) = n (t) for tn t tn+1 .
Furthermore, (t) 0 as t 1 . Thus by denition, 0 is simple boundary point of .
Hence by (5.3.9) and the Riemann mapping theorem (5.2.2),
is a homeomorphism
there
f of D onto such that f is analytic on D. Write f (z) =
an z n , z D. By (5.3.11),
this series converges uniformly on D. Now let ei be that point in D such that f (ei ) = 0.
Since f is a homeomorphism, f maps the radius of D that terminates at ei onto an arc
in {0} that terminates at 0. Further,
the image arc in {0} cannot have nite
length. Therefore by (5.3.12) we have
|an | = +.
Additional applications of the results in this section appear in the exercises.
Problems
1. Let be a bounded simply connected region such that every boundary point of is
simple. Prove that the Dirichlet problem is solvable for . That is, if u0 is a real-valued
continuous function on , then u0 has a continuous extension u to such that u is
harmonic on .
29
y = x
1/4
'
'
'
1/3
'
1/2
'
y = -x
Figure 5.3.6
30
References
1. C. Caratheodory, Conformal Representation, 2nd ed., Cambridge Tracts in Mathematics and Mathematical Physics no. 28, Cambridge University Press, London, 1952.
2. W.P. Novinger, An Elementary Approach to the Problem of Extending Conformal
Maps to the Boundary, American Mathematical Monthly, 82(1975), 279-282.
3. W.P. Novinger, Some Theorems from Geometric Function Theory: Applications,
American Mathematical Monthly, 82(1975), 507-510.
4. W.A. Veech, A Second Course in Complex Analysis, Benjamin, New York, 1967.