NumberTheory (I)

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23
Algebraic
Foundations of
Computer Science
(AFCS)
Prof.Dr. F.L.
Tiplea
Divisibility. Prime
numbers
Algebraic Foundations of Computer Science.
The greatest
common divisor
Computational Introduction to Number Theory (I)
Congruences
Eulers totient
function
Ferucio Laurentiu Tiplea
Course readings
Department of Computer Science

AL.I.Cuza University of Iasi
Iasi, Romania
E-mail: fltiplea@mail.dntis.ro
Spring 2014
Prof.Dr. F.L. Tiplea (UAIC)
Algebraic Foundations of Computer Science (AFCS)
Spring 2014
1 / 31
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Outline
23
Algebraic
Foundations of
Computer Science
(AFCS)
Prof.Dr. F.L.
Tiplea
Divisibility. Prime numbers
The greatest common divisor
Congruences
Eulers totient function
Course readings
Divisibility. Prime
numbers
The greatest
common divisor
Congruences
Eulers totient
function
Course readings
Spring 2014
2 / 31
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13
5
19
11
The division theorem
23
Algebraic
Foundations of
Computer Science
(AFCS)
Prof.Dr. F.L.
Tiplea
Divisibility. Prime
numbers
The greatest
common divisor
Congruences
Eulers totient
function
Course readings
The absolute value of an integer a, denoted |a|, is defined by:

a,
if a 0
|a| =
a, otherwise.
Theorem 1 (The Division Theorem)
For any two integers a and b with b 6= 0, there are unique integers
q and r such that a = bq + r and 0 r < |b|.
In the equality a = bq + r in the division theorem, a is called the
dividend, b is called the divisor, q is called the quotient, and r is
called the remainder. We usually write:
q = a div b and r = a mod b
Spring 2014
3 / 31
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Divisibility relation
23
Algebraic
Foundations of
Computer Science
(AFCS)
Prof.Dr. F.L.
Tiplea
Definition 2
The binary relation | Z Z given by
a|b (c Z)(b = ac),
Divisibility. Prime
numbers
The greatest
common divisor
for any a, b Z, is called the divisibility relation on Z.
Congruences
Eulers totient
function
Course readings
If a|b then we will say that a divides b, or a is a divisor/factor of b,

or b is divisible by a, or b is a multiple of a.
Remark 1
If a 6= 0, then a|b iff b mod a = 0.
If a|b and a 6 {1, 1, b, b}, then a is called a proper divisor of b.
Spring 2014
4 / 31
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Basic properties of divisibility
23
Algebraic
Foundations of
Computer Science
(AFCS)
Prof.Dr. F.L.
Tiplea
Divisibility. Prime
numbers
The greatest
common divisor
Proposition 1
Let a, b, c Z. Then:
1
0 divides only 0;
2
3
Congruences
4
Eulers totient
function
Course readings
6
7
8
9
a divides 0 and a;
1 divides a;
a|b iff a| b;
if a|b and b|c, then a|c;
if a|b + c and a|b, then a|c;
if a|b, then ac|bc. Conversely, if c 6= 0 and ac|bc, then a|b;
if a|b and a|c, then a|b + c, for any , Z;
if a|b and b 6= 0, then |a| |b|. Moreover, if a is a proper
divisor of b, then 1 < |a| < |b|.
Spring 2014
5 / 31
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Prime numbers
23
Algebraic
Foundations of
Computer Science
(AFCS)
Prof.Dr. F.L.
Tiplea
Divisibility. Prime
numbers
Definition 3
A natural number n 2 is called prime if the only positive factors
of n are 1 and n. A natural number n 2 that is not a prime is
called composite.
The greatest
common divisor
Definition 4
Congruences
Eulers totient
function
Course readings
Let a1 , . . . , am Z, where m 2. We say that a1 , . . . , am are

co-prime or relatively prime, denoted (a1 , . . . , am ) = 1, if the only
common factors of these numbers are 1 and 1.
Example 5
2, 3, 5, 7, and 11 are prime numbers and 4, 6, and 9 are
composite numbers.
(0, 1) = 1 (0 and 1 are co-prime) and (4, 6, 8) 6= 1 (4, 6, and 8
are not co-prime).
Spring 2014
6 / 31
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Characterization of co-prime numbers
23
Algebraic
Foundations of
Computer Science
(AFCS)
Prof.Dr. F.L.
Tiplea
Divisibility. Prime
numbers
The greatest
common divisor
Congruences
Eulers totient
function
Course readings
Theorem 6
Let a1 , . . . , am Z, where m
Then, (a1 , . . . , am ) = 1 iff there
P2.
m
are 1 , . . . , m Z such that i=1 i ai = 1.
Corollary 7
Let a1 , . . . , am , b Z, where m 2. Then:

1
if (b, ai ) = 1, for any i, then (b, a1 am ) = 1;
2
if a1 , . . . , am are pairwise co-prime and ai |b, for any i, then
a1 am |b;
3
if (b, a1 ) = 1 and b|a1 am , then b|a2 am ;
4
if b is prime and b|a1 am , then there exists i such that b|ai .
Spring 2014
7 / 31
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The fundamental theorem of arithmetic
23
Algebraic
Foundations of
Computer Science
(AFCS)
Prof.Dr. F.L.
Tiplea
Theorem 8 (The Fundamental Theorem of Arithmetic)

Every natural number n 2 can be written uniquely in the form
n = p1e1 pkek ,
Divisibility. Prime
numbers
The greatest
common divisor
Congruences
where k 1, p1 , . . . , pk are prime numbers written in order of

increasing size, and e1 , . . . , ek > 0.
Eulers totient
function
Course readings
Example 9
4 = 22 , 9 = 32 , 12 = 22 3, 36 = 22 32 .
105 = 3 5 7.
Spring 2014
8 / 31
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The prime number theorem
23
Algebraic
Foundations of
Computer Science
(AFCS)
Prof.Dr. F.L.
Tiplea
Divisibility. Prime
numbers
The greatest
common divisor
Theorem 10
There are infinitely many primes.
Theorem 11 (The Prime Number Theorem)
Let (n) = |{p|p is a prime and p n}|. Then,
Congruences
Eulers totient
function
lim
Course readings
(n)
= 1.
n
ln n
We write
(n)
and say that (n) and
n
ln n
n
are asymptotically equivalent.
ln n
Spring 2014
9 / 31
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Values of (n)
23
Algebraic
Foundations of
Computer Science
(AFCS)
Prof.Dr. F.L.
Tiplea
A few values of (n):

n
(n)
101
4
102
25
103
168
104
1229
105
9592
106
78496
107
664579
Divisibility. Prime
numbers
The greatest
common divisor
How many 100-digit primes are there?
Congruences
Eulers totient
function
Course readings
(10100 ) (1099 )
1099
10100
100 ln 10 99 ln 10
!
1099 1
1
ln 10 10 99
>
0.39 1098
4 1097
Spring 2014
10 / 31
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Large numbers
23
Algebraic
Foundations of
Computer Science
(AFCS)
Prof.Dr. F.L.
Tiplea
Divisibility. Prime
numbers
The greatest
common divisor
Congruences
Eulers totient
function
How large is 1097 ? Below are a few interesting estimates and

comparisons:
the number of cells in the human body is estimated at 1014 ;
the number of neuronal connections in the human brain is
estimated at 1014 ;
the universe is estimated to be 5 1017 seconds old;
the total number of particles in the universe has been
variously estimated at numbers from 1072 up to 1087 .
Course readings
Very large numbers often occur in fields such as mathematics,

cosmology and cryptography. They are particularly important to
cryptography where security of cryptosystems (ciphers) is usually
based on solving problems which require, say, 2128 operations
(which is about what would be required to break the 128-bit SSL
commonly used in web browsers).
Spring 2014
11 / 31
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The prime spiral
23
Algebraic
Foundations of
Computer Science
(AFCS)
Prof.Dr. F.L.
Tiplea
Divisibility. Prime
numbers
The greatest
common divisor
There is no known formula for generating prime numbers in a row

which is more efficient than the ancient sieve of Eratosthenes or
the modern sieve of Atkin.
The Ulam spiral (or prime spiral), discovered by Stanislaw Ulam in
1963, is a simple method of graphing the prime numbers.
Congruences
17
13
Eulers totient
function
Course readings
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23
The prime numbers tend to line up along diagonal lines !
Spring 2014
12 / 31
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The greatest common divisor
23
Algebraic
Foundations of
Computer Science
(AFCS)
Prof.Dr. F.L.
Tiplea
Divisibility. Prime
numbers
Definition 12
Let a1 , . . . , am Z, not all zero, where m 2. The greatest
common divisor of these numbers, denoted gcd(a1 , . . . , am ) or
(a1 , . . . , am ), is the largest integer d such that d|ai , for all i.
The greatest
common divisor
Example 13
Congruences
Eulers totient
function
(2, 5, 7) = 1.
Course readings
(9, 3, 15) = 3.
Proposition 2
Let a1 , . . . , am Z, not all zero, where m 2. Then:
1
2
3
(0, a1 , . . . , am ) = (a1 , . . . , am );
(0, a1 ) = |a1 |, provided that a1 6= 0;
(a1 , a2 ) = (a2 , a1 mod a2 ), provided that a2 6= 0.
Spring 2014
13 / 31
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Linear combination of the greatest common divisor
23
Algebraic
Foundations of
Computer Science
(AFCS)
Prof.Dr. F.L.
Tiplea
Theorem 14
Let a1 , . . . , am Z, not all zero, where m 2. Then,
(a1 , . . . , am ) = 1 a1 + + m am
Divisibility. Prime
numbers
The greatest
common divisor
Congruences
for some 1 , . . . , m Z.
Corollary 15
Eulers totient
function
Course readings
Let a1 , . . . , am Z, not all zero, where m 2. Then, the equation

a1 x1 + + am xm = b
has solutions in Z iff (a1 , . . . , am )|b.
Example 16
2x + 3y = 5 has solutions in Z because (2, 3) = 1 divides 5, but
4x + 2y = 3 does not have solutions in Z because (4, 2) = 2 does
not divide 3.
Spring 2014
14 / 31
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The least common multiple
23
Algebraic
Foundations of
Computer Science
(AFCS)
Prof.Dr. F.L.
Tiplea
Divisibility. Prime
numbers
The greatest
common divisor
Definition 17
Let a1 , . . . , am Z, where m 2. The least common multiple of
these numbers, denoted lcm(a1 , . . . , am ) or [a1 , . . . , am ], is
0, if at least one of these numbers is 0;
the smallest integer b > 0 such that ai |b, for all i, otherwise.
Congruences
Eulers totient
function
Course readings
Example 18
[0, a] = 0, for any a.
[4, 6, 2] = 12.
Theorem 19
Let a, b N, not both zero. Then, ab = (a, b)[a, b].
Spring 2014
15 / 31
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The Euclidean algorithm
23
Algebraic
Foundations of
Computer Science
(AFCS)
Prof.Dr. F.L.
Tiplea
Divisibility. Prime
numbers
The Euclidean Algorithm

If a = 0 or b = 0, but not both zero, then (a, b) = max{|a|, |b|}.
Let a > b > 0 and
The greatest
common divisor
r1
r0
rn2
rn1
Congruences
Eulers totient
function
Course readings
=
=
r0 q1 + r1 ,
r1 q2 + r2 ,
0 < r1 < r0
0 < r2 < r1
=
=
rn1 qn + rn ,
rn qn+1 + rn+1 ,
0 < rn < rn1

rn+1 = 0,
where r1 = a s i r0 = b. Then,
(a, b) = (r1 , r0 ) = (r0 , r1 ) = = (rn , 0) = rn
Spring 2014
16 / 31
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The Euclidean algorithm
23
Algebraic
Foundations of
Computer Science
(AFCS)
Prof.Dr. F.L.
Tiplea
Divisibility. Prime
numbers
The greatest
common divisor
Congruences
Eulers totient
function
Course readings
Algorithm 1: Computing gcd

input : a, b Z not both 0;
output: gcd(a, b);
begin
while b 6= 0 do
r := a mod b;
a := b;
b := r
gcd(a, b) := |a|;
Theorem 20 (Lam, 1844)
Let a b > 0 be integers. The number of division steps
performed by Euclid(a, b) does not exceed 5 times the number of
decimal digits in b.
Spring 2014
17 / 31
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The extended Euclidean algorithm
23
Algebraic
Foundations of
Computer Science
(AFCS)
Prof.Dr. F.L.
Tiplea
Divisibility. Prime
numbers
The greatest
common divisor
The Euclidean algorithm can be easily adapted to compute a

linear combination of the gcd as well. The resulting algorithm is
called the Extended Euclidean Algorithm.
Given a and b there are and such that (a, b) = a + b. The
numbers and can be computed as follows:
Congruences
Eulers totient
function
Course readings
1.
2.
3.
n.
n + 1.
a
b
r1
rn2
rn1
=
=
=
bq1 + r1
r1 q2 + r2
r2 q3 + r3
=
=
rn1 qn + rn
rn qn+1
Va
Vb
Vr1
Vr2
Vr3
=
=
=
=
=
(1, 0)
(0, 1)
Va q1 Vb
Vb q2 Vr1
Vr1 q3 Vr2
Vrn
Vrn2 qn Vrn1
rn = (a, b) and Vrn = (, ).
Spring 2014
18 / 31
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The extended Euclidean algorithm
23
Algebraic
Foundations of
Computer Science
(AFCS)
Prof.Dr. F.L.
Tiplea
Divisibility. Prime
numbers
The greatest
common divisor
Congruences
Eulers totient
function
Course readings
Algorithm 2: Computing gcd and a linear combination of it

input : a, b Z not both 0;
output: gcd(a, b) and V = (, ) s.t. gcd(a, b) = a + b;
begin
V0 := (1, 0);
V1 := (0, 1);
while b 6= 0 do
q := a div b;
r := a mod b;
a := b;
b := r ;
V := V0 ;
V0 := V1 ;
V1 := V qV1
gcd(a, b) := |a|;
V := V0 ;
Spring 2014
19 / 31
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Linear Diophantine equations
23
Algebraic
Foundations of
Computer Science
(AFCS)
The extended Euclidean algorithm can be used to compute

integer solutions to linear Diophantine equations:
Prof.Dr. F.L.
Tiplea
Divisibility. Prime
numbers
The greatest
common divisor
Congruences
Eulers totient
function
Course readings
Algorithm 3: Computing solutions to linear Diophantine equations

input : a, b, c Z such that not both a and b are 0;
output: integer solution to ax + by = c, if it has;
begin
compute gcd(a, b) := a + b;
if gcd(a, b)|c then
c := c/gcd(a, b);
x := c ;
y := c
else
no integer solutions
Spring 2014
20 / 31
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Congruences
23
Algebraic
Foundations of
Computer Science
(AFCS)
Prof.Dr. F.L.
Tiplea
Definition 21
Let a, b, m Z. We say that a is congruent to b modulo m,
denoted a m b or a b mod m, if m|(a b).
Divisibility. Prime
numbers
The greatest
common divisor
Example 22
Congruences
Eulers totient
function
Course readings
6 0 mod 2.
7 1 mod 2.
3 6 2 mod 2.
11 1 mod 4 and 11 1 mod 4.
Remark 2
If m 6= 0, then a b mod m iff a mod m = b mod m.
Spring 2014
21 / 31
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Basic properties of congruences
23
Algebraic
Foundations of
Computer Science
(AFCS)
Prof.Dr. F.L.
Tiplea
Divisibility. Prime
numbers
The greatest
common divisor
Proposition 3
Let a, b, c, d, m, m Z and f : Z Z be a polynomial function
with integer coefficients. Then:
1
m is an equivalence relation on Z;
2
if a m b, then (a, m) = (b, m);
if a m b s i c m d, then a + c m b + d, a c m b d,
ac m bd, and f (a) m f (b);
Congruences
Eulers totient
function
Course readings
4
if ac mc bc and c 6= 0, then a m b;
if ac m bc and d = (m, c), then a m/d b;
if ac m bc and (m, c) = 1, then a m b;
if a mm b, then a m b and a m b;
if a m b and a m b, then a [m,m ] b;
if a m b, a m b, and (m, m ) = 1, then a mm b.
Spring 2014
22 / 31
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Zm
23
Algebraic
Foundations of
Computer Science
(AFCS)
Prof.Dr. F.L.
Tiplea
Divisibility. Prime
numbers
The greatest
common divisor
Congruences
Let Zm be the set of all equivalence classes induced by m . Then:

[a]m = [a]m , for any a Z. Therefore, we may consider only
m 0;
for any a, b Z, if a 6= b then [a]0 6= [b]0 . Therefore, Z0 has as
many elements as Z;
for m 1, Zm = {[0]m , . . . , [m 1]m } has exactly m elements.
Eulers totient
function
Course readings
Example 23
Z1 = {[0]1 }, Z2 = {[0]2 , [1]2 }, Z3 = {[0]3 , [1]3 , [2]3 }.
Remark 3
We usually write Zm = {0, 1, . . . , m 1} instead of
Zm = {[0]m , . . . , [m 1]m }, for any m 1.
Spring 2014
23 / 31
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Addition and multiplication modulo m
23
Algebraic
Foundations of
Computer Science
(AFCS)
Prof.Dr. F.L.
Tiplea
Divisibility. Prime
numbers
The greatest
common divisor
Define the following operations on Zm = {0, 1, . . . , m 1}:

a + b = (a + b) mod m;
(binary operation)
a b = (a b) mod m;
(binary operation)
a = (m a) mod m,
for any a, b Zm .
(unary operation)
Congruences
These operations fulfill the following properties:
Eulers totient
function
Course readings
+ and are associative and commutative;

a + 0 = 0 + a = a, for any a;
a 1 = 1 a = a, for any a;
a + (a) = 0, for any a.
a + (b) is usually denoted by a b.
Spring 2014
24 / 31
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Inverses modulo m
23
Algebraic
Foundations of
Computer Science
(AFCS)
Prof.Dr. F.L.
Tiplea
Divisibility. Prime
numbers
The greatest
common divisor
additive inverse modulo m.

We have seen that a + (a) = 0, for any a. a is called the
additive inverse of a modulo m (it is unique);
multiplicative inverse modulo m.
Congruences
Eulers totient
function
Course readings
Given a Zm {0}, is there any b Zm such that a b = 1?

That is, does any a Zm have a multiplicative inverse modulo
m?
Let us consider m = 6. There is no b Z6 such that 2 b = 1.
Moreover, Z6 exhibits the following interesting property:
23=0
(the product of two non-zero numbers is zero !!!).
Spring 2014
25 / 31
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11
Inverses modulo m and the group of units
23
Algebraic
Foundations of
Computer Science
(AFCS)
Prof.Dr. F.L.
Tiplea
Divisibility. Prime
numbers
The greatest
common divisor
Congruences
Proposition 4
a Zm has a multiplicative inverse modulo m iff (a, m) = 1.
The multiplicative inverse of a, when it exists, is unique and it is
denoted by a1 .
Zm = {a Zm |(a, m) = 1} is called the group of units of Zm or the
group of units modulo m.
Eulers totient
function
Course readings
Example 24
Z1 = {0}.
Z26 has 12 elements:
11 = 1, 31 = 9, 51 = 21,
71 = 15, 111 = 19, 171 = 23,
251 = 25.
Spring 2014
26 / 31
17
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Computing multiplicative inverses
23
Algebraic
Foundations of
Computer Science
(AFCS)
The extended Euclidean algorithm can be easily used to compute

multiplicative inverses modulo m:
Prof.Dr. F.L.
Tiplea
Divisibility. Prime
numbers
The greatest
common divisor
Congruences
Eulers totient
function
Course readings
Algorithm 4: Computing multiplicative inverses

input : m 1 and a Zm ;
output: a1 modulo m, if (a, m) = 1;
begin
compute gcd(a, m) := a + m;
if gcd(a, m) = 1 then
a1 := mod m
else
a1 does not exist
Spring 2014
27 / 31
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Eulers totient function
23
Algebraic
Foundations of
Computer Science
(AFCS)
Eulers totient function is given by:
Prof.Dr. F.L.
Tiplea
(m) = |Zm |,
Divisibility. Prime
numbers
for any m 1. That is, (m) is the number of positive integers less
than or equal to m and co-prime to m.
The greatest
common divisor
Congruences
Theorem 25
Eulers totient
function
Course readings
(1) = 1;
(p) = p 1, for any prime p;
(ab) = (a)(b), for any co-prime integers a, b 1;
(pe ) = pe pe1 , for any prime p and e > 0;
(n) = (p1e1 p1e1 1 ) (pkek pkek 1 ), for any n 1, where

n = p1e1 pkek is the prime decomposition of n.
Spring 2014
28 / 31
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Eulers totient function: examples
23
Algebraic
Foundations of
Computer Science
(AFCS)
Example 26
Prof.Dr. F.L.
Tiplea
(5) = 4.
Divisibility. Prime
numbers
(26) = (2 13) = 12.
The greatest
common divisor
(245) = (5 72 ) = 168.
Congruences
Eulers totient
function
Course readings
Remark 4
it is easy to compute (n) if the prime decomposition of n is
known;
it is hard to compute the prime decomposition of large
numbers (512-bit numbers (about 155 decimals) or larger);
it is hard to compute (n) if n is large and the prime
decomposition of n is not known.
Spring 2014
29 / 31
17
13
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11
Eulers theorem
23
Algebraic
Foundations of
Computer Science
(AFCS)
Prof.Dr. F.L.
Tiplea
Divisibility. Prime
numbers
The greatest
common divisor
Theorem 27 (Eulers Theorem)

Let m 1. Then, a(m) 1 mod m, for any integer a with
(a, m) = 1.
Corollary 28 (Fermats Theorem)
Congruences
Let p be a prime. Then:
Eulers totient
function
1
Course readings
2
ap1 1 mod p, for any integer a with p 6 | a;

ap a mod p, for any integer a.
Example 29
13594 1 mod 5 and 3168 1 mod 245.
Spring 2014
30 / 31
17
13
5
19
11
Course readings
23
Algebraic
Foundations of
Computer Science
(AFCS)
F.L. Tiplea:
Fundamentele Algebrice ale Informaticii, Ed.

Polirom, Iasi, 2006, pag. 143164.
Prof.Dr. F.L.
Tiplea
Divisibility. Prime
numbers
The greatest
common divisor
Congruences
Eulers totient
function
Course readings
Spring 2014
31 / 31

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Algebraic Foundations of Computer Science.

Computational Introduction to Number Theory (I)

Ferucio Laurentiu Tiplea

Department of Computer Science

Prof.Dr. F.L. Tiplea (UAIC)

Algebraic Foundations of Computer Science (AFCS)

Divisibility. Prime numbers

The greatest common divisor

Eulers totient function

Prof.Dr. F.L. Tiplea (UAIC)

Algebraic Foundations of Computer Science (AFCS)

The division theorem

The absolute value of an integer a, denoted |a|, is defined by:

Prof.Dr. F.L. Tiplea (UAIC)

Algebraic Foundations of Computer Science (AFCS)

for any a, b Z, is called the divisibility relation on Z.

If a|b then we will say that a divides b, or a is a divisor/factor of b,

Prof.Dr. F.L. Tiplea (UAIC)

Algebraic Foundations of Computer Science (AFCS)

Basic properties of divisibility

Prof.Dr. F.L. Tiplea (UAIC)

Algebraic Foundations of Computer Science (AFCS)

Let a1 , . . . , am Z, where m 2. We say that a1 , . . . , am are

Prof.Dr. F.L. Tiplea (UAIC)

Algebraic Foundations of Computer Science (AFCS)

Characterization of co-prime numbers

Let a1 , . . . , am , b Z, where m 2. Then:

if b is prime and b|a1 am , then there exists i such that b|ai .

Prof.Dr. F.L. Tiplea (UAIC)

Algebraic Foundations of Computer Science (AFCS)

The fundamental theorem of arithmetic

Theorem 8 (The Fundamental Theorem of Arithmetic)

where k 1, p1 , . . . , pk are prime numbers written in order of

Prof.Dr. F.L. Tiplea (UAIC)

Algebraic Foundations of Computer Science (AFCS)

The prime number theorem

Algebraic Foundations of Computer Science (AFCS)

A few values of (n):

How many 100-digit primes are there?

Prof.Dr. F.L. Tiplea (UAIC)

Algebraic Foundations of Computer Science (AFCS)

How large is 1097 ? Below are a few interesting estimates and

Very large numbers often occur in fields such as mathematics,

Prof.Dr. F.L. Tiplea (UAIC)

Algebraic Foundations of Computer Science (AFCS)

The prime spiral

There is no known formula for generating prime numbers in a row

The prime numbers tend to line up along diagonal lines !

Prof.Dr. F.L. Tiplea (UAIC)

Algebraic Foundations of Computer Science (AFCS)

The greatest common divisor

Prof.Dr. F.L. Tiplea (UAIC)

Algebraic Foundations of Computer Science (AFCS)

Linear combination of the greatest common divisor

Let a1 , . . . , am Z, not all zero, where m 2. Then, the equation

Prof.Dr. F.L. Tiplea (UAIC)

Algebraic Foundations of Computer Science (AFCS)

The least common multiple

Algebraic Foundations of Computer Science (AFCS)

The Euclidean algorithm

The Euclidean Algorithm

0 < rn < rn1