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BATUAN & PROPERTI RESERVOIR

Sedimentary rocks are

classified into three
groups. These groups
are clastic, chemical
precipitate and
biochemical (or
bi
biogenic).
i )

Siliciclastic rocks are clastic

noncarbonate sedimentary rocks
that are almost exclusively silicabearing, either as forms of
quartz or other silicate minerals.
All siliciclastic rocks are formed
by inorganic processes, or
d
deposited
i d through
h
h some
mechanical process, such as
sstream
e
deposits
depos s that aree
subsequently lithified. They are
sandstone based rocks
accounting
ti for
f about
b t 50 - 60% off
the world oil and gas
exploration.
p

SANDSTONE

Clastic sedimentary rocks may be regarded

as falling along a scale of grain size,
size with
shale being the finest with particles less
than 0.002 mm, siltstone being a little
bigger with particles between 0.002 to
0.063 mm, and sandstone being coarser
still with grains 0.063
0 063 to 2 mm,
mm and
conglomerates and breccias being more
coarse with grains 2 to 263 mm. Breccia
h sharper
has
h
particles,
i l while
hil conglomerate
l
is categorized by its rounded particles.
Particles bigger than 263 mm are termed
blocks (angular) or boulders (rounded).
Lutite, Arenite and Rudite are general
t
terms
for
f sedimentary
di
t
rock
k with
ith clay/silt-,
l / ilt
sand- or conglomerate/breccia-sized
p
particles.

The colour of a sedimentary rock is

often mostly determined by iron, an
element which has two major oxides:
iron(II) oxide and iron(III) oxide.
Iron(II) oxide only forms under
anoxic circumstances and gives the
rock a grey or greenish colour.
I (III) oxide
Iron(III)
id is
i often
ft in
i the
th form
f
off
the mineral hematite and gives the
rock a reddish to brownish colour. In
arid continental climates rocks are in
direct contact with the atmosphere,
and oxidation is an important
process, giving the rock a red or
orange colour

The size, form and orientation

of clasts or minerals in a rock
is called its texture.
texture The
texture is a small-scale
property of a rock, but
determined many of its largescale properties, such as the
density, porosity or
permeabililty.
Clastic rocks have a 'clastic
t t ' which
texture',
hi h means th
they
consist of clasts. The 3D
orientation of these clasts is
called the fabric of the rock.
Between the clasts the rock
can be composed of a matrix
matri
or a cement

The fform off a clast

Th
l t can be
b
described by using four
p
parameters:
'surface texture' describes the
amount of small-scale relief of
th surface
the
f
off a grain
i which
hi h iis
too small to have influence on
the ggeneral shape;
p
'rounding' describes the general
smoothness of the shape of a
grain;
'sphericity' describes the degree
in with the grain approaches a
sphere; and
'grain form' is used to describe
the 3D shape of the grain.
grain

The mineralogy of a clastic rock is

determined by the supplied material
from the source area, the manner of
transport to the place of deposition
andd the
th stability
t bilit off a particular
ti l
mineral. The stability of the major
rock formingg minerals ((their
resistance to weathering) is
expressed by Bowen's reaction
series In this series,
series.
series quartz is most
stable, followed by feldspar, micas
and other less stable minerals that
will only be present when little
weathering occurred.

The amount of
weathering depends
mainly on the distance to
the source area, the local
climate and the time it
took for the sediment to
b ttransported
be
t d th
there. IIn
most sedimentary rocks,
mica feldspar and less
mica,
stable minerals will have
reacted to clay minerals
like kaolinite, illite or
smectite.

The term diagenesis is

used to describe all the
chemical, physical, and
biological changes,
including cementation,
cementation
undergone by a sediment
after its initial deposition,
p
,
exclusive of surface
weathering. Some of these
processes cause the
sediment to consolidate: a
compact solid substance
compact,
forms out of loose
material.

Carbonates

Carbonates form a large

proportion of all
sedimentary rocks.
Carbonate rocks
dominantly consist of
carbonate minerals like
calcite, aragonite or
dolomite Both cement and
dolomite.
clasts (including fossils and
ooids)) of a carbonate rock
can consist of carbonate
minerals. Carbonates
usually have an irregular
structure.

The most common are

calcite or calcium
carbonate, CaCO3, the
chief constituent of
li
limestone
t
( well
(as
ll as the
th
main component of
mollusc shells and coral
skeletons); dolomite, a
calcium-magnesium
carbonate CaMg(CO3)2;
and siderite, or iron (II)
carbonate,
b t FeCO
F CO3, an
important iron ore.

Limestone is partially soluble,

soluble
especially in acid, and therefore
forms many erosional landforms.
These include limestone
pavements, pot holes, cenotes,
caves and gorges. Such erosion
landscapes are known as karsts.
Limestone is less resistant than
most igneous rocks, but more
resistant than most other
sedimentary rocks. Limestone is
therefore usually associated with
hills and downland and occurs in
regions with other sedimentary
rocks,
rocks

Special
p
carbonate types
yp
Chalk is a special form
of limestone and is
formed from the
skeletons of small
creatures
t
(
(cocoliths).
lith )
Evaporites such as Salt
(NaCl) and Anhydrite
.
(CaSO4)
can also form
in these environments

Components
p
deposited
p
as discrete
grains or crystals
Contain lime mud, < 10% grains:
(Lime) Mudstone
Contain lime mud, (matrix
supported) >10% grains:
Wackestone
Contains lime mud, grain
supported: Packstone
No lime mud, grain supported:
G i
Grainstone
original components bound
together during deposition by
f
framework
kb
building
ildi organisms,
i
encrustation or sediment
trapping mechanisms :
Boundstone
Depositional texture not
recognizable. Crystalline

Vuggy porosity is pore space that

is within grains or crystals or that
is significantly larger than grains
or crystals; that is, pore space that
is not interparticle. This definition
deviates from the restrictive
definition of vugs used by
Choquette
C
q
and Pray
y ((1970)) as
nondescript, nonfabric-selective
pores, but it is consistent with the
Archie terminology and with the
widespread and less restrictive use
in the oil industry of the term
"vuggy porosity" in referring to
visible pore space in carbonate
rocks

Rock Properties
Rocks are described
byy three p
properties:
p
Porosity - quantity of
pore space
Permeability- ability
of a formation to
flow
Matrix -major
constituent of the
rock

Definition of Porosity
Porosity is a measure of the
void spaces in a material,
and is a fraction of the
volume of voids over the
total volume, between 01, or
as a percentage between 0
100%
It is defined by the ratio:
where VV is the v of voidspace (such as fluids) and VT
is the total or bulk volume of
material, including the solid
and void components

Porosity Sandstones
The porosity of a sandstone depends on the
packing arrangement of its grains.The system can
be examined using spheres
In a Rhombohedral packing, the pore space
accounts for 26% of the total volume.

With a Cubic packing arrangement, the pore space

fills 47% of the total volume.
volume
In p
practice,, the theoretical value is rarely
y reached
because:
a) the grains are not perfectly round, and
b) the grains are not of uniform size.

Well sorted (grains of

approximately all one size)
materials have higher porosity
than similarly sized poorly
sorted
t d materials
t i l (where
( h
smaller
ll
particles fill the gaps between
larger particles). The graphic
illustrates how some smaller
grains can effectively fill the
pores ((where all water flow takes
p
place), drastically reducing
porosity and hydraulic
conductivity, while only being a
small fraction of the total volume
of the material.

Porosityy and Grain Size

A rock can be made
up of small grains
or large grains but
have the same
porosity.
it
Porosity depends
on grain packing
packing,
not the grain size.

Primary porosity
The main or original porosity
system in a rock or unconfined
alluvial deposit.

Secondary porosity
A subsequent or separate porosity
system in a rock
rock, often enhancing
overall porosity of a rock. This can
be a result of chemical leeching of
minerals or the generation of a
fracture system. This can replace
the primary porosity or coexist
with it (see dual porosity below).

Macro porosity :Refers to pores

greater than 50 nm in diameter. Flow
g
through macropores is described by
bulk diffusion.
Meso porosity :Refers to pores greater
than 2 nm and less than 50 nm in
diameter Flow through mesopores is
diameter.
described by Knudsen diffusion.
Micro porosity
Mi
it :Refers
R f
tto pores smaller
ll
than 2 nm in diameter. Movement in
micropores is by activated diffusion.

DIAGENESIS
The environment can also involve
subsequent alterations of the rock
such as:
Chemical changes,Diagenesis is the
chemical alteration of a rock after
b i l An
burial.
A example
l is
i the
th
replacement of some of the calcium
atoms in limestone by magnesium to
form dolomite
Mechanical changes - fracturing in a
tectonically-active region.

Carbonate porosity is very heterogeneous. It is classified

into a number of types: Intergranular porosity is called
"primary porosity".
Interparticle porosity:Each grain is
separated, giving a similar pore
space arrangement as sandstone.
Intergranular porosity:Pore space
is created inside the individual
grains which are interconnected.
Intercrystalline
y
porosity:Produced
p
y
by spaces between carbonate
crystals.
Mouldic porosity:Pores created by
the dissolution of shells, etc.

Porosity created after deposition is called

"
"secondary
d
porosity".
it "
Fracture porosity:
Pore spacing created by the
cracking of the rock fabric
fabric.
Channell porosity:
Ch
i
Similar to fracture porosity but larger.
Vuggy porosity:
Created by the dissolution of
fragments, but unconnected.

Permeabilityy Definition
The rate of flow of a liquid
through a formation depends
on:
Th pressure d
The
drop,the
th
viscosity of the fluid and The
permeability.
The pressure drop is a
reservoir property.
The viscosity is a fluid
property.
The permeability is a measure
of the ease at which a fluid
can flow through a formation

Permeability and Rocks

Relationships exist between permeability
and porosity for given formations, although
they are not universal.
A rock must have porosity to have any
permeability.
permeability
The unit of measurement is the Darcy.
Reservoir permeability is usually quoted in
millidarcies
illid i (md).
( d)

In formations with large grains, the

permeability is high and the flow
rate larger.
g
In a rock with small grains the
permeability is less and the flow
lower.

Reservoir rocks need

two properties to be
successful:
Pore spaces
p
able to
retain hydrocarbon.
Permeability which
allows
ll
the
th fluid
fl id to
t
move.