Middle East

Middle East
2008
Property & Construction
Industry Handbook
contents
one: davis langdon
Foreword 1
History of Davis Langdon in the Middle East 2
Service Lines 3
Industry Awards 4
two: middle east key data
Exchange Rates 5
Statistics - 2006 6
three: construction cost data
International Building Cost Comparison 7

Regional Building Cost Comparison 9
Regional Mechanical & Electrical Cost Comparison 11
Major Measured Unit Rates 13
Major Material Prices 15
Labour Costs 17
Labour/Material/Plant Ratios 18
Inflation/Escalation 19
Cost Planning/Estimating Methods 23
Tall Buildings 27
four: project management
Public Private Partnership 31

Middle East Forms of Contract 33
Specifications 36
Integrated Project Management 37
Value & Risk Management 41
Planning and Programming 45
Procurement Routes 46
Partnering 48
contents
five: property investment
Due Diligence 51
Funders’ Technical Advisor 53
Insurance Reinstatement Cost Valuation 54
Building Areas Definitions 55
Building Services Standards 59
Sustainable Development 62
six: building control
Building Regulations and Compliance 67
seven: weights and measures
Weights and Measures 71
eight: some interesting facts
The ‘Arabic’ Numerical System 73

Measurement 78
Timekeeping 81
Money 84
Astronomy 87
The Pyramids of Giza 91
nine: directory of offices
Middle Eastern Regional Offices 95

International Offices 96
Chapter One
Davis Langdon
Foreword
History of Davis Langdon in the Middle East
Service Lines
Industry Awards
Our Core Ideology, is to be
passionate about recruiting
and developing the best
people, working with the
best teams and delivering
successful solutions that
respect the environment.
Our Goal is to build the

best and most valued
relationships in our industry.
davis langdon one
Foreword
The Middle East is a very important

market for Davis Langdon which is
illustrated by the fact that this, the second
edition of the Property and Construction
Industry Handbook, contains even more
information that we believe will be of
assistance to you when planning and
progressing your projects.
We have previously published exchange rates, comparative

data, contract and cost information, etc; that may be helpful
in the evaluation of your proposed property investments.
This year we have expanded the range of topics to cover
engineering services, inflation, cost planning, tall buildings,
planning and programming, procurement and partnering. We
have also included some interesting facts that we hope will give
you a deeper insight to the region.
Our overarching aim is to demonstrate our commitment to

our core values. In setting out our Regional Building Cost
Comparisons we feel we are demonstrating our integrity by
openly recording our thoughts on construction costs in the
region. Our ability to advise on engineering services and
our thoughts on sustainable development show that we are
innovative in the approach to the services we provide. Equally,
our approach to project management and partnering shows that
we are collaborative in the things that we do.
We hope you find the Handbook of interest and that the

information it contains is of assistance to you on your projects
in the Middle East, but we would welcome your feedback for,
as ever, we are seeking continuous improvement in everything
that we do.
Rob Smith
Senior Partner
Davis Langdon LLP

one davis langdon
History of Davis Langdon in the Middle East
Davis Langdon is the longest established professional

construction cost management practice in the Middle East,
starting life as Langdon and Every in 1948.
The practice currently has established offices in Bahrain, Doha,

Dubai and Lebanon, employing more than 150 professional
staff in the region.
Davis Langdon has an extremely broad client base in

the region, and has been retained by many of the major
government departments as well as private institutions and
individuals.
The Middle East offices of Davis Langdon are members of

Davis Langdon & Seah International, who employ some 3,800
staff based in 93 offices in 28 countries, providing a range of
management and consulting services to clients contemplating
investment in infrastructure, construction and property
Middle East Region

Lebanon, Qatar, Bahrain and UAE
UK & Europe
England, Scotland, Wales, Ireland, Spain and Russia
United States
Boston, Honolulu, Los Angeles, New York, Philadelphia,
Sacramento, San Francisco and Seattle
Australia
Adelaide, Brisbane, Cairns, Canberra, Darwin, Hobart,
Melbourne, Perth, Sunshine Coast, Sydney and Townsville
New Zealand
Auckland, Christchurch and Wellington
Asia
Brunei, China, Hong Kong, India, Indonesia, Japan, Korea,
Malaysia, Philippines, Singapore, Thailand, and Vietnam
Africa
Botswana and South Africa

davis langdon one
Service Lines
In each location, resident directors and associates lead

the practice. We employ qualified professional quantity
surveyors, project managers, risk managers, construction
programmers, cost engineers, engineers, civil engineers and
mechanical/electrical engineers whose skills and depth of
experience ensure the excellence of our service to clients. Our
combination of service lines is unique, enabling us to address
different aspects of property ownership under the broad
headings of Project, Property and Advisory services.
Successful projects are born of sensible and realistic property

advice that leans heavily on experience and the ability to act
strategically. We know that cost, time and quality are directly
linked project imperatives.
We understand that clients are increasingly concerned about

quality and that all involved in the process should provide
evidence that they are meeting specified requirements.
Specialist Service Lines in the Middle East:

• Project Management
• Cost Management
• Quantity Surveying
• Legal Support
• Dispute Resolution
• Specification Consulting
• Engineering Services
• Project Audit
The Davis Langdon Middle East advantage:

• Independent professional advice
• Five long-established regional offices
• Highly experienced on a wide range of projects in the region
• Largest firm of its kind in the world
• Extensive database of project information, locally and
worldwide
• Award winning value-added service
• Back-up from London based specialist teams, including
value & risk management, legal services, and management
consulting

one davis langdon
Industry Awards
The consistently high standard of professional service provided

by Davis Langdon is recognised throughout the construction
industry, as evidenced by the following prestigious industry
awards:
Construction Consultant/Surveyor of the Year

1995, 1996, 2000, 2001, 2003, 2006 & 2007
Project/Construction Manager of the Year

2004
Top International Cost Consultant

For 14 Years in Succession
100 Best Companies to Work For

2005, 2006 & 2007
British Construction Industry Award

2003
Project of the Year

2002 & 2003

davis langdon one

Chapter Two
Middle East Key Data

Exchange Rates
Statistics - 2006

Exchange Rates
two
Local Currency to USD 1.00
2006 Half Year 2007 01/07/2007

Currency High Low High Low
Lebanese Pound 1514.5 1427.1 1515.3 1434.7 1533.1
Egyptian Pound 6.0235 5.9656 5.7132 5.3611 5.7863
Jordanian Dinar 0.7090 0.6884 0.7075 0.6934 0.7136
Syrian Pound 51.910 49.261 51.357 493514 53.166
Saudi Riyal 3.7506 3.7415 3.7517 3.7481 3.7517

middle east key data
Kuwaiti Dinar 0.2930 0.2829 0.2900 0.2831 0.2882
Qatari Riyal 3.6798 3.4478 3.6459 3.4721 3.6424
Bahraini Dinar 0.3779 0.3580 0.3800 0.3603 0.3838
UAE Dirham 3.6828 3.6397 3.6737 3.6679 3.6740
Omani Rial 0.3853 0.3658 0.3849 0.3715 0.3860

Statistics - 2006
Lebanon Egypt Jordan Syria K.S.A. Kuwait Qatar Bahrain UAE Oman
10,230 995,450 91,971 184,050 2,149,690 17,820 11,437 665 83,600 212,460
Land Area
km2 km2 km2 km2 km2 km2 km2 km2 km2 km2
Capital City Beirut Cairo Amman Damascus Riyadh Kuwait Doha Manama Abu-Dhabi Muscat
Population 3,925,000 80,335,000 6,053,000 19,315,000 27,600,000 2,505,000 907,000 708,500 4,444,000 3,200,000
Employment
2,600,000 21,800,000 1,512,000 5,505,000 7,125,000 1,136,000 508,000 352,000 2,968,000 920,000
Number
GDP $22.02 $334.40 $26.30 $77.66 $366.20 $55.91 $26.37 $18.02 $129.50 $44.53
(PPP Basis) billion billion billion billion billion billion billion billion billion billion
GDP/Capita $5,600 $4,160 $4,960 $4,020 $13,270 $22,320 $29,100 $25,400 $29,100 $13,920
Gross Value
$506 $14.4 $1.1 $2.3 $21.2 $1.3 $1.3 $703 $8.3 $1.0
of Construction
million billion billion billion billion billion billion million billion billion
Output
middle east key data
Construction
Output as a % 2.3% 4.3% 3.8% 3.0% 5.8% 2.3% 4.8% 3.9% 6.4% 2.3%
of GDP

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Chapter Three
Construction Cost Data

International Building Cost Comparison
Regional Building Cost Comparison
Regional Mechanical & Electrical Cost Comparison
Major Measured Unit Rates
Major Material Prices
Labour Costs
Labour/Material/Plant Ratios
Inflation/Escalation
Cost Planning/Estimating Methods
Tall Buildings

International Building Cost Comparison (USD/m2) 2Q 2007
three
Building Type London New York Los Singapore Manila Hong Kong Beijing Sydney Jo’burg
Angeles
Residential
Multi Unit – Low Rise 3050 1800 1800 1210 470 1100 365 1200 785
Medium Quality – High Rise 4000 3000 2800 960 620 1230 400 1400 930
High Quality – Low Rise 4700 3400 3100 1700 610 1480 510 1800 1000
High Quality – High Rise 5500 3800 3400 2130 780 1530 545 2100 1150
Podium Car Parking 840 1800 1400 480 320 685 330 400 375
Basement Car Parking 1800 2000 1800 975 370 1400 400 1100 450
Commercial (excluding Fit-Out)
Average Standard Offices
- Low Rise 2200 1800 1600 1120 385 1500 450 1000 685
- Medium Rise 3100 2300 2100 1190 520 1530 515 1500 900
construction cost data
- High Rise 4300 2700 2400 1290 650 1550 625 1600 1150
High Standard Offices
- Medium Rise 3850 2700 2400 1470 620 1910 700 2100 1150
- High Rise 5400 3000 2700 1710 750 1940 890 2900 1360
Building Type London New York Los Singapore Manila Hong Kong Beijing Sydney Jo’burg
Angeles
Industrial
Light Industrial 1425 900 900 770 340 850 N/A 500 360
Heavy Industrial 2275 1600 1500 960 385 920 N/A 600 485
Attached Offices 2225 1300 1200 N/A N/A 1100 444 1200 720
Hotel (including FF&E)
3 Star/Budget 2800 2500 2300 1760 980 1970 955 3400 900
5 Star/Luxury 2600 4000 3750 2400 1290 2530 1425 4400 1940
5 Star/Resort N/A 4000 3750 2400 1150 N/A 1215 4400 1420
Health (excluding loose FF&E)
District Medical Centre 3000 4500 4400 N/A 970 1880 N/A 1600 1000
District Hospital 5000 6000 8000 N/A 900 2430 795 2400 1100
Retail (excluding Fit-Out)
District Centre N/A 1350 1300 1260 435 1660 680 600 850
Regional Shopping Mall 3000 1500 1400 1400 480 1980 955 1400 1100
Exchange Rates GBP USD USD SGD PHP HKD CNY AUD ZAR
Mid Year 2007 USD 1 = 0.50 1.00 1.00 1.53 47.00 7.81 7.56 1.22 7.00
NB: Large fluctuations in exchange rates can create short-term anomalies. These cost rates (USD/m2) represent average competitive tender prices as at mid 2007; are
• inclusive of: service installations and preliminaries; but

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• exclusive of: external works and services; tenant fit-out; FF&E (furniture, fittings and equipment); professional fees; land; finance; etc. and VAT (Value Added Tax) where applicable.

Regional Building Cost Comparison (USD/m2) 2Q 2007
three
Building Type Beirut Riyadh Doha Manama Dubai

Lebanon KSA Qatar Bahrain UAE
Residential
Medium Quality Villa Compound 660 990 1230 1250 1200
Medium Quality – High Rise 850 1100 1370 1200 1300
High Quality – Low Rise 900 1210 1350 1300 1450
High Quality – High Rise 1250 1450 1900 1600 1650
Podium Car Parking N/A 550 960 800 600
Basement Car Parking 500 650 1100 650 800
- Low Rise 770 880 1370 1120 1100
- Medium Rise 880 950 1500 1200 1250
- High Rise 990 1100 1780 1350 1400

- Medium Rise 1100 1300 2050 1500 1300
- High Rise 1300 1500 2330 1800 1650
- Super High Rise N/A 2200 2600 2200 2300
Industrial
Light Industrial 500 550 820 750 750
Heavy Industrial 770 720 1090 850 850
Attached Offices 550 880 1230 1100 1100
3 Star/Budget 1300 1350 1900 1750 1800
5 Star/Luxury 1750 2400 3280 2800 3000
5 Star/Resort 1950 2800 3600 3200 3400
District General Hospital 2400 2750 3300 2800 3150
Retail (excluding tenant fit-out)
District Centre 900 930 1050 950 950
Regional Shopping Mall 1100 1300 1650 1300 1400
NB: These cost rates (USD/m2) represent average competitive tender prices as at mid 2007; are
• inclusive of: service installations and preliminaries; but
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• exclusive of: external works and services; tenant fit-out; FF&E (furniture, fittings and equipment); professional fees; land; finance; etc. and VAT (Value Added Tax) where applicable.
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Regional Mechanical & Electrical Cost Comparison (USD/m2) 2Q 2007
three

Residential
Medium Quality Villa Compound 260 325 360 315 350
Medium Quality – High Rise 300 375 450 400 400
High Quality – Low Rise 320 400 500 425 500
High Quality – High Rise 380 475 650 580 550
Podium Car Parking 110 140 240 120 150
Basement Car Parking 140 175 275 230 200
- Low Rise 256 320 385 280 300
- Medium Rise 280 350 425 300 350
- High Rise 300 380 500 400 400

- Medium Rise 320 400 680 450 450
- High Rise 350 450 720 630 500
Industrial
Light Industrial 200 250 300 300 300
Heavy Industrial 260 325 330 350 350
Attached Offices 280 350 360 350 350
3 Star/Budget 240 300 580 500 300
5 Star/Luxury 480 600 900 840 700
5 Star/Resort 580 725 825 960 750
District General Hospital N/A N/A 1225 1120 1100
Retail (excluding tenant fit-out)
District Centre 280 350 385 380 400
Regional Shopping Mall 340 425 500 450 500
NB: These cost rates (USD/m2) represent average competitive tender prices as at mid 2007 for service installations within buildings; are
• inclusive of: subcontractor preliminaries and main contractor mark-up; but
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• exclusive of: incoming service utility lines and connections; site distribution networks; associated builder’s work; and VAT (Value Added Tax) where applicable.
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Major Measured Unit Rates for the Middle East Region (USD) 2Q 2007
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Description Unit Beirut Riyadh Doha Manama Dubai

Basement Excavation m3 7 8 19 10 9
Foundation Excavation m3 12 10 14 9 8
Imported Structural Fill m3 12 10 21 14 14
Concrete in Pad Footings (25mpa) m3 75 83 197 106 120
Concrete in Walls (32mpa) m3 80 100 205 110 150
Concrete in Slabs (32 mpa) m3 80 100 205 110 145
Formwork to Slab Soffits m2 10 25 21 21 30
Formwork to Sides and Soffits of Beams m2 10 25 21 21 35
Precast Wall Panel Architectural with Sand Blast Finish m2 55 165 220 132 120
Reinforcement in Beams kg 1.0 1.1 1.4 0.9 1.0
Structural Steel in Beams kg 4.0 2.7 4.4 2.2 4.0

Structural Steel in Trusses kg 4.0 2.7 4.4 2.2 4.0
Hollow Concrete Block Partition 200mm thick m2 18 19 47 32 50
Aluminium Framed Window 6.5mm Clear Glass Commercial Quality m2 230 300 795 370 480
Aluminium Curtain Wall System (including structural system) m2 475 417 1506 400 800
Average Quality Steel Stud Partition with Single Layer Plasterboard m2 40 34 100 75 52
each side
Suspended Mineral Fibre Ceiling m2 20 20 68 30 40
Paint on Plasterboard Walls m2 5 6.5 5.5 8 7
Ceramic Tiles to Walls m2 25 29 75 27 32
Average Quality Marble Paving on Screed m2 100 100 230 115 220
Anti Static Carpet Tiles to Office & Admin Areas m2 50 50 69 50 40
NB: These cost rates (USD) represent average tender rates as at mid 2007 for average specification quality works, supplied and installed complete; but are
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• exclusive of: contractor’s preliminaries (site establishment, scaffolding, hoisting, etc.) and VAT (Value Added Tax) where applicable.
15
Major Material Prices for the Middle East Region (USD) 2Q 2007
three

Ordinary Portland Cement
1) In Bags Tn 70 102 120 104 100
2) In Bulk Tn 60 93 99 100 95
Sand
Sand for concreting m3 16 13 27 13 10
Aggregate
19mm Aggregate m3 18 15 27 24 16
Ready Mixed Concrete delivered
1) Grade 50 (OPC) m3 N/A 88 186 116 105
2) Grade 40 (OPC) m3 65 83 190 110 90
3) Grade 20 (OPC) m3 55 70 175 87 70

Reinforcing Steel
1) High tensile Tn 670 705 1233 700 930
2) Mild Steel Tn 700 670 1151 630 800
Hollow Concrete Blockwork
1) 100mm thick m2 4 6 18 9 9
2) 200mm thick m2 7 8 27 18 18
Structural Steelwork
Mild Steel grade 50 to BS 4360 Tn 1000 1300 3835 800 1200
Timber
1) Hardwood Meranti m3 1000 610 1027 530 530
2) Softwood m3 400 360 685 315 315
Fuel
1) Diesel Litre 0.60 0.10 0.19 0.27 0.62
2) Petrol Premium 95 Litre 0.76 0.22 0.22 0.27 0.40
NB: These cost rates (USD) represent merchant charges for respective material products supplied and delivered to site (in reasonably large bulk quantity orders); but are
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three
• exclusive of: contractor mark-up for overhead and profit; and VAT (Value Added Tax) where applicable.
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Labour Costs for the Middle East Region (USD) 2Q 2007
three

Concretor Day 25 27 20 13 29
Steel Bender Day 25 27 19 25 35
Carpenter Day 25 27 20 25 35
Mason Day 25 2 20 25 35
General Labourer Day 10 18 18 19 29
Crane Operator Day 40 40 37 14 47
Heavy Machinery Operator Day 40 40 35 18 34
Dump Truck Driver Day 25 30 27 32 41
Plumber Day 25 32 35 25 35
Electrician Day 25 32 35 38 35
Foreman Day 25 85 50 25 90
Site Engineer Month 2500 4000 4000 5000 9000

Construction Manager Month 5000 10000 9600 8000 15000
NB: These cost rates (USD) represent all-in unit cost of respective operatives and personnel, including: wages, salaries and other remunerations prescribed by local labour legislation; and
average allowances for costs of employment; recruitment; visas/permits; paid leave; travel; accommodation; health and welfare; etc; but are
• exclusive of: overtime working; contractor mark-up for overhead and profit; and VAT (Value Added Tax) where applicable.
These cost rates are NOT and should not be confused with ‘Contractor’s Daywork Rates’.
Middle East Region Labour/Materials/Plant Ratios
Trades Labour : Material : Plant Trades Labour : Material : Plant
Air Conditioning Installations 15% 85% 0% Lift Installations 10% 90% 0%
Carpentry 20% 80% 0% Masonry 20% 80% 0%
Carpet 5% 95% 0% Metalwork 10% 90% 0%
Demolition 35% 22% 43% Painting 30% 70% 0%
Drainage 15% 65% 20% Paving 30% 70% 0%
Electrical Installations 15% 85% 0% Piling Works 8% 63% 29%
Excavation 16% 14% 70% Plastering 17% 83% 0%
Fire Protection 15% 85% 0% Precast Concrete 8% 92% 0%
Formwork 30% 70% 0% Preliminaries 20% 10% 70%
Glazing 10% 90% 0% Reinforcement 8% 92% 0%
Hard Landscaping 8% 42% 50% Structural Steelwork 5% 70% 25%
In Situ Concrete 10% 90% 0% Suspended Ceilings 17% 83% 0%
Joinery 6% 96% 0% Tiling 23% 77% 0%
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three
NB: The above are approximate avereage ratios across the whole region.
three construction cost data
Inflation/Escalation
The Middle East, unlike developed economies in countries such

as the UK, USA, Japan, etc; does not yet have recognised
construction price indices or formal measures of construction
inflation. Davis Langdon in Dubai has, however, initiated an
in-house system to track and calculate construction inflation in
the UAE over the last 18 months; and we believe that a similar
inflationary pattern is occurring throughout the Gulf region.
The system we have adopted is in its inception phase and is

rudimentary at best. We are monitoring selected commodity
prices in the international and Dubai commodity markets as well
as liaising with selected A grade contractors for their valued
perspective and input into this process.
We have developed a basic model which weights labour and

material costs in their respective proportions within each of
the various trades and elements of construction. In addition,
we have applied weightings against the respective proportions
of architectural work, structural work, civil work, Mechanical
Electrical & Plumbing (MEP) work and preliminaries, within
various building types and associated construction sectors
We recognise that there are inherent weaknesses within the

system although we believe it is a reasonably accurate and
reliable means for recording, tracking, and comparing historic and
current construction inflation generally.
Our research and associated calculations indicate that the

average straight line construction price inflation for the first six
months of 2007, across the various construction sectors in Dubai,
is in the order of 12% to 13% and suggests that monthly inflation
rates currently applicable to various construction sectors are as
follows:
• Health 2.1% per month

• Infrastructure 2.1% per month
• Residential 2.1% per month
• Retail 2.1% per month
• Bank Fit Out 2.0% per month
• Commercial Office 2.0% per month
• Hospitality/Leisure 2.0% per month
The circa 2% per month above compares equally with the

inflation figures Davis Langdon reported for 2006. Surprisingly
however, there have been a number of significant changes
between the trades and material prices that form the key
inflationary drivers when compared with 2006, although the end
result remains essentially unchanged.
19
construction cost data three
Based upon the average cost of construction inflation of 2% per

month in Dubai, the key inflation drivers in a typical construction
project can be seen in the following comparative monthly
percentage increases:
2006 2007
• Preliminaries 2.00% 1.25%

• MEP (Average Increase) 2.75% 3.07 %
• Civil Works 1.05% 2.23 %

The MEP sections can be further subdivided into the following
elements:
2006 2007
• HVAC 3.42% 3.93%

• Electrical 2.83% 0.93%
• Plumbing and Drainage 1.33% 3.00%

Inflation in electrical work has increased at a much slower rate
than in 2006 with plumbing and drainage more than double
the rate of inflation per month compared with 2006 increases.
HVAC has increased slightly over the 2006 price increases. The
slow down in electrical prices is not surprising when compared
with copper as a commodity over the past six months.
The copper price has remained virtually unchanged over a six

month period although there was a large drop in the first quarter
of 2007 which has been balanced out by a subsequent hike in
the second quarter of 2007.
There are various macro and micro economic factors that affect
construction price inflation within the Dubai market.
The following macro economic factors highlight and contribute

to these increases:
• The majority of material and labour resources employed in

Dubai are imported.
• The weakening US dollar affects the strength of the Dirham
against stronger currencies. The US dollar has weakened
against the Euro by circa 5.2% over the first six months of
2007.
• There is a high level of construction activity taking place in
the world competing for these limited resources.
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• This affects the demand and supply of commodities which

have slowed down on average over the last 6 months across
the globe:
• Zinc - little change
• Copper - intermittent spikes
• Steel - 20% increase
• Fuel - 5% increase
• Aluminium - intermittent spikes, slight decrease
• Galvanised Coils - 35% increase

On a micro economic level the following factors contribute to the
increase in construction prices:
• Volume of construction work taking place in the region,

especially the unprecedented number and size of large
projects under construction.
• The shortage of:
• Suppliers
• A grade contractors for large developments
• Construction professionals
• Accommodation
• The ever diminishing tender periods, the short duration of
construction programmes and the overall speed at which
developments are taking place.
• The choice of clients (good paying reputable clients) and
• Professional Consultant Teams selected on projects
(competent).

All these factors and many more have had a direct impact on
construction price inflation in Dubai over the last six months.
In undertaking this research, Davis Langdon has approached

a select number of local contractors for their input. These
contractors were asked to provide feedback on 23 key
cost drivers. Our inflation calculations are based upon this
feedback. We have identified a selection of these items below
for information:
Increase over the past six months

• Cement 15%
• Rebar 11%
• Unskilled labour 9%
• Asphalt 8%
• Supervision labour 5.5%
• Skilled labour (Tradesmen) 5%
• Ready mix concrete 5%
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It should be noted that some contractors have reported no

increase in labour wage rates over the last six months although
others have shown increases. This is somewhat dependent on
the labour rate review policy of individual contractors as well
as the timing of the research being undertaken. This principle
applies generally across the board.
Certain MEP contractors felt that there could be a future

softening in MEP material prices but felt that this would be
somewhat dependent on the construction market activity in
China and India. They felt that the demand for real estate
and the availability of credit in China would contribute to the
future inflationary effects in Dubai. There is also a shortage
of technical labour with local knowledge, which is keeping the
rates for skilled workers high.
The Gulf also has a shortage of trucks and competent truck

drivers, which is affecting the price of aggregate and bulk
haulage of material.
A further factor affecting labour costs is the ‘human rights

agenda’. These issues are becoming more prevalent in the
market, and this is applying pressure on contractors who use
illegal labour. Thus labour wage rates for these contractors will
need to be rectified in the near future. This may only have a
small impact on the market, and we do not think that this will
affect large projects that use A grade contractors.
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Cost Planning/Estimating Methods
Overview
Davis Langdon believe that cost should be a determinant of
design rather than its by-product. The cost planning process
needs to be pro-active and positive and a cost framework for
the project should be established at the earliest opportunity.
The process of cost estimating must be viewed by all

stakeholders as the product of teamwork, which leads to
a control document as opposed to something that the cost
consultant produces in isolation.
Types of Estimate
It is essential that the right type of estimate is prepared
according to the level of information available and the
requirements of the client.
There are two main types of estimate carried out during the
pre-contract stage of a project: the feasibility estimate and the
cost plan.
Feasibility Estimates
Rate per m² / functional unit
Early estimates prepared during the inception and feasibility
stages. There may be little information available other than
the type of building and its approximate floor area or other
functional requirements. Feasibility estimates can be prepared
based on rates per m² or cost per functional unit (eg. hotel
room).
Cost Models
By studying cost analyses of previous projects and making
suitable adjustments (for quality, time, location, etc) allowances
can be included for each element which will, when summed-up,
provide an overall estimate for the project.
Cost models enable a considered estimate to be constructed

from limited information based on a number of assumptions
encountered on previous projects.
Cost Plans
Once design information is available it is possible to break the
project into elements or work sections and a more detailed
estimate, generally termed a ‘cost plan’ can be produced.
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A cost plan will detail the amount allowed for each element, set
targets, and define specification levels achievable within the
budget allocations.
Cost plans vary according to the level of detail available and

the format of the cost plan will usually be ‘elemental’ and based
on the Standard Form of Cost Analysis, published by the BCIS
division of the Royal Institution of Chartered Surveyors (RICS).
Cost Checking
At all stages of the project design, a continuing process of cost
checking is necessary, in order to confirm that current design
solutions are in line with previously set targets.
Cost checking needs to be an integrated process involving all

members of the design team.
Stages in Preparing a Cost Estimate

1. Project Briefing
All information available about the project and the client’s
objectives should be ascertained.
2. Specialist Advice
Davis Langdon has in-house specialist teams to advise on MEP,
structural works and cladding, and this provides a valuable input
into the estimating process. External specialist advice is also
sought where required.
3. Measurement
The level of measurement undertaken will depend on the level
of design information available and is generally undertaken
directly from the AutoCAD drawings.
Area measurements are measured in accordance with the RICS

Code of Measuring Practice and elements are measured in
accordance with the ‘Principles of Measurement (International)
for Works of Construction’ (POMI).
4. Pricing of the Estimate

Pricing of the estimate is based upon the extensive database of
information held by Davis Langdon. In addition we have access
to external databases and specialist sources that can be used
when necessary.
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5. Presentation
Estimates are presented in a standard report format, although
these can be adapted to suit any specific project or client
requirements.
Davis Langdon uses bespoke cost planning software in the

preparation of its estimates. The information contained in the
estimate will generally include:
• Estimate cover
• Contents page
• Executive summary
• Basis of estimate
• Assumptions
• Exclusions
• Schedules of areas
• Pricing pages
In addition we may include:
• Schedule of changes (reconciliation with previous estimate)

• Benchmarking exercise
• Specification
• Reduced layout drawings
• Cashflow
• Risk analysis
6. Estimate Review & Feedback

An estimate review process is conducted with the client and
the design team to ensure that the assumptions and basis of
the estimate are in line with the latest information and client’s
requirements.
Factors Affecting the Overall Project Price Levels

The following factors will have an influence on price level:
• Method of procurement
• Regional variation
• Programme
• Recent changes in legislation
• Quality level and specification
• Project specifics
• Exclusions
• Contingencies
25
Key Cost Drivers

Particularly in the early design stages, it is important to
understand the key factors that determine the overall cost of
the project. These vary from one building sector to another but
some generic examples include:
• Type of façade
• Wall-to-floor ratio
• Structural grid, clear spans and design loads
• Storey heights
• Atrium
• Abnormal costs
• Industry sector
• Level of quality and specification
• Car parking ratios and strategy
Benchmarking
Benchmarking can be used to compare the cost and design
criteria of various projects by comparing them with the
benchmark set by similar projects.
Project benchmarking can involve comparing whole or

elemental costs but can also be used to compare the
performance of buildings in the following areas:
• Speed of construction
• Net : gross floor area efficiencies
• Wall-to-floor ratios
• Structural design criteria
• Services design criteria
• Preliminaries costs

Benchmarking comparisons involve adjusting the cost of
projects onto a like-for-like basis to allow for location, time and
procurement route variables.
This benchmarking information helps Davis Langdon to play

a pro-active part in cost-reducing and value-engineering
discussions.
26
Tall Buildings
There is ample evidence from

around the world that successful
economies and major cities
within them are establishing or
renewing their urban skylines at
an unprecedented pace, using
signature towers – commercial,
residential and mixed use – to
achieve global prominence.
Cities such as Dubai, Shanghai, London and Moscow are using

their skylines to ‘signpost’ themselves to the world, boosting
their visual identity or ‘brand’ and increasing their competitive
draw.
In its own context, the Middle East has powered ahead, with
some of their major cities amongst the fastest – and tallest
– construction markets in the world.
Unlike more ‘historic’ world cities, Middle Eastern cities such as

Dubai, Abu Dhabi, Doha or Bahrain do not have ‘old stock’ of
buildings to worry about, in terms of their refurbishment.
As such – and starting with pretty much

a ‘clean slate’ – Middle Eastern cities
are signposting themselves, with iconic,
innovative and remarkably tall towers,
which send a powerful message to the
world.
The design and construction and thereby

the cost of tall buildings, present unique and
complex challenges that require creative
and innovative yet practical and viable
solutions.
Developers and consultants in the region

need to carefully consider the relative
impact of the cost drivers associated with
the construction of tall buildings, and
although there are many fundamental
issues that contribute to these –
procurement routes, programme, logistics,
choice of specialist contractors, to name
a few – there are certain core issues that
drive the cost, viz:
27
Structure
The building’s height, volumetric shape, plan form, core location
and column spacing all combine to determine the most efficient
and cost-effective structural solution.
Irrespective of the structural system, the mass and cost of the

structural frame will increase with height. Counteracting wind
loads, which increase disproportionately with height, adds
significantly to loads and cost.
Both material efficiency and buildability have a greater cost

impact with height. These need to be considered hand-in-hand.
An important factor will be the size of the structural members.
This has a bearing on buildability and speed, and a possible
impact on lettable floor areas. The selection of the structural
system will therefore be driven by cost, building movement,
space take-up, aesthetics, buildability and speed of construction
Façades
Tall buildings are typically designed with a totally sealed
external envelope. More often than not, tall buildings will be
all-glazed and the façades will comprise double walls (triple
glazed).
It will be more efficient and sustainable to use the façade to

control heat gain rather than rely on cooling installations to
mitigate the performance of the envelope. Principle factors
which affect how this is achieved include cost, performance,
operational robustness, space take-up, aesthetics and ease of
construction.
Beyond the detailed performance of the envelope, the design

should seek to take maximum advantage of economies of
scale, both in factory production and on site. With large areas of
external walling (and high wall to floor ratios), efficiency of both
production and installation are critical.
They can be achieved by rationalising cladding types and fixing

details through maximum repetition (without compromising
aesthetics), ensuring that panels can be fixed from the floors
rather than rely on cranes, and by unitising as much of the
system as possible.
28
As well as the environmental strategy, the façades interaction

with the structural frame is important. Tolerance and movements
should be addressed at the earliest opportunity so that there
is every reason to expect the economies of scale to offset
any potential additional costs associated with factors such as
increased wind loadings and logistics.
However, the cost of the external walls is still likely to show a

significant increase relative to those for low buildings, when
expressed per unit of floor area, because of the higher wall to
floor ratios that tend to be inherent to tall buildings. Slender tall
buildings will be particularly affected in this respect.
Vertical Transportation
Core design is the crucial starting point for developing the
internal operation of a tall building. It determines both of
the building’s development efficiency and its operational
effectiveness.
Together with structural considerations, and to a lesser extent

services distribution, the design of the lift installation is a
fundamental part of optimising the core arrangement.
The aim of the lift and escalator installations is to optimise travel

times and waiting intervals with the building’s likely population
profile in mind. Achieving this involves a significant level of
specialist analysis, the result often representing a balance
between number of lifts, lift speeds, size of groups, zoning of
the building, core size and arrangement.
With an increase in building height comes an increase in

strategic options to achieve these targets economically.
The fundamental options are:
• Straightforward zoning of floors, with transfer levels

• Sky lobbies served by express lifts
• Double-deck lifts
• A combination of the above

The use of sophisticated controls, such as destination hall call,
could be incorporated to improve overall performance.
29
Main Contractors’ Preliminaries/On-costs

Main contractors’ preliminaries encompass a large complement
of staff to manage the design and construction, and an array
of accommodation, plant and equipment for use by the client,
consultant, construction personnel and other site visitors. Care
needs to be taken to ensure the correct quality and scope of all
these items to maximise efficiencies (and avoid unnecessary
duplication with trade contractors’ preliminaries).
Appropriate investment in main contractors’ preliminaries will

mitigate the pressures on trade contractors’ preliminaries, which
can often be considerably greater for a tall building project,
partly due to the logistics of moving people and materials to and
from the workface. The time taken by operatives travelling to
and between floors and welfare facilities such as canteens and
toilets can take up a significant part of the day.
It is important to minimise these inefficiencies and manage

the construction process rigorously, starting with robust and
detailed planning. An appropriate procurement strategy will also
help to minimise programme and financial risks.
30
Chapter Four
Project Management
Public Private Partnership
Middle East Forms of Contract
Specifications
Integrated Project Management
Value and Risk Management
Planning and Programming
Procurement Routes
Partnering
four project management
Public Private Partnership
The Middle East market is seeing an increasing interest in the

Public Private Partnership (PPP) model as an alternative way
of procuring and funding public sector projects. This model, and
variants such as the UK’s Private Finance Initiative (PFI), have
been used in other parts of the world to deliver services and
assets including schools, hospitals, courts, prisons, roads and
railways.
In essence PPP is a contract for services. The key elements in

understanding the concepts behind PPP are:
• the private sector provides finance for public sector assets

• the public sector specifies and buys a defined service
• the private sector creates the asset and delivers that service
• the private sector receives payment for the service provided

This is attractive to the public sector (aside from the obvious
funding advantages) as it provides long-term certainty, an
integrated approach for the lifetime of the service, greater value
for money and savings, effective and efficient provision of new
facilities, innovative service delivery solutions, risk transfer to
the private sector and improved services.
The service delivery is likely to extend across a period of ten,

fifteen or twenty-five years, requiring co-operation, collaboration
and a long-term view of the project.
However, despite the positive promotion of PPP in the Middle

East, the PPP model has attracted criticism in countries where it
is well-established, including:
• High bid costs. A suggested solution is to restrict the bidder

lists to a maximum of three participants, to enable improved
management of bidders and decision-making.
• Affordability. Solutions might be an ‘affordability test’ before
a scheme comes to the market and production of a better-
developed brief and specification before the project is sent
out to tender.
• Time taken to reach financial close. Improving management,
training, experience and accountability of project teams can
help reduce delays.
31
project management four
• Lack of flexibility. The PPP model requires early, accurate

and realistic planning and analysis to enable long-term
commitment.
• Disproportionate risk allocation. The public sector might
consider taking on board and retaining those risks that the
private sector is unable to manage or adequately insure.

Nevertheless, the PPP model retains an ever increasing share
of the projects market and most projects are reported to be
performing satisfactorily or better than expected. It continues to
expand in use throughout the Middle East and further afield.
The PPP model is not a ‘one size fits all’ solution. As with
anything new and breaking with tradition, the parties must be
well-advised and fully briefed, with the right mindset and strong
partnerships in place.
Paul D Taylor, Head of Construction

Berrymans Legal Consultants, Dubai Office
Email: paultaylor@blm-uae.com
Tel: 00 9714 359 9939
32
Middle East Forms of Contract
Lebanon
Construction contracts in Lebanon are generally based upon
the FIDIC forms of contract. Some large scale developers in
Lebanon, as well as the Lebanese government, have promoted
the development and use of bespoke forms of contract, tailored
to each client. Such contracts generally use the FIDIC 4 form
as a basis, amended to a greater or lesser degree depending
upon the risk profile of each client.
To date, we are not aware of any projects where the ‘FIDIC

Construction Contract 1st Ed (1999)’ has been used in the
country.
In the public sector, all works are procured on a re-

measurement basis. The private sector, however, uses either
fixed price lump sum or re-measured contracts.
It is worth noting that there is no Standard Method of

Measurement of Building Works for Lebanon and the RICS
‘Principles of Measurement (International) for Works of
Construction’ (POMI) is widely used.
Design and Build contracts are not yet popular in Lebanon.
Qatar
In Qatar, there are a limited number of construction contracts
in common usage. The most common forms for building works
are those issued by the Public Works departments through
the Ministry of Municipal Affairs and Agriculture (MMAA) and
the Qatar Petroleum Company (QP). These are lump sum
contracts, generally using bills of quantities or specifications
and drawings. These contracts are onerous and slanted
towards the client, but are usually administered in a reasonable
manner.
In the private sector, similar contractual arrangements are

adopted. However, there are now some construction projects
being let using cost plus or design and build arrangements,
although these are usually for smaller scale fitting out or highly
specialist works.
Before any contract is awarded, there are commonly a number

of rounds of negotiation, during which the price and other
contractual terms can be modified to respond to a reduction in
contract price.
33
Bahrain
Government work in the Kingdom of Bahrain is completed
under an old JCT Standard Form of Contract, where the terms
and conditions have now been superseded by existing case
law. Currently the Bahrain government is in the process of
updating its contracts and specifications to reflect international
standards, incorporating the necessary amendments for the
local market.
Private developers predominantly use either a more updated

form of FIDIC or JCT standard forms, as both are well
understood by the local market.
Most of the work completed in the Kingdom of Bahrain is under

a traditional lump sum form of contract, where the design is
completed up front and a price agreed with a contractor before
a start is made on site. Some new developments are looking
at faster procurement routes with less cost certainty, but the
market is still adjusting to the revised procurement approaches.
Design and Build and two stage procurement are growing in

use across the Kingdom and, as more international private
developers work in Bahrain, with time as their main driver, the
market is likely to adjust to reflect this demand.
UAE
Construction contracts in the UAE are predominantly based
upon the FIDIC Forms of Contract. The growing number of
large scale developers and major repeat clients in the region
has led to the development of bespoke forms of contract,
tailored to each individual client. Such contracts generally use
the FIDIC 4 form as a basis, amended to a greater or lesser
degree depending upon the risk profile of each client. This also
applies to works procured by Dubai Municipality. Abu Dhabi
Municipality, however, bases its contract on a modified FIDIC 3
form.
Contracts based on the ‘FIDIC Construction Contract 1st Ed

(1999)’ are now starting to be used in the UAE, but in general
the market remains firmly rooted in the FIDIC 4 form.
Civil works contracts within the UAE are mostly procured on a

re-measurable basis, whereas building works will generally be
based on a fixed price lump sum.
34
However, there are exceptions: more and more clients are

procuring projects using a fast track approach and will therefore
incorporate a re-measurable element, reflecting those parts of
the design which are incomplete at tender stage.
Design and Build contracts are used on some major projects,

but this procurement route is not yet commonplace. The
increasing tendency for clients to demand a fast track approach
to projects does require a greater design input from the
contractor, but this requirement is not always formalised in the
contract wording itself.
35
Specifications
Specification-writing is often seen as an onerous duty, rather

than as a vital link in communications between designer, owner,
and contractor. Specifications are key contract documents, at
times deemed contractually more important than the drawings.
Specifications need to protect the design, protect the designer’s

interests and reduce exposure to claims and cost increases.
Specification production should start as early in the design

process as possible and be developed continuously, in parallel
with the drawings.
An early start improves co-ordination with other tender and

procurement documents produced by the project manager, cost
consultant and other consultants, thus avoiding contradiction.
The specification is a primary reference for pre-contract cost

planning and pre-construction cost estimates.
The specification will also be the main quality control and

compliance checking tool during the construction process, so it
is vital that it co-ordinates with the other documentation.
By developing specifications throughout the design, the

designer is more likely to achieve a clear and unambiguous
document.
Done properly, the specification:
• reflects and supports the design intent

• reflects the form of contract and procurement route
• clearly defines scope and quality
• allows drawings to be clear and concise
• confirms procedures and responsibilities
• establishes quality and performance benchmarks
• provides means for checking compliance
• reflects programme requirements
• reflects national and regulatory standards
• is co-ordinated with other contract documents

The specification document becomes even more important if
disputes arise, when the test for a good specification will be
whether it contains clear and unambiguous statements that
resolve the argument. The specification document for any
project should be kept close at hand throughout construction.
Davis Langdon provides specification consultancy services for

projects of all types and sizes around the world.
36
Integrated Project Management
Davis Langdon services at different stages of the project

cycle
1. Business Needs &

Project Inception
Business needs
Investment strategy
Project funding
Due diligence
Strategic brief
Whole life costing
Capital tax planning
Option appraisal
Sustainability planning
4. Commissioning &
Asset Management
DDA Compliance
Benchmarking
Project review
Legal & dispute resolution
Engineering services
Building management
Portfolio strategy
Re-location management
FM consulting
37
2. Project Strategy
& Development
Feasibility analysis
Project brief
Risk & Value management
Procurement strategy
Team building
Programming & Planning
Design Management
Specification writing
3. Project Control
& Delivery
Cost Management
Contract Management
Project control
Change control
Cost control
Engineering management
Project collaboration
Supply chain management
Health & Safety
38
Integrated project management is based on four distinctive

phases in the project life cycle:
1. Business Needs & Project Inception

In the early stages of a project, Davis Langdon creates the
conditions for success by defining a set of value drivers
based on an understanding of all stakeholder interests and
requirements.
We consider needs, identify risk and can assist with business

planning. Where appropriate, we assist with the production of
feasibility and cost estimates, the development of master plans,
option appraisals, overseeing of site acquisitions, management
of planning consents and advice on funding strategies.
We work with clients to manage the appointment of suitable

consultants, including the agreement of services and fees.
2. Project Strategy & Development

At the early development stage we compile strategic and
design briefs and produce an overall project execution plan. We
oversee the production of costs to agree budgets and provide a
detailed master programme for project delivery.
We recommend the most appropriate procurement strategy and

manage the selection of the best value construction team.
We provide a single point of contact for the client when dealing

with third parties, contractors and suppliers.
3. Project Control & Delivery

Prior to commencing, we make sure that a commercially viable
solution has been agreed, that all contracts are administered in
the correct form and that necessary management procedures
are in place. We set up systems and processes to enable
the sharing of information, management of change and
identification of potential risks to successful project delivery.
We monitor quality, time and cost and provide leadership to the

team, resolving issues, liaising with third parties, and reporting
on progress as agreed with the client. We place considerable
emphasis on Health and Safety and check that appropriate
procedures are followed throughout.
39
4. Commissioning & Asset Management

In the final stages of the project, we oversee commissioning,
agree completion, settle final accounts and enable the smooth
transition of the asset through to ongoing management.
Post-handover, we instigate project reviews and feed lessons

learned to the client for future improvement and development.
Creating The Conditions for Success: DLivering Success

DLivering Success is a unique service from Davis Langdon
that assesses projects against twelve success factors. It
enables the team to put in place the necessary conditions to
meet clients’ expectations and deliver successful projects. The
process brings together the accumulated expertise within Davis
Langdon’s multidisciplinary consultancy, obtained on a wide
range of complex and challenging projects.
Benefits
• Puts projects and teams on the right footing from the outset
• Accurately diagnoses the state of health of a project
• Identifies focused, project-specific activities to treat
shortcomings
• Imparts clarity, realism and commitment throughout the team
• Enhances understanding of project imperatives by the whole
team
• Provides a sound basis for ongoing project management

With the team, we explore the complex issues which can affect
construction projects. Each project is reviewed as a whole to
provide the team with a clear steer on the relative strengths and
weaknesses of the project, illustrated in a “Traffic Light” model:
Red: Stop and Fix

Amber: Proceed with Caution
Green: Go

Never jump a Red.
The output of a DLivering Success review is a structured action

plan, building on project strengths and rectifying weaknesses
DLivering Success should be applied at all major stages of any

project. The extent of reviews varies with project complexity and
size.
40
Value and Risk Management
Value Management
The main purpose of Value Management is to maximise the
benefits to the client undertaking a project. It also provides a
basis for more effective project delivery.
Benefits
An effective value management process helps people to work
well together and delivers the following direct benefits.
• Early clarification of business needs and what drives value

• Unambiguous articulation of the project objectives to the
delivery team
• Relating the value drivers to design requirements
• Reducing waste and unnecessary cost
• Maximising value for money
• … thus delivering more of the right thing for less
Key Steps
In the first instance the project team should identify what is
necessary to achieve a project which meets the stakeholders’
needs (Function Analysis).
This diagnosis provides the basis for putting in place actions

to maximise value and reduce risk. The foregoing analysis is
then linked to the design proposals, allowing the most cost/time
effective ways to deliver the solutions to be explored.
Central to an effective system is the premise that value

management focuses on maximising value as well as
minimising cost.
Value Risk
Success
People
Consideration should be given to all aspects of the project: the

time required for delivery, health, safety and environmental
issues, whole life costs and user requirements, as well as other
value drivers.
41
Timing is critical for any value management study. It should

be noted that 80% of the value in any project is fixed once the
concept has been frozen. Value management is, therefore,
most effective in the early stages of a project’s life but it is,
nevertheless, an important tool throughout the project.
A suite of services is available to address the project evolution

from concept to end use. The focus of a value management
study will vary depending on the stage of the project at which
the study is performed.
At all stages the emphasis should be on ‘what things do’ to

contribute to the project objectives (the functional approach)
rather than ‘what they are’ (the elemental approach). This is
because ‘what things do’ for a project creates the value.
In a major project, there are five key stages when formal value
management studies may be undertaken, as detailed below.
Type Project Stage Issue addressed

V0 Inception Stage To validate the need
V1 Concept Stage To define the optimum project
V2 Feasibility Stage To select the best options
V3 Outline Design Stage To maximise cost effectiveness
V4 Detailed Design Stage To minimise costs and maximise

constructability
There are also further opportunities to add value throughout the

supply chain (which controls 80% of the costs of construction).
42
Risk Management
Project Risk Management is concerned with improving client
confidence in the delivery of the expected business benefits. A
generic approach to risk management is shown below.
The main emphasis of risk management should be on putting

in place activities to manage risk. It may also indicate the
amounts of time and money that should be allowed as
contingencies for things that might go wrong.
Benefits
A tailored risk management process will deliver the following
direct benefits:
• Raise understanding of what matters on the project

• Identify the uncertainties and risks
• Allocate mitigating actions according to agreed strategies
• Relate quantified risks to Risk Allowances and Contingencies
• Regularly review progress towards reducing risk and
uncertainty
• …thus avoiding destruction of value and minimising
uncertainty in delivering what you need
Key Steps
3.
1. 2. Analysis 4. 5.
Preparation Identification qualitative Management Review
or quantitative
Main Method of Delivery

Davis Davis
Meeting/
Langdon Langdon Workshop/
Consultation/ Workshop/
Director/ Workshop Risk Individual
Workshop email
Client Manager Work
update
Meeting Evaluation
A Risk Study commonly comprises five phases, as follows:
1. Preparation
Gather all relevant background information from the project
team in order to fully understand the project and tailor the risk
management service to suit the project requirements.
2. Identification.
Identify all specific risks which could impact on the project.
Describe each risk and its consequences in a risk register.
43
3. Analysis
Undertake a qualitative/quantitative assessment of each
risk identified in the previous phase. Assign a likelihood and
impact rating and record it within the risk register; rank risks
accordingly in order to prioritise management actions.
4. Management
Specify planned management actions to manage the
risks. Nominate action owners for all risks requiring active
management. The risk register then forms the active tool by
which risks are managed throughout the life of the project.
Prepare a risk management report summarising all work
undertaken. Advise on a risk management plan for the duration
of the project.
5. Review
Undertake periodic review of the risk management plan
(incorporating the risk register) to monitor risks and encourage
management actions in order to reduce risk rating values.
Risk management should be applied throughout the project

cycle ie. from inception through to use. The most effective
risk management systems identify and manage risks from the
earliest project stages in order to minimise risk exposure.
44
Planning & Programming
The Davis Langdon Planning & Programming Team is a

multi-functional group of experts, dedicated to the primary
management requirement of planning and programming,
through their industry experience, analytical and presentational
skills, and knowledge of construction logic. The service is
supported by an array of leading software packages.
Each client is offered a customised package of planning

services to maximise the means of directing, controlling and
monitoring their projects using time related management tools.
Benefits
Professional Planning and Programming
• Reduces uncertainty in project completion deadlines

• Avoids costly time overruns
• Provides expert advice that designers and clients understand
• Gives high quality clear outputs that make a real contribution
to project success
• Enables corrective action advice to mitigate programme
slippages and variations
Key Steps
Our Planning and Programming team can provide the Project
Manager with a route map to success, assist navigation and act
as an instrument panel to monitor progress.
Our services include pre-construction advice for the Design

and Procurement team as well as technical post–construction
advice with the contractor.
The key steps in our service include:
• Validating and advising on existing programmes and methods

including monitoring and updating if required.
• Gathering project information through consultation with
contributors, examination and measuring drawings and
method statements and visiting the site.
• Analysing the data to develop a comprehensive programme
including pre and post-construction activities
• Advising on method and programme options
• Analysing and reporting progress thereon
• Advising on programme changes to maintain project progress
45
Procurement Routes
Most clients and construction professionals can name at least

one project that was over budget, time or did not deliver the
required quality levels expected. All clients rightly expect
buildings to be on time and budget with an agreed level of
quality, with the risk correctly managed by their professional
and contracting team. But ask yourselves this…what other
multi million or in terms of the Middle East, multi billion dollar
business, goes from having no staff, no premises, no design
and no prototype; to the final production and delivery of a
unique product as quickly as the construction industry? This is
why the right procurement process, systems and approach are
so imperative.
To use an analogy, a new model of car at $50,000, has

enormous planning, refinement and design occurring very
early in the development process, the cost of which is way in
excess of the cost of the delivery of the individual car. In the
construction industry, we don’t have the luxury of rolling out
thousands of the same product, which is why it is important
that we all learn from the successful delivery of what are
known in the industry as the ‘best buildings’ and ask why they
were successful. In doing this, we can come to understand
which procurement methods should be followed, and why it is
important to consider the structure and process for delivery from
the start.
Davis Langdon has developed strategies for the delivery of

buildings that we know work, as demonstrated by the hundreds
of successful projects we have delivered. Developers who
build regularly in the Middle East have a real opportunity to
learn from this knowledge, gained from our experience in
developed cities around the world, maximising their time, cost
and quality mix whilst adhering to a process that increases
the likelihood of building success. Our strategy is known as
DLivering Success, (see page 40). Studies conducted with our
key clients who regularly undertake development work, have
shown that buildings can be delivered for 10-15% less cost
when procured correctly. Buildings are more likely to be on time
when procured correctly. Buildings are more likely to meet our
clients’ expectations when procured correctly. So what is the
right procurement approach for your building? Which strategy,
approach, team behaviours, attitudes, communication channels,
budget and programme delivers the best approach and how can
we best combine these to lead our clients to ultimate success?
46
Davis Langdon offers invaluable early advice to help

determine the right procurement approach, adding the most
value throughout the building process. It is this considered
understanding of our clients’ time, cost and quality requirements
that maximises the value we can offer. Listed below are some
of the procurement strategies that are followed in the industry,
but the real challenge is mixing the right approach for an
individual client’s needs:
• traditional lump sum: design by the client’s consultants

is completed before contractors tender for, and then carry
out, the construction. The contractor commits to a lump
sum price and a completion date prior to appointment.
The contractor assumes responsibility for the financial and
programme risks for the carrying out of the building works
whilst the client takes responsibility and accepts the risk for
the quality of the design and the design team performance.
• design and build: detailed design and construction are

both undertaken by a single contractor in return for a lump
sum price. Where a concept design is prepared by a design
team employed direct by the client before the contractor is
appointed (as is normally the case), the strategy is called
develop and construct. The contractor commits to a lump
sum price, for completion of the design and the construction,
and to a completion date, prior to his appointment. The
contractor can either use the client’s design team to complete
the design or use his own team.
• management contract: design by the client’s consultants

generally overlaps with the construction. A management
contractor is appointed early to let elements of work
progressively by trade or package contracts. The
contracts are between the management contractor and
the trade contractors, rather than between the client and
sub-contractors (as under the construction management
arrangement). The management contractor in theory
assumes responsibility and financial (and programme) risk
for the works, but in reality this is diluted by the terms of the
standard form of contract, so his liability is similar to that of a
construction manager.
• design, manage and construct: similar to the management

contract, with the contractor also being responsible either
for the production of the detailed design or for managing the
detailed design process.
47
Partnering
Take your Partners

With the market at present led by contractors and consultants,
clients are currently examining new approaches to procurement
in order to ensure that quality contractors and consultants are
attracted to their projects.
There is a commonly held belief that substantial improvements

can be achieved in the procurement of construction projects
through the early integration of the whole construction and
design team into the procurement process. The aim of such
integration is to create certainty, minimise disputes, improve
efficiency, eliminate waste and maximise the best performance
of all project team members.
However there is another commonly held belief that to bring

about such changes would require a considerable shift away
from the deeply embedded blame culture prevalent in the
construction industry. How can this be achieved? Project
partnering may be the key.
Project Partnering has developed as a set of collaborative

management techniques necessary to bring about just such a
cultural change. It is a new system for achieving the successful
planning, design and construction of any project. On a
practical level project partnering provides clear, robust and fully
integrated techniques for bringing together and holding together
the project team (which includes the client, the contractor,
sub-contractors and all consultants with design input). These
techniques allow each team member to understand what
others have agreed to do and when they will do it, providing
a fundamental means of sustaining improved performances
throughout the duration of the project and achieving a higher
standard of results on completion.
However it is important that project partnering is distinguished

from strategic alliancing. The latter is the grouping of a
number of projects in order to obtain the benefit of long-term
relationships, whilst project partnering concerns the delivery
of a single project. However the same partnering team and
processes can be applied on several different projects.
The key to a successful partnered project is communication. By

getting all the team members talking to each other to a greater
degree and at a much earlier stage, not only are many of the
usual pitfalls avoided but numerous advantages are gained.
48
Firstly the integrated approach encourages maximum input into

design development from the contractor and sub-contractors,
thereby allowing a greater degree of value engineering to take
place early on before designs are finalised. Remember also that
the client is a member of the team, and will have much greater
influence over the early stages of the project and therefore is
less likely to issue changes and variations later on. Secondly it
allows implementation of a much more sophisticated approach
to risk management. By working together the whole project
team can identify each relevant risk and put forward proposals
for risk elimination, reduction, sharing or apportionment as
appropriate. In addition, carrying out this process prior to start
on site will help to avoid disputes and claims at a later date.
Partnering also encourages communication to continue after

commencement of the project through the use of a ‘core group’.
This consists of individuals from each of the team members
who meet regularly to review and stimulate the progress of the
project and consider and implement proposals for improved
value management.
In keeping with the principle of effective communication,

partnering introduces the concept of early warning. As soon
as any team member becomes aware of an actual or potential
issue that may affect the smooth running of the project they are
under a duty to inform the core group, who will then meet to
discuss and agree upon the best way in which the issue can be
managed in order to minimise its effect.
Of course, effective communication is not only useful for

managing risk and avoiding potential problems, but can also
be useful in motivating the team members. Project partnering
recognises this and therefore provides mechanisms by which
the parties can benefit from performance incentives. These are
shared between the parties, encouraging collaborative working,
with the parties actively seeking best value.
There are several forms of contract which allow for project

partnering, such as NEC3, but the only contract form which
really embraces the ethos of partnering is PPC International.
This is currently being used on several major contracts in Dubai
and a UK version, PPC2000, has been used on over £20 billion
worth of projects. The results are quite stunning with none of
these projects resulting in adjudication or arbitration.
49
So although it will take a real commitment from the construction

industry to change its mindset with regard to the way projects
are procured and managed, the potential benefits outlined
above justify the time and effort involved in taking that
commitment. With greater client influence, greater contractor
input, better results for consultants, projects completed on time
and to a higher standard, fewer disputes and the potential to
establish mutually beneficial long term relationships, it must be
worth a try?
Nigel Truscott
Partner
Trowers & Hamlins
ntruscott@trowers.com
+971 4 351 9201
50
Chapter Five
Property Investment
Due Diligence
Funders’ Technical Advisor
Insurance Reinstatement Valuation
Building Area Definitions
Building Services Standards
Sustainable Development
five property investment
Due Diligence
Due diligence prior to a property purchase must be an

integrated process that recognises that the component parts
(the price of the asset and the holding and recurrent cost of the
property) impact upon each other.
Each part cannot be treated in isolation:
Valuation
• right price of acquisition
• future capital expenditure provided for
• certainty of market and revenue streams
• demographics
Physical
• condition, performance and maintenance of building fabric
and services
• regulatory and essential service compliance
• environmental issues
• lettable areas title, easements and encroachments
• town planning
Legal
• lease conditions
• contracts of sale
• development agreements
• agreements to lease
Other
• maintenance
• capital expenditure
• outgoings
• insurance
• depreciation
• asset registers
Accordingly, a due diligence audit, to be useful to any

prospective owner/investor, must identify all the issues
surrounding the inherent physical condition of the property as
they relate to and/or impact upon future capital expenditure,
valuation, the lease or leases and the commercial legal
documentation.
51
property investment five
Usually the technical due diligence report includes a review of

all matters affecting and impacting upon building compliance,
fabric, façade, structure, finishes and services as well as the
environment together with land, title and photographic surveys.
Other items such as assessment of current green performance,
tax depreciation schedules, town planning and geological
surveys may be included depending on the location of and the
type of property; and the ownership strategy.
52
Funders’ Technical Advisor
Davis Langdon is frequently called upon by bankers and project

investors to act as Funders’ Technical Advisors, providing
Technical Due Diligence services:
Project Audit
Prior to taking the decision to finance or invest in a
project, those considering such decisions might wish to seek
expert opinion on the technical feasibility of the project and the
technical capability of the project promoters, contractors and
professional team.
Matters covered may include project management structure,

construction budget, professional fees, quality of design team,
procurement strategy, adequacy of construction documentation,
review of the construction contractor, bonding arrangements,
permitting, development timescale.
During the construction of the project, funders might be at

risk until the asset is completed and handed over or otherwise
disposed of, and might mitigate such risk by seeking experts to
monitor the project during construction and certify on a regular
basis compliance with time, cost and quality criteria.
Upon completion of a project, funders will wish to be assured

that all of the project close-out matters have been properly dealt
with, including defects, completion certification, guarantees, as
built documentation, operations and maintenance manuals and
occupancy permits.
Project Recovery
Sometimes projects go wrong financially and/or technically
due to mismanagement, market forces, or a combination of
both. In such circumstances, funders are left with the difficult
and sometimes extremely complex decision of whether to
withdraw their support for the project promoter/contractor, or
whether to take over the management and continue supporting
the project through to completion. As far as the funders are
concerned, such decisions will generally (but not always)
be dependent upon economic considerations: in short, the
cheapest exit route. Frequently, such considerations will be
complex and involve numerous technical issues, requiring
expert advice.
53
Insurance Reinstatement Cost Valuation
Davis Langdon is frequently called upon by building owners

or their advisors to undertake Insurance Reinstatement Cost
valuation services to enable them to confidently minimise their
risk and protect their property assets by insurance protection.
Construction costs for all types of property have been steadily

increasing over the last decade.
It is therefore essential that building owners not only protect

their property portfolios by taking out appropriate insurance
cover with a reputable insurer, but also regularly obtain an
assessment confirming that they are covered for the full current
cost replacement value.
In order to properly assess and determine the reinstatement

value for a particular building, Davis Langdon will assess
current market tender price rates per square metre,
assuming full compliance with all current codes and statutory
requirements, plus allowances for the costs of demolition,
professional fees, contingencies, and escalation.
It is recommended that insurance reinstatement cost valuations

are undertaken every three to four years to allow for variations
in construction costs over that period.
54
Building Areas Definitions
The following guidelines are derived from the RICS ‘Code

of Measuring Practice: A Guide for Surveyors and Valuers,
5th Edition’ and the RICS ‘Standard Form of Cost Analysis,
Principles, Instructions and Definitions’.
Gross External Area (GEA)

Gross External Area is the area of building measured externally
at each floor level.
Includes:
• Perimeter wall thicknesses and external projections
• Areas occupied by internal walls and partitions
• Columns, piers, chimney breasts, stairwells, lift-wells, and
the like
• Atria with clear height above, measured at base level only
• Internal balconies
• Structural, raked or stepped floors are to be treated as a level
floor measured horizontally
• Horizontal floors, whether accessible or not, below structural,
raked or stepped floors
• Mezzanine areas intended for use with permanent access
• Lift rooms, plant rooms, fuel stores, tank rooms which
are housed in a covered structure of a permanent nature,
whether or not above main roof level
• Outbuildings which share at least one wall with the main
building
• Loading bays
• Areas with a headroom of less than 1.5m
• Pavement vaults
• Garages
• Conservatories
Excludes:
• External open-sided balconies, covered ways and fire
escapes
• Canopies
• Open vehicle parking areas, roof terraces, and the like
• Voids over or under structural, raked or stepped floors
• Greenhouses, garden stores, and the like in residential
property
55
Gross Internal Area (GIA)

Gross Internal Area is the area of a building measured to the
internal face of the perimeter walls at each floor level.
Includes:
• Areas occupied by internal walls and partitions
• Columns, piers, chimney breasts, stairwells, lift-wells, other
internal projections, vertical ducts, and the like
• Internal open-sided balconies and the like
• Structural, raked or stepped floors are to be treated as a level
floor measured
• Horizontal floors, with permanent access, below structural,
raked or stepped floors
• Corridors of a permanent essential nature (e.g. fire corridors,
smoke lobbies, etc.)
• Mezzanine areas intended for use with permanent access
• Lift rooms, plant rooms, fuel stores, tank rooms which
are housed in a covered structure of a permanent nature,
whether or not above main roof level
• Service accommodation such as toilets, toilet lobbies,
bathrooms, showers, changing rooms, cleaners’ rooms, and
the like
• Projection rooms
• Voids over stairwells and lift shafts on upper floors
• Loading bays
• Areas with a headroom of less than 1.5m
• Pavement vaults
• Garages
• Conservatories
Excludes:
• Perimeter wall thicknesses and external projections
• External open-sided balconies, covered ways and fire
escapes
• Canopies
• Voids over or under structural, raked or stepped floors
• Greenhouses, garden stores, fuel stores, and the like in
residential property
56
Gross Floor Area (GFA)

Gross Floor Area is the total of all enclosed spaces fulfilling the
functional requirements of the building measured to the internal
structural face of the enclosing walls.
Includes:
• Areas occupied by partitions, columns, chimney breasts,
internal structural or party walls, stairwells, lift-wells, and the
like
• Lift, plant, tank rooms and the like above main roof slab
Note:
• Sloping surfaces such as staircases, galleries, tiered terraces
and the like should be measured flat on plan.
Excludes:
• Any spaces fulfilling the functional requirements of the
building which are not enclosed spaces (e.g. open ground
floors, open covered ways and the like). These should each
be shown separately
• Private balconies and private verandahs which should be
shown separately
Net Internal Area (NIA)

Net Internal Area is the usable are within a building measured to
the internal face of the perimeter walls at each floor level.
Includes:
• Entrance halls
• Notional lift lobbies
• Kitchens
• Built-in units, cupboards, and the like occupying usable areas
• Ramps of lightweight construction to false floors
• Area occupied by ventilation/heating grilles
• Area occupied by skirting and perimeter trunking
• Areas severed by internal non-structural walls, demountable
partitions, whether or not permanent, and the like, where
the purpose of the division is partition of use, not support,
provided the area beyond is not used in common
• Pavement vaults
57
Net Internal Area (NIA)

Excludes:
• Those parts of entrance halls, atria, landings and balconies
used in common
• Toilets, toilet lobbies, bathrooms, cleaners’ rooms, and the
like
• Lift rooms, plant rooms, tank rooms (other than those of a
trade process nature), fuel stores, and the like
• Stairwells, lift-wells and permanent lift lobbies
• Corridors and other circulation areas where used in common
with other occupiers or of a permanent essential nature (e.g.
fire corridors, smoke lobbies, etc.)
• Areas under the control of service or other external
authorities including meter cupboards and statutory service
supply points
• Internal structural walls, walls enclosing excluded areas,
columns, piers, chimney breasts, other projections, vertical
ducts, and the like
• The space occupied by permanent and continuous air-
conditioning heating or cooling apparatus, and ducting in
so far as the space it occupies is rendered substantially
unusable
• Areas with headroom of less than 1.5m
• Areas rendered substantially unusable by virtue of having a
dimension between opposite faces of less than 0.25m
• Vehicle parking areas (the number and type of spaces noted)
Building Footprint
‘Building Footprint’ is not a term defined by the RICS, but is
generally understood to mean the area of the land upon which
the building sits (including all basements), measured to the
outside face of external walls.
58
59
Building Services Standards
five
BCO (UK) Bahrain Dubai Qater Lebanon

Subject
Specification Feb 05 Specification (†) Specification Specification Specification
Net : Gross Ratio (Typical) 80 - 85% 70 - 80% 80 - 85% 70 - 80% 80 - 85%
Occupancy Standards - Typical 1:12 - 1:14/m² 1:10 - 1:14/m² 1:10 - 1:12/m² 1:10 - 1:14/m² 1:12 - 1:14/m²
Occupancy Standards - Dealer 1:7/m² 1:7 - 1:12/m² 1:7/m² 1:7 - 1:12/m² 1:7/m²
Occupancy Standards - Toilets Single sex 1 person Single sex 1 person Single sex 1 person Single sex 1 person Single sex 1 person
(*) male/female ratio based on to 14m² using 60/60 to 12m² using 70/30 to 12m² using 70/30 to 12m² using 70/30 to 14m² using 60/60
120% population (*) (*) (*) (*) (*)
Form of Air Conditioning Fan Coil Units, Fan Coil Units, VAV, Fan Coil Units, VAV, Fan Coil Units, VAV, Fan Coil Units,
VAV, Displacement, VAV with Re-Heat, Downflow Units VAV with Re-Heat, VAV, Displacement,
Chilled Ceiling/Beam DX, Constant DX, Constant Chilled Ceiling/Beam
property investment
Volume Volume, plate heat

exchangers
Heating and Air Conditioning 220, +/- 20 22.20, +/- 10 220, +/- 20 220, +/- 20 220, +/- 20
Internal Criteria (degree
centigrade)
Fresh Air Supplies 12 - 16 litres (*) 10 litres (*) 12 - 16 litres (*) 12 - 16 litres (*) 12 - 16 litres (*)
(*) litres per second per person
Ventilation - WCs (Extract) None stated 12 (*) 3 - 10 (*) 10 (*) None stated
(*) air changes per hour
Subject
Internal Heat Gains - 12 w/m² 15 w/m² 12 - 15 w/m² 12 - 15 w/m² 12 w/m²
Lighting load
Internal Heat Gains - 12 w/m² 25 w/m² 15 w/m² 15 w/m² 12 w/m²
Equipment load (Typical)
Internal Heat Gains - None 60 - 215 w/m² 45 w/m² None None
Equipment load (Dealer)
Supplementary Cooling 25 w/m² None 25 w/m² to None 25 w/m²,
Allowance (e.o/% area) 25% area 25% area 25% area
Acoustics - Offices NR 35 - 38 NR 35 NR 30 - 35 NR 30 - 35 NR 35 - 38
Acoustics - Common Areas NR 40 - 45 NR 40 NR 40 - 45 NR 40 NR 40 - 45
Primary Power - Lighting 12 w/m² 15 w/m² 12 - 15 w/m² 12 - 15 w/m² 12 w/m²
Primary Power - Typical 15 - 25 w/m² 35 w/m² 30 - 45 w/m² 30 - 40 w/m² 15 - 25 w/m²
Primary Power - Dealer None 400, 800 or 1,500 800 or 1,600 None None
property investment
w/per desk w/person

Primary Power Upgrade 20 - 25 w/m², None 25 w/m² to None 20 - 25 w/m²,
(e.o power/% area) 20 - 25% area 25% area 20 - 25% area
60
five
61
Subject
five
Lighting - Office 300 - 500 lux, 400 - 500 lux 350 - 500 lux, 500 lux 300 - 500 lux,
uniformity ratio 0.8 uniformity ratio 0.8 uniformity ratio 0.8
Lighting - Stairs/Circulation 200 - 270 lux 250 lux
Lighting - WCs 215 lux 200 lux
Lighting - Plantrooms 215 lux 150 lux
Passenger Lifts - 80% loading with 80% loading with 80% loading with 80% loading with 80% loading with
Capacity and Waiting Times 30 second waiting 35 second waiting 30 second waiting 30 second waiting 30 second waiting
interval, handling interval, handling interval, handling interval, handling interval, handling
15% in 5 minutes. capacity of 11% to 15% in 5 minutes. 15% in 5 minutes. 15% in 5 minutes.
Population density 17% in 5 minutes. Population density Population density Population density
1:14 Population density 1:14 1:14 1:14
property investment
1:12
(†) We would like to acknowledge the contribution made by MSCEB, Manama, Bahrain.
Sustainable Development
The last few years have seen a rapid rise in the interest and
significance of sustainability not just as a concept but as a
genuine strategy in the built environment. However, despite all
the hype the number of people actually trying to make genuine
efforts to enhance the sustainability of our buildings is still very
small. This is perhaps due to the still limited understanding of
the true meaning and objective of sustainability.
Most people are aware of the three pillars of sustainability

(economic, environmental and social) but few people realise
that addressing these at the design stage involves more than
including a few “green” features. The use of green rating
tools is one common method of enhancing or proving one’s
“green credentials”, but these tools are generally little more
than a confirmation of good design practice. Having said this,
undertaking an assessment on a project is a good first step, and
the creation of the Emirates Green Building Council has been a
well received and positive first step. What’s more, over the past
12 months the first Platinum rated building in the UAE (one of
fewer than 20 around the world) has been completed which is
a testament to some local client’s commitment to a better built
environment.
It is vitally important to remember that sustainable design is

more than just adding a few renewable energy features to
your building (such as photovoltaic panels, wind turbines etc).
Sustainability is a whole design philosophy which starts at the
early conceptual design stage and is then carried on through
to the occupation and maintenance of the facility. This article
looks at each stage of the facility’s life and considers some of
the issues which need to be addressed if a truly sustainable
project is to be realised. Not all of these ideas and suggestions
are necessarily required in every project but together they serve
to enhance the end product.
First of all however, it is important to dispel a myth about

sustainable design. It does not have to cost more. Whilst it is
true to say that some sustainable features increase the capital
cost of a building, such features often have long term paybacks
far in excess of the initial impact. Some features enhance
the value of the building (in terms of marketability, reduced
management / maintenance costs) whilst others are simply
sensible strategies.
62
The life of a building can be broken into four stages: initially

there is the design stage, then construction, occupation, and
finally demolition. At this point design life of a building should
be considered. If we take a look at the buildings now being built
around the Middle East, how long will they really last? In terms
of old buildings there are currently precious few examples: the
pyramids in Egypt, Petra in Jordan and the odd isolated historic
building example within each regional country over 50 years
old. So the region has a very young building stock. This poses
some major problems: most significantly, no one really knows
how today’s buildings will perform in 50 years’ time, what will
have to be replaced and how often, the impact of the harsh
climatic conditions and so on. These questions are more and
more critical as our buildings become increasingly complex and
integrated, because there are many more things which can go
wrong.
The key issues to be considered when creating a sustainable

building are as follows.
In the design stage:
• Function – Very few designers and clients truly consider

how a building will be used by the final occupants and what
these occupants really want / need. The challenge therefore
is to understand clearly the building usage and plan the
design in such a way as to minimse the future modifications
and maintenance issues. One of the biggest contributors to
environmental impact during the life of a building is the waste
generated by ‘churn’ (the remodelling of the interior of the
building). Flexible design therefore stretches into the need
to have designated hubs for services connections as well as
limited solid (concrete / blockwork) partitions. Demountability
and flexibility are the key words and shell and core strategies
for rental offices for example are a good first step.
• Planning – Many buildings are planned to maximise initial
return or increase the sales value. These drivers are not
always the best long term solutions. As with function it is
important that the project brief is clearly defined at the outset,
allowing minimum modification later for future occupiers. The
objective is to meet the needs of the market rather than just
create saleable area. Studies have shown around the world
that potential tenants are prepared to pay more for the ideal
office space, compared with spaces which force them to
modify their business operations and efficiency.
63
• Specification – Always a difficult issue for clients, because

there is a need to balance the initial savings against the long
term benefits. The use of life cycle costing is one of the most
reliable tools which can be used to justify the extra capital cost
involved in selecting a higher value product at the start.
• Material Usage – The environmental impact of physical
material usage is often ignored. As a general rule, metals (in
particular aluminium) have a high environmental impact and
therefore their usage should be limited wherever possible.
However, the optimisation of material usage as a whole must
be the ultimate goal and this is achieved by allowing designers
the time to refine their design before construction commences.
• Building Services Design – Research in Asia into high rise
office buildings has found that in most cases air conditioning
installations end up being 25% over designed. This is not
necessarily a failing on the part of the designers, but can be
a failing in correctly determining the actual characteristics
of the building occupants. Close to 40% of a building’s
environmental footprint is related to energy consumption and
in practice this is controlled only by the occupants and not the
designers. The best strategy is therefore to try and limit the
interface between the occupiers and the systems, and allow
the Building Management System (BMS) to do the work.

In the construction stage, the key is not to generate waste/
abortive works.
• Variations – Things change for a number of reasons, but in

every case the change leads to delays, abortive materials
and waste. All of these have an impact on the sustainability
of the project. The solution is therefore to ensure that the
front end planning and design is completed thoroughly and in
adequate time. Changes will always happen, but they should
be mitigated.
• Standardisation – In high rise construction the opportunities
for standardisation, prefabrication and modular construction
always exist and should be explored. In Singapore, for
example, standardisation is a key component of the building
codes and is therefore a requirement; this reduces waste and
enhances speed. In Hong Kong 40 storey residential blocks
can be constructed using prefabricated façades and slabs with
a four day cycle per complete floor. The programme savings
alone pay for the slight cost premium involved, which can be
eliminated altogether if there are multiple repetitive towers.
64
• Skilled Workforce – The Middle East currently relies on vast

quantities of unskilled labour from around the world which,
has been acceptable in the past. As buildings get more
complex, however, the workers skill levels have to rise.

China is going through exactly the same cycle of realisation
with their migrant workers, with the result that more and more
international firms are bringing in skilled workers to carry out
the complex aspects of the project. The Middle East should
learn from this experience and ensure the quality of future
buildings by demanding better skilled workers.
• Defects – Historically clients have accepted a building being
completed with defects and then tolerating a team of workers
returning for many months patching, correcting and filling the
cracks. This is wasteful and expensive: having enough time
and the right workers allows a building to be built right first
time.

Occupation and Maintenance is a phase in the building’s life
almost totally overlooked by designers. Strategies for this stage
are more than simply developing a maintenance regime or
listing out a million spare parts to be provided. It is the concept
of understanding what is needed to keep the building looking as
good as it was on day one.
• Asset Value Retention – Clients who own assets know the

need for them to retain their value. Look around any city in
the Gulf and consider which older buildings have retained
their status as desirable locations/addresses, then see what
they all have in common. Generally the answer is they all are
well maintained, flexible, functional, and still look good. The
market value of a building can drop as quickly as a second
hand car if it is not looked after properly.
• Maintenance Regimes – Fixing things only when they
are broken is the sign of poor long term management.
Preventative maintenance strategies appear more costly
from the outside but are in fact more economical and
environmentally sustainable. If plant and equipment are kept
in optimum working order they are more efficient and hence
consume less energy. If materials are replaced at the correct
time the impact on other surrounding systems will be less
and repair bills wil be reduced.
65
• Energy Usage Profiling – One strategy many owners in

developed countries adopt is the post occupancy review.
This process examines more than just the satisfaction levels
of the occupants, it also critically examines the energy
consumption profiles and equipment efficiencies, as well
as how the building is really being used. Armed with this
information it is possible in future maintenance reviews to
make adjustments to the base building to optimise energy
usage as well as addressing these aspects of the building’s
performance which are below expectations.
• Asset Benchmarking – This is a powerful tool for
developers with large portfolios of similar building types.
The purpose is to compare how different buildings perform
against each other, and to identify strengths and weaknesses
with a view to progressing all buildings to the same
performance levels.

Demolition or end of life seems far ahread in the future, so
building owners are sceptical as to whether anything meaningful
can be planned in the present. However there are many initial
strategies which will aid this stage in a building’s life.
• Demountability – Whilst most buildings will be pulled down

and dispatched to the land fill, those buildings which are
planned well can be in part reused elsewhere. Modular units
can be extracted from a building and re-erected on a future
project. This strategy is particularly beneficial where the
building is to have a short life expectancy.
• Recycled Materials – Metals are a great example of
materials which can be recycled. Although currently there
are very few companies in the regional markets interested in
recycled materials, other parts of the world have active and
extensive recycling industries and therefore these can be
explored to limit the amount of waste going to local landfill.

All the above strategies are linked directly back to sustainable
construction and design, and clearly show that sustainability is a
long term philosophy rather than a quick win. In practice none
of the above approaches limits the freedom of designers to
design award winning buildings or developers to maximise their
returns. They all enhance the quality of the built environment
and make today’s buildings a sustainable asset for future
generations.
66
Chapter Six
Building Control
Building Regulations and Compliance
six building control
Building Regulations and Compliance
Lebanon
Obtaining a building permit in Lebanon requires various
procedures and approvals from Local Municipality, Real Estate
Registry, Urban Planning (Development) Department and Order
of Engineers. The time needed to obtain these approvals is
typically six to twelve months.
In general, the procedures and documents required for

obtaining a building permit are the same throughout Lebanon,
except for the cities of Beirut and Tripoli, where the Urban
Development Department is located within the individual
Municipality.The following is a general outline of the steps
needed to obtain a building permit:
Phase 1:
Obtaining ‘Ifadat Takhteet and Tasneef’ which requires the
following documents:
1. Real Estate Registry from the Real Estate Department in
each Mohafaza.
2. Topographic map from the Topographic Department.
3. ‘Takhteet and Irtifak’ from the Municipality.
4. Submit the file including the above documents to the Urban
Development Department in order to obtain ‘Ifadat Takhteet
and Tasneef’.
Phase 2:
Appoint a registered civil engineer or an architect in the Order of
Engineers and Architects to finish the permit file. The engineer
must submit the following documents:
1. Contract Agreement between the owner and the appointed
engineer.
2. Four copies of preliminary design drawings
3. A written undertaking from the appointed engineer to submit
the execution drawings.
4. Contract of other engineers involved in the project.
Phase 3:
Submit the building permit file to the Order of Engineers and
Architects for their approval.
1. The appointed engineer should also submit an application for
power connection to ‘Electricité du Liban’ (EDL).
67
building control six
Phase 4:
Study of building permit file.
1. Submit the construction file to the Urban Development
Department. The Urban Development Department will inspect
the property and plans to ensure that they conform to the
construction laws and regulations, and then issue its clearance
for the issuance of the construction permit.
2. The Municipality calculates the construction permit taxes
depending on the area of the building and the region in which
this building is located.
3. Pay the building permit taxes to the Municipality.
Qatar
Compared with many countries the planning and building

approval process in Qatar is relatively clear and structured.
Land ownership, other than by Qatari nationals and the state, is

still extremely limited. The key process in securing development
rights is obtaining land title or a ‘pin’ number; since without such
land ‘pin’ number all other permits and applications cannot be
commenced. Once the land is secured the project masterplan
is submitted for approval to the Planning Department and local
Municipality offices.
In parallel, general overviews and strategies for the utilities
and primary infrastructure are submitted to the relevant utility
companies for comment. During this process each department
generally issues a series of reference numbers which are
then used as the file number for all future submissions. The
culmination of this initial round of submissions is the commonly
referred to ‘DC1’ approval.
As the design develops, a second round of submissions is made

to the same utility departments for final approval. In addition
submission is made to the Civil Defence department who review
the fire and life safety aspects of the project. Depending upon
the scale and nature of the project, separate traffic studies may
be required and these would be submitted to the Road Affairs
Department for approval. The culmination of this stage of
submissions is the ‘DC2’ approval. The final submission is the
‘Building Permit’ which follows directly from the DC2 approval.
During the whole of this process, it is generally not advisable to

revise or modify any submission otherwise the approval process
may be delayed.
68
six building control
In addition, all submissions have to be either in Arabic or

bi-lingual and should be endorsed by locally registered and
approved design companies. International companies cannot
make these submissions by themselves. As a general guide the
whole process usually takes at least 80 days, depending upon
the quality of the submission. There are some parts of Qatar
which are exempt from the Building Permit approval process, but
these are generally related to the oil and gas production facilities.
Bahrain
Procuring the Municipal Building Permit in Bahrain comprises a
three stage process:
Stage 1 Seeking the Preliminary Building Permit:

This is a preliminary overall permission and is generally sought
from the Municipality of Bahrain. Simple outline plans, cross-
sections to indicate overall important heights and an area
statement is generally sufficient. The main Authorities involved at
this stage are The Municipality, Physical Planning Directorate and
Roads Directorate.
Stage 2 Informing the various Directorates:

This is in writing to the Roads Directorate, Civil Defence & Fire
Services Department, Electricity Directorate Department, GPSD
(Ministry of Electricity Water), Electricity Department (Damage
Protection & Control Unit), SDD, Water Distribution Directorate,
Batelco. At this stage the Title Deeds are required. All relevant
information and documentation is given to each of the above
directorates, until the Final Building Permit is in hand.
Stage 3 Obtaining the Final Municipal Building Permit:

Third and last stage in the process of seeking the Permit is the
procurement of the Final Municipal Building Permit. Again this
process is done in specific sequence of each of the Directorates
in turn, this sequence must be followed. All documents and
drawings and Municipality forms to be filled in and submitted
together with appropriate fees for certain Directorates.
The Municipality also charges for the following:-

1. Site Sign Board
2. Insurance for Site Sign Board
3. Insurance for Construction Contract (Refundable)
4. Fee for Occupying Road.
If the Environmental Affairs Department are involved in the

process, they too have a reviewing fee.
69
building control six
UAE
The following is a general outline of the procedure, but there
are many further obligations and procedures to be completed
within each of the stages. For example, the Building Permit
Application Stage 4 requires no less than 15 different forms,
documents and separate approvals to be submitted as part of
the application.
It is the responsibility of the construction contractor to obtain

the Building Permit. All applications must be signed by locally
registered consultants.
Stage 1 Preliminary Application (employer pays deposit to

DM)
Stage 2 N.O.C.s (No Objection Certificates) from various
departments of Dubai Municipality: Drainage,
Communications (Etisalat), Water and Electricity
(DEWA)
Stage 3 Obtaining Survey Datum Level/Gate Levels and
Approval from the Roads Department (may require
traffic impact study)
Note: Preliminary Approval, N.O.C.s and Survey
Levels can be obtained simultaneously.
Stage 4 Building Permit Application (employer’s deposit is
refunded; contractor takes over responsibility and
pays new deposit)
Stage 5 Contractor collects Building Permit and applies for
demarcation certificate
Stage 6 Application for Revision to Building Permit (if relevant)
Upon completion of building works, it is the responsibility of

the construction contractor to obtain the Occupancy Permit,
and this is achieved by having the Building Permit signed off,
effectively closing it out.
In order to obtain this closure, it is necessary for the contractor

to obtain certificates/signatures from various government and
quasi-government departments (as applicable), including civil
defence, food and hygiene, C.I.D. etc., prior to re-presenting to
DM for final approval. After approval is gained, an application
can be made to DEWA for utilities connections.
70
Chapter Seven
Weights & Measures

Weights and Measures
seven weights and measures
Metric Measures and Equivalents
Length
1 millimetre (mm) = 0.0394 in
1 centimetre (cm) = 10 mm = 0.3937 in
1 metre (m) = 100 cm = 1.0936 yd
1 kilometre (km) = 1000 m = 0.6214 mile
Area
1 sq cm (cm2) = 100 mm2 = 0.1550 in2
1 sq metre (m2) = 10 000 cm2 = 1.1960 yd2
1 hectare (ha) = 10 000 m2 = 2.4711 acres
1 sq km (km2) = 100 ha = 0.3861 mile2
Capacity/Volume
1 cu cm (cm3) = 0.0610 in3
1 cu decimetre (dm3) = 1000 cm3 = 0.0353 ft3
1 cu metre (m3) = 1000 dm3 = 1.3080 yd3
1 litre (litre) = 1 dm3 = 1.76 pt
1 hectolitre (hl) = 100 litre = 21.997 gal
Mass (Weight)
1 milligram (mg) = 0.0154 grain
1 gram (g) = 1000 mg = 0.0353 oz
1 kilogram (kg) = 1000 g = 2.2046 lb
1 tonne (t) = 1000 kg = 0.9842 ton
USA Measures and Equivalents
USA Dry Measure Equivalents

1 pint = 0.9689 UK pint = 0.5506 litre
USA Liquid Measure Equivalents

1 fluid ounce = 1.0408 UK fl oz = 29.574 ml
1 pint (16 fl oz) = 0.8327 UK pt = 0.4723 litre
1 gallon = 0.8327 UK gal = 3.7854 litre
71
weights and measures seven
Imperial Measures and Equivalents
Length
1 inch (in) = 2.54 cm
1 foot (ft) = 12 in = 0.3048 m
1 yard (yd) = 3 ft = 0.9144 m
1 mile = 1760 yd = 1.6093 km
1 int. nautical mile = 2025.4 yd = 1.853 km
Area
1 sq inch (in2) = 6.4516 cm2
1 sq foot (ft2) = 144 in2 = 0.0929 m2
1 sq yard (yd2) = 9 ft2 = 0.8361 m2
1 acre = 4840 yd2 = 4046.9 m2
1 sq mile (mile2) = 640 acres = 2.59 km2
Capacity/Volume
1 cu inch (in3) = 16.387 cm3
1 cu foot (ft3) = 1728 in3 = 0.0283 m3
1 fluid ounce (fl oz) = 28.413 ml
1 pint (pt) = 20 fl oz = 0.5683 litre
1 gallon (gal) = 8 pt = 4.5461 litre
Mass (Weight)
1 ounce (oz) = 437.5 grains = 28.35 g
1 pound (lb) = 16 oz = 0.4536 kg
1 stone = 14 lb = 6.3503 kg
1 hundredweight (cwt) = 112 lb = 50.802 kg
1 ton = 20 cwt = 1.016 t
Temperature Conversion
C = 5/9 (F – 32) F = (9/5 C) + 32
72
Chapter Eight
Some Interesting Facts

The ‘Arabic’ Numerical System
Measurement
Timekeeping
Money
Astronomy
The Pyramids of Giza
eight some interesting facts
The ‘Arabic’ Numerical System
This is the name given in English to the ‘positional base 10’

system that is now widespread throughout the world. Today the
system seems intuitively easy – children learn counting before
they know how to read – but its development took thousands
of years and was perhaps the most important advancement
in the history of mathematics. The beauty of this system lies
in the fact that infinite quantities can be represented with only
ten distinct symbols, thanks to the ‘place-value’ system, where
the lowest-value numbers are arranged to the right and higher
values added to the left.
Origins
There are very few surviving examples of the ‘Arabic’ system’s
early use, and a great deal of controversy over its origins. The
symbols (glyphs) used to represent the numbers – in European
script these are 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9 and 0 – are independent
of the system itself. Because Chinese also has a positional
base-10 system, the Arabic system is sometimes speculated
to have been conceived in China and carried to India in 400-
700 CE by Buddhist pilgrims. Other researchers believe it
was developed in India between the 2nd century BCE and the
6th century CE. Either way, there is no doubt the system was
present in India before reaching the Arabic-speaking world: the
numerals used in Arabic are called arqam hindiyyah
( ), which means ‘Indian numbers’.
In 628 CE, Brahmagupta, an Indian mathematician and

astronomer, wrote the Siddhanta, an astronomical textbook
outlining the concept of a base-10 numerical system with nine
characters, and introducing the concept of zero (represented as
a dot). Knowledge of the system had reached the Arab world
by as early as 670 CE, although for some time it was used only
by mathematicians. Muslim scientists preferred the Babylonian
(base-60) system, and merchants used a system similar to
that of the Greeks. Methods of calculating with the new system
were not fully understood until the great Arab mathematician
Abu Ja’far Muhammad ibn Musa al-Khwarizmi 1 wrote a treatise
entitled On the Calculation with Hindu Numerals, c. 825, after
studying the Siddhanta. At about the same time, Abu-Yusuf
Ya’qub ibn Ishaq al-Kindi, a contemporary of al-Khwarizmi,
wrote four volumes On the Use of the Indian Numerals (Ketab fi
Isti’mal al-’Adad al-Hindi).
73
some interesting facts eight
For several centuries there was much controversy over the

merits of the new system. A change would mean learning a new
principle for writing numbers, as well as becoming familiar with
strange new symbols. Eventually, rapid advances in astronomy
and other sciences necessitated the writing of larger and
more complicated numbers for which the abacus, along with
the Roman numerals in the West and the Greek numerals in
the Arab world, simply became too cumbersome to maintain.
In 1202 Fibonacci, an Italian mathematician, outlined Arab
arithmetic and algebra to Europe in his book the Liber Abaci
(The Book of the Abacus). The numerals became known in the
West as ‘Arabic’.
The Development of ‘Place-Value’ and ‘Zero’

The most important feature of the Arabic number system is its
use of ‘place-value’ notation which, according to some theories,
necessitated the notation of zero. The decimal
place-value system derives from an early
method of calculating where small ditches
were formed in the sand and pebbles placed
inside. The pebbles were then moved around
as the calculation progressed. This was a
form of abacus technology, whose prototypes
were invented in China about 2,500 years ago. Starting from
the right, each pebble in the first ditch counted as a ‘1’, up
to a maximum of 9 pebbles. The addition of one more unit
was represented, as ‘10’, with a single pebble in the second
ditch and no pebbles in the first. Similarly, the maximum to be
represented in the second ditch was ‘90’, and ‘100’ was a single
pebble in the third ditch.
1
(previous page) The word ‘algorism’, defined as ’comprising all of the
rules of performing arithmetic computations using a decimal system
for representing numbers,’ is a derivation of ‘al-Khwarizmi’, who is also
credited with founding algebra and thus being responsible for an entirely
new way of thinking about numbers – as abstract quantities.
74
When writing this down, the empty ditches had to be

represented in some way. They could not be omitted, because
otherwise the value of the number sequence would change
dramatically: there would be no way of differentiating between
11, 101 and 110. Nine separate symbols were needed to
represent from one to nine pebbles, and a tenth symbol to
represent an empty ditch, or ‘zero’. However, ‘zero’ was a very
difficult concept for people to understand, because of its dual
function as both an empty place indicator and a number in its
own right. There is little that is intuitive about a symbol that
stands for nothing yet can multiply the value of another number
by ten.
The Siddhanta is the earliest known text to treat zero as a

number in its own right, although there were Indian precursors
from about 500 CE that outlined positional notations without
a zero, or with the word ‘kha’ indicating the absence of a
digit. The word zero itself derives from the Arabic ‘sifr’ ( )
meaning empty or vacant. This in turn was a literal translation
of the Sanskrit ‘śūnya’. Through transliteration, ‘sifr’ became
‘zephyr’ in Latin, from which evolved the words ‘chiffre’ and
‘cypher’.
The development of ‘Arabic’ numerals in Arabic and

Western script
Numbers in Arabic and Western script
There are several theories about the connection between the

glyphs used in Western script and those used in Arabic, but
most popular is the idea that both sets of figures evolved from
ideograms apparently created by Al-Khwarizmi. He is said
to have defined the numbers 1, 2, 3 and 4 based on additive
angles:
Additive angles for first 4 digits
75
After ‘4’, the next numbers were based on his knowledge of

abacus manuscript notation. ‘5’ was written as ‘O’ to represent
the five fingers of a closed hand. ‘10’ was the ten fingers of both
closed hands, but rather than writing two ‘O’s, the first hand (‘5’)
was notated below the write line, and the second hand (‘10’)
above the line.
Abacus Manuscript Notation and ‘Ten Theory’

Continuing with the same system, ‘6’ took the form of ‘5’ with
one stroke above the line (5 + 1 = 6); ‘7’ was ‘5’ with two strokes
above the line (5 + 2 = 7); ‘8’ was ‘10’ with two strokes below
the line (10 – 2 = 8); and ‘9’ was ‘10’ with one stroke below the
line (10 – 1 = 9). The strokes became joined to the ‘O’s and to
each other:
a) Abacus Manuscript Notation
76
b) Development of 6 - 9
The evolution of these notations into each of the two character

sets can be charted as follows:
The evolution of Arabic and Latin number glyphs
References and further reading:

Arabic Numeral System, J O’Connor, E Robertson
www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/HistTopics/Arabic_numerals.html
Hindu-Arabic Numeral System
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hindu-Arabic_numeral_system
Arabic Numerals
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arabic_numerals
0 (number)
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Number_0
History of Indian Numerals.,B Jusufi, J-F Stryker, V Larsen
http://home.c2i.net/greaker/comenius/9899/indiannumerals/india.html
77
Measurement
Ever since people first began constructing shelters, wearing

clothes, and bartering goods, they have needed systems for
measuring the materials in use. Today there are systems in
place to measure distance, time, speed, area, volume, mass,
temperature, current, magnetism, angle, degree, brightness,
depth, and endless other quantities. A perpetual driving force
behind scientific discovery has always been the desire to find
new ways to measure new things: the angles in a triangle, the
curve of an arch, the waves of a brain. Researchers continue
to seek empirical ways to measure the immeasurable: beauty,
intelligence, propensity to anger, and so on. Human beings, it
seems, are ‘made to measure’.
Length is arguably the most necessary measurement in

everyday life, and to this day the units of length in many
countries still reflect the earliest methods.
According to ancient Babylonian and
Egyptian records, length was first measured
in relation to a person’s forearm, hand, or
finger. The standardised inch we use today
is based on the width of an average man’s
thumb; the foot, obviously, on a foot. The
yard is closely related to a human pace.
The mile originates from the Latin ‘mille
passus’ or ‘thousand paces’ (a ‘pace’ to the
ancient Romans was two strides, bringing
the front foot back to the front). In this way
we can see how early people explained the
distance from one village to the next, or worked out whether an
object would fit in a particular space.
As societies evolved, their measuring requirements became

more complex, as did their units of measurement. It became
necessary to measure the same types of things accurately,
repeatedly, and in different places. The individualist system was
clearly inadequate, as the length of a foot, for example, could
vary from one person to another by as much as four inches.
The units began to be defined according to the length of the
thumb or foot of a local leader. Although the units still varied in
size from one area to the next, this was an early move towards
standardisation. With the invention of numbering systems, it
became possible to create whole systems of measurement for
trade and commerce, land division, taxation, scientific research
and so on.
78
According to a number of old measuring rods that have been

found by archaeologists, the principal unit of measurement in
ancient Egypt was the ‘royal cubit’, which was approximately
equal to the length of a man’s forearm. It was also equal to
seven palm widths, each of which was four thumb digits wide,
so that it could be divided into a total of 28 parts. However, the
measuring rods – and the length of the royal cubits themselves
– vary considerably in size.
The earliest known uniform systems of weights

and measures seem to have been created
sometime between 4000 to 3000 BCE among
the ancient peoples of Mesopotamia (around
modern day Iraq), Egypt and the Indus Valley
(which runs from Tibet to the Arabian sea
through India and Pakistan). The Indus Valley
people in particular achieved great precision
in measuring length, mass and time. Their
smallest unit of length – about 1.7mm – is said
to be the smallest recorded for the Bronze Age.
Built around 4,500 years ago, the Great Pyramids and other
structures illustrate that the ancient Egyptians had control
of a precise and detailed system of weights and measures.
In fact, such a system would have been essential to ensure
the smooth running of their society, which relied upon bulk
bartering of commodities. There is much debate among
modern Egyptologists over the units of measurement used in
constructing the pyramids, but what is clear is that the length of
their base, slope and height, as well as their angle of inclination,
are so precise that they cannot have been left to mere chance.
Human beings have always set standards in relation to nature’s

consistency. Time was first measured according to the setting
and rising of the sun, and the cycles of the moon. The earliest
ways to measure volume included filling containers with plant
seeds, which were then counted. When people first invented
the means to weigh things, again they made use of seeds
and grains. The Arabs, for example, used the carob seed as
the small weight standard for metals and stones. This was the
original ‘carat’, which today is used as a unit of mass for gems
and precious metals, and was standardised first at 1/144 ounce
and then 0.2g.
It was the ancient Greeks – not, as is widely believed,

Christopher Columbus – who established that the Earth is
79
spherical. Aristotle calculated its circumference as 400,000

stadia, and divided the sphere into 360 degrees, but different
civilisations disputed the length of a degree. At least 600 years
before Columbus’s voyage to America, the Arab Empire built
observatories near Baghdad and Damascus. Astronomers
again sought to determine the size and circumference of the
earth, resulting in the amazingly accurate figure of 41,526
kilometres, with 115.35 kilometres per degree. Today it has
been established that there are about 111 kilometres per degree
at the equator.
Several attempts have been made to use the Earth’s

dimensions in order to create a standard measurement;
theorists argue that this was one purpose of the ancient
pyramids. More recently, the metric system was developed,
whose base unit is the metre. In 1791, the French Academy of
Sciences defined the metre as one ten-millionth of the distance
from the equator through Paris to the North Pole, and the
French Bureau des Longitudes commissioned an expedition
to measure the length of the meridian. In 1793, based on
provisional results, France created the first prototype metre bar,
but this was later found to be about a fifth of a millimetre short.
Various other definitions have been attempted, including the

length of a pendulum with a half-period of one second (in fact
this is about 99.36 cm). In any case the pendulum definition
could not work because the force of gravity varies slightly in
different places on Earth, altering the period of a pendulum
swing. Modern science has allowed the properties of light to
be calculable, and shown them to be universally constant.
Definitions based on the physical properties of light are the
most precise and reproducible definitions ever found. For this
reason, standard measurements of distance and time are now
fixed in relation to the speed of light, and the metre was defined
in 1983 as equal to the distance travelled by light in a vacuum
for 1/299,792,458 of a second.

Measurement and Metrology
http://www.lne.fr/metrologie_francaise/version_anglaise/pages/
measurement/history.htm
A Dictionary of Units
http://www.exeter.ac.uk/cimt/dictunit/dictunit.htm
History of Measurement
http://www.historyworld.net/wrldhis/PlainTextHistories.asp?historyid=ac07
80
Timekeeping
The units of time first developed by humans are likely to have

been days and months. As long as 37,000 years ago, people
apparently recorded the number of days in a lunar cycle.
Knowing when to anticipate the seasons of the year or phases
of the moon was probably precision enough for early farming
communities. It is not until relatively recently that people first
sought ways to measure the time of day, when the development
of the great ancient civilizations of the Middle East and North
Africa brought with it a range of new administrative and social
requirements, accompanied with a need to organise time more
efficiently.
Calendars: Years, Seasons, Months and Days

Over 5,000 years ago, the Sumerians living in Iraq’s Tigris-
Euphrates valley developed a calendar dividing the year into
‘months’ of 30 days. Before 2000 BCE, the ancient Babylonians
divided the year into 12 ‘months’ that alternated between 29
and 30 days each, resulting in 354 days a year. The ancient
Egyptians, whose civilisation depended on being able to
accurately predict the Nile’s annual flood, counted a cycle of
365 days. They then noticed that the star Sirius rose in direct
line with the sun on the same day each year, but always about
six hours later. This led them to adjust the length of the solar
year to 365.25 days.
In about 200 BCE, the Greek Hipparchus studied the two yearly
equinoxes, when the sun’s path apparently crosses the equator,
marking the transition from winter to spring and from summer
to autumn. He found that the equinox points were shifting
westward at the rate of 2 degrees in 150 years, meaning that
the solar year was about 11 minutes shorter than previously
thought. Hipparchus recalculated the year at 365.242 days;
uncannily close to today’s reckoning of 365.242199 days.
He also calculated the lunar month at 29.53058 days, again
impressively close to its current 29.53059 days. It is for this
reason that today’s Western calendar allows for an extra day
each ‘leap year’, and an extra second in each ‘leap minute’.
Timekeeping
The most obvious way of keeping track of the time of day is by
observing the changing angles of the sun’s rays. It is most likely
that people first made use of the shadows cast by trees and
other objects, progressing perhaps to placing sticks in the earth.
81
The earliest purpose-built ‘day-dividers’ so far

unearthed are the Egyptian obelisks of around
3500 BCE. The shadows cast by these tall,
tapering monuments initially partitioned the
daylight time into morning and afternoon. Later
obelisks had a series of marks around the base,
which allowed the falling shadow to indicate
further subdivisions of time. The obelisks also
kept track of the time of year, as the shadow
at noon would be longer or shorter depending
on the temporal distance from the summer and
winter solstices.
Days began to be defined as the time between two middays,

because noon was the easiest solar event to measure
accurately. By around 1500 BCE, the ancient Egyptians had
designed a moveable shadow clock. It consisted of a long stem
with 5 variably spaced marks, over which an elevated crossbar
on the end would cast a moving shadow. If pointed towards the
east in the morning and rotated to face west in the afternoon,
the timepiece would divide a sunlit day into 10 parts plus two
‘twilight’ parts for the morning
and evening.
Any timekeeping system must

embody a regular, repetitive way
to denote the passing of equal
lengths of time, and it must
be able somehow to display
the result. Over time, shadow
clocks evolved into flat circular
sundials, both horizontal and
vertical, and then began to
take more elaborate forms. A Egyptian Shadow Clock
hemispherical shape was cut
into a block of stone, with a
central pointer to provide the shadow, and the stone inscribed
with different sets of ‘hour’ lines for the different seasons. In
around 300 BCE, the ‘hemicycle’ removed the useless half of
the hemisphere, reshaping the device into the shape of a half-
bowl cut into the edge of a stone block.
By 600 BCE, the Egyptians had developed the oldest known

astronomical tool, the merkhet, which was apparently used as a
night timepiece. Two merkhets, aligned with the Pole Star, could
establish a north-south meridian, and the hours could
82
be marked off according to which stars

crossed that meridian. Other timekeeping
systems developed over the years
included candles and oil lamps with
incremental markings; knotted cords that
would burn at a certain pace; hourglasses
with sand or another substance inside;
and water clocks.
Most researchers agree that the

mechanical clock was invented in
medieval Europe, probably in the late
14th century. Early clockwork was
Merkhet devised by arranging gears and wheels
in such a manner that when a weight
was applied, gravity would cause the wheels to turn in a slow,
regular manner. The hours were marked on the clock face
by a pointer, and at first there was only one pointer: the ‘hour
hand’. Once again astronomy drove the quest forward, and
in 1577, the minute hand was added by a Swiss clock maker,
for an astronomer who needed more accuracy for charting the
heavens. In 1582, Galileo began experimenting with swinging
weights and invented the pendulum as a way of accurately
regulating the wheels and gears of a clock to mark off small
intervals.
Today it is possible for time to be recorded to the nearest

thousandth of a second. In the interim, the history of
timekeeping has provided strong motivation for human beings
to observe and study the sun, the stars and the movement of
the earth. It is intricately linked to the progression of science
and civilization.

A Walk Through Time
http://www.physics.nist.gov/GenInt/Time/ancient.html
Clockworks: Measuring Time
http://www.britannica.com/clockworks/article.html
The History of Time Keeping
http://www.beaglesoft.com/maintimehistory.htm
Sundials & Timedials. Jenkins, G; Bear, M. ISBN 0 906212 59 6 .
Intellectual History of Time. Wikipedia
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intellectual_history_of_time
83
Money
Human beings have always needed to trade food and other

goods. The most obvious way is to barter – if a person requires
an item (perhaps a cow), that is in the possession of another
they might exchange it for something the other person requires
(perhaps a ton of wheat). The difficulty with bartering, and with
all ‘in kind’ transactions, is that each person must want exactly
what the other has to offer, when and where it is offered. This
is known as the ‘Coincidence of Wants’ problem, which often
creates the need for people to wait for payment, or to give each
other credit.
The common solution is for the parties to agreement upon a

medium of exchange that will represent the value of the item
being traded, and can itself later be traded for something
else of the same value. In any kind of society where there is
no money per se, bartering rapidly leads to the preference of
several key goods that take on monetary properties. These
are not necessarily established by a central governing power,
but tend to arise naturally and spontaneously between people.
A frequent modern example is in the prison system, where
inmates do not have much access to cash, so desirable
commodities such as cigarettes become a form of currency.
Such items are referred to in economic terms as ‘commodity
money’, because their intrinsic value allows them to be used as
a medium of exchange and a store of value.
Gold and silver have been used as

commodity money in more societies
and eras than any other item. They
are soft, malleable metals, difficult
to come by, and easily stored.
Their density and high trade value
mean that relatively small nuggets
carry high intrinsic value. In ancient
times, gold and silver were usually exchanged by weight - the
English words ‘spend’ and ‘pound’ both come from the Latin
expendere, which means ‘to weigh’. However, the system was
complicated, requiring touchstones (for testing purity), weights
and calculations to discover the value of a lump of metal.
The list of objects used as currency over the centuries is

endless. Archaeologists have found shell necklaces dating back
almost 75,000 years, which were apparently used as money,
in South African caves. Other currency has included bread
(medieval Iraq), iron nails (Scotland), seashells (China and
throughout Africa.
84
This currency gave rise to the term ‘shelling out’), and cattle (all
over the world). Salt, pepper and other spices have also been
used as money, hence the expression ‘worth his salt’. To be
sustainable as a form of currency, an item must be scarce and
difficult to counterfeit. It must also be easy to divide, transport,
save, store, and retrieve – and its value must be predictable
when it is retrieved.
The first banking systems evolved long before the first coins
were cut. In ancient Mesopotamia, palaces and temples
contained special rooms to store grain and other commodities.
Receipts were issued to depositors, and these could be passed
on to third parties. Private houses began to adopt similar
practices, and laws were passed to regulate banking systems.
Similarly, the ancient Egyptians built state-run grain warehouses
where people could store their harvests for safety and
convenience. Such deposits were represented in writing, and
these documents came to be used as a way of paying debts,
taxes, and other accounts. Even after coinage was introduced,
these grain banks continued to be used for local transactions, in
order to reserve precious metals for foreign trade.
Some of the oldest ‘coins’ were made in China around the end
of the second millennium BCE, cast from bronze or copper in
the shape of tools and cowrie shells. The ancient Greeks used
iron nails as coins, and the ancient Britons used sword blades.
However none of these were really suited to the purpose of
currency. Because they were made of base metals they were
relatively easy to forge and carried low intrinsic worth, meaning
that they were heavy to carry around and it was difficult to use
them for large transactions.
True coinage developed in Asia Minor, probably around 640

- 630 BCE, when the Lydians began to produce small, regular
pieces of precious metal and stamped them to guarantee
purity and value. The use of coins spread quickly from Lydia
to mainland Greece and to Persia. The recurring problem with
coins made from precious metals is that once in circulation they
tended to be clipped or melted and mixed with heavier, less
valuable metals.
The banknotes and coins used today are not money itself, but
representative of money. Gold and silver still retain their intrinsic
value, but in most cases commodity money evolved into a
system of representative money.
85
As with grain warehouses,

commodity stores issued
paper receipts for the goods
being stored; these
receipts (which were ‘good as

gold’) soon began themselves
to be traded as money.
Although they had little or
no intrinsic value, paper and non-precious coins could hold
significant market value if backed by a promise to redeem them
for a given weight of precious metal. For example, the British
‘Pound Sterling’ originated as a slip of paper redeemable for a
pound of sterling silver.
It is interesting to consider the different names for money

around the world. The French word is ‘argent’, which means
‘silver’. The English word ‘money’ comes from the French
‘monnaie’, which means ‘change’, and itself derives from
Moneta, the ancient Roman goddess in whose temple the
Romans minted their coins. In Spanish and Portuguese, the
words for money are dinero and dinheiro, which come from
the Latin ‘denarius’ – an ancient Roman silver coin and the
most general currency of antiquity. The word ‘denarius’ derives
from ‘decem’ for ‘ten’, which is also the origin of the old ‘d’
abbreviation for pennies. The ‘dinar’, which is currency in
certain Arab countries, had the same derivation.
In India the word for money is ‘rupee’, which is also the name
of the currency. The word is derived from the Hindi ‘rupay’,
from the verb ‘rpam’, ‘to shape’. The Russian ‘rouble’ derives
from the same meaning, where ‘rubit’ means to ‘shape’ a coin
from a bar of silver. The idea of ‘shaping’ is also present in the
Chinese currency ‘yuan’.
References and Further Reading:

History of Money. Wikipedia
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Money
The Future of Money: Beyond Greed and Scarcity Toward a Sustainable
Capitalism. Bernard Lietar, 1997
Origins of Money and of Banking. Glyn Davies
http://www.exeter.ac.uk/~RDavies/arian/origins.html
A History of Money. Glyn Davies
86
Astronomy
In order for early astronomers to predict the motions of the

planets, they needed to make models of the sky which would
explain its workings. For many centuries these models were
based on two main incorrect assumptions. The first was
Geocentricity, which stated that the Earth is in the middle
of everything. This idea was initially logical, since people
on Earth were unable to sense its motion, but later, there
were strict philosophical and
religious doctrines to maintain
the Earth’s place at the centre
of the universe, with the sun,
moon, planets and stars all
orbiting around it. The second
incorrect assumption was that all
celestial motions were uniform
and circular. This too eventually
became a religious doctrine,
because a circle is a perfect
geometric shape and the sky
was seen as a place of eternal
perfection, with all that was
imperfect and changing being
found on Earth alone.
The ancient Babylonians (C. 1700

BCE) were among the first people
to record the movements in the
sky and produce detailed star
charts. Watching the movement
of the sun and the moon, the
Babylonians were able to predict
eclipses. Along with the ancient
Egyptians, they introduced the
concept of astrological signs.
The ancient Greek Aristotle

(4th century BCE) was taken so
seriously that his science became
canonical, and his descriptions
of the cosmos influenced
astronomers for almost 2000
years. He proposed that the
paths of the sun, moon and all
the planets mapped 56 concentric
circles around the Earth.
87
However, this model did not accurately predict the movement

of the planets, which sometimes appeared to move backwards
or at different rates. Hipparchus (2nd century BCE) introduced
the concept of ‘eccentric’, to the geocentric circular model.
If the Earth was not exactly in the middle but slightly off
centre, the orbits around it would be ‘eccentric’, although still
perfectly uniform and circular. He then attempted to explain the
apparently retrograde (backward) motions of the outer planets
with the concepts of ‘deferent’ and ‘epicycle’: the ‘deferent’ is
the eccentric circle upon which is located the ‘epicycle’ of an
orbiting planet (see diagrams on previous page). Although
ingenious, Hipparchus’ model was still not reliable in predicting
the motions of the planets.
The Egyptian Ptolemy (2nd century CE), who wanted to create

a very accurate mathematical, working model of the sky, had
access to the great library at Alexandria and the hundreds of
years’ worth of astronomical data that it contained. He tackled
the retrograde motion of the outer planets, combining all the
traditional (circular, geocentric) assumptions with Hipparchus’
epicycle and deferent propositions with some of his own,
such as the ‘equant’, into a working system whose predictions
were more accurate than anything before. The details of this
model and other of Ptolemy’s observations are included in his
Almagest (from its Arabic name, which means ‘The Greatest’).
A great deal of modern astronomical knowledge can be

attributed to Arab scientists. While Europe was undergoing its
Dark Ages (700-1200 CE), the Islamic empire, which stretched
from central Asia to southern Europe, took massive strides in
the fields of mathematics, astronomy and physics. More than
90% of the two hundred brightest stars have Arab names,
such as Aldebaran (which means ‘follower of the Pleiades’);
Betelgeuse (the ‘hand of Orion’); Altair (‘the flying eagle’);
and Denebola (the ‘tail of the lion’).Words like azimuth, zenith
and nadir also come from Arabic. It is speculated that Islamic
interest in astronomy was driven by three primarily religious
reasons:
1. Muslims pray at stipulated times, determined by the positions

of the sun;
2. Muslims are required to pray in the direction of Mecca, and
this can be established with reference to the pole stars; and
3. The holy Qu’ran makes frequent reference to astronomical
patterns visible in the skies.
88
In 830 CE, Caliph Al Mamun established Beit al Hikman (The

House of Wisdom), a centre of learning dedicated to translating
ancient scholarship from Greek and Persian into Arabic. The
ideas were refined and elaborated upon to form the basis of
Islamic science.
One of the greatest Islamic astronomers

was Abu Ja’far Muhammad ibn Musa Al
Khwarizmi (780-850 BCE), who invented
algebra and from whose name is derived
the word ‘algorithm’. Translated into
Latin hundreds of years later, his work
introduced Europe to the Indian (‘Arabic’)
numerical system and the concept
of zero. Al-Khwarizmi made detailed
calculations of the positions of the sun,
moon, planets and eclipses, as well as constructing a table
of the latitudes and longitudes of 2,402 cities and landmarks,
forming the basis of an early world map.
Abu Allah Mohammed ibn Jabir Al Battani (850-929 CE) is

remembered for his skill at making astronomical instruments
and using them to carefully observe the heavens. His tables of
the motion of the sun and moon are more accurate than those
of Ptolemy before him and Copernicus some 600 years later. Al
Battani catalogued 489 stars, refined the existing value for the
length of the year, and showed that the Sun’s furthest distance
from Earth was not fixed. Arab astronomers improved upon
ancient instruments for measuring star positions, such as the
astrolabe, as well as the mathematical methods for calculations.
The Polish Nicolaus Copernicus (1473-1543) produced a

heliocentric (sun-centred) model, which went against the
philosophical and theological grain at a time when it was
extremely dangerous to do so. He only published his theory
in the last year of his life, 1543, and by 1616 it had been
prohibited by the Catholic Church. Several of Copernicus’
proponents were burnt at the stake for heresy. According to
his model, the sun is in the centre while the Earth, all the other
planets, and all the stars revolve around it. Meanwhile, the
moon orbits the Earth. However, he maintained the traditional
idea that it contained perfect circles and uniform motions,
rendering it just as complicated and no more accurate than
Ptolemy’s model.
89
Johannes Kepler (17th century, Czechoslovakia) could not get

Copernicus’ model to work using circles. He developed the
Three Laws of Planetary Motion to determine the locations of
the planets, and his most significant advancement was that the
planets’ orbit of the sun was elliptical rather than circular. This
explained why the planets moved away from and towards the
sun, and Kepler could do away with deferents and epicycles.
However, he was unable to establish what force propelled the
planets on their paths.
Although they were banned for religious and political reasons,

Galileo Galilei (17th century) found these ideas very interesting.
Galileo developed the telescope, which was originally only
used by sailors to look over the water, and looked through it at
the night sky. He saw that the moon was not a perfect, circular
heavenly object, but it resembled the Earth, with mountains,
valleys, and other features. He understood, from the shadows
cast on the moon by its ridges and mountains, that the moon
does not generate its own light but is bright because it reflects
light from the sun.
It was pointing his telescope at the sun that led to Galileo’s

blindness in later life. In the meantime, he noted that there were
also ‘blemishes’ (or sunspots) on the sun: another instance of
imperfection in the heavens. Galileo was tried, forced to recant
all that he taught about the heliocentric model, and spent the
rest of his life under house arrest.
Isaac Newton (1642-1727) discovered why the planets move,

and established the basis for modern physics, by composing
the Three Laws of Motion, which he applied to the planets and
to everything else in the universe. He also formulated a rule to
explain the motions of all objects in the universe: the Universal
Law of Gravity.

Arabic Studies in Physics and Astronomy During 800 - 1400 AD: David
Agar,
Motions of Planets - History of Astronomy
Abu Ja’far Muhammad ibn Musa Al-Khwarizmi
http://www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/Mathematicians/Al-Khwarizmi.
html
90
The Pyramids of Giza
The ancient Egyptian

pyramids at Giza
continue to intrigue
mathematicians,
archaeologists and
tourists alike, mainly
due to their immense
size – they are
among the largest
constructions ever built – and the related geometric and
logistical challenges they must have presented to the ancient
civilisation that built them. A masterpiece of human strength and
intelligence, they are also fascinating for what they reveal about
the scientific knowledge and theological beliefs of that time.
It is generally accepted that the pyramids were built as

monumental tombs for the ancient Egyptian pharaohs and their
queens. The Egyptians believed that a pharaoh who died would
then become king of the dead, and that he would not be able to
carry out this duty if his corpse did not receive the proper care.
The consequences would be disastrous for the whole realm. A
dead pharaoh’s body was preserved through mummification,
and everything he might need to take with him, including food,
was provided in his grave. Unfortunately, despite the best efforts
of the ancient Egyptians, the pyramids were obvious targets for
grave robbers and were eventually plundered of the bodies and
anything else entombed within them.
Today there remain about eighty known pyramids, of differing

shapes and sizes, built between 2780 and 1650 BCE. This
time-span encompasses what is known in Egyptology as the
‘Old Kingdom’, the ‘First Intermediate Period’, and the ‘Middle
Kingdom’. The three largest pyramids, which stand in Giza, are
among the oldest and best-preserved, and include the famous
‘Great Pyramid’, the only surviving example of the Seven
Wonders of the World. Built in 2550 BCE for the pharaoh Khufu
(who was known by the Greeks as Cheops), the Great Pyramid
remained the tallest structure on earth for 43 centuries, until the
mid-19th century AD.
There are several therories on why the ancient Egyptians would

have buried their revered pharoahs in pyramid-shaped tombs.
Most researchers agree that the pyramids were designed to
channel the souls of the deceased kings into the heavens
above.
91
A narrow shaft,
extending from the main
burial chamber through
the body of the Great
Pyramid, points directly
towards the part of the
sky thought by ancient
Egyptians to be the
physical gateway into
the heavens. Another
way to reach the
heavens, according to ancient texts, was along the sunbeams,
and the shape of the pyramids might represent the spread of
light as it descends from the sun. Most pyramids were finished
with polished white limestone, which made them gleam when
viewed from afar, and were given names such as The Southern
Shining Pyramid and Senwosret is Shining.
The pyramids are also thought to represent the primordial

mound (known as ‘Ben-Ben’) from which the Egyptians
believed the earth was created. Ancient Greek and Roman
scientists found the Great Pyramid to possess mathematical,
metrological and geodetic functions, while some of their modern
counterparts see it as a model of the earth against which any
metrological standard could be confirmed and corrected .
Thousands of years later, but similarly motivated, the French
devised the metre and the corresponding metric system.
Also arousing speculation is the question of how, in an age

without heavy machinery, the pyramids were physically
constructed. In the 5th century BCE, Herodotus, the earliest
known historian of the Pyramid Age, reckoned the Great
Pyramid to have been built by over 100,000 men, working three
months a year for 20 years. Today, researchers estimate the
number at closer to 20,000, working over the same amount of
time. The smaller pyramids, and especially those with a more
gentle slope, would have required less labour and materials.
Although it has often been said that the pyramids were built by
slaves, this theory is now widely discredited. Based on analysis
of popular folklore, it seems more likely that the builders were
local farmers and labourers, both men and women, who were
unable to work during the annual three-month flooding of the
River Nile. They were paid in food, clothing and money, and
motivated by their faith in the divinity and immortality of their
kings.
92
Scientists throughout the ages sought to establish precisely

which units of measurement were used in building the
pyramids. In 1882, after a thorough survey of the entire Giza
plateau complex, metrologist Flinders Petrie concluded that
the Great Pyramid was based on the royal Egyptian cubit. The
cubit varied considerably, but Petrie stated that in this case its
value was 523.7 millimetres, and that the pyramid’s base was
intended to be 440 cubits and the height 280. When it was built,
the Great Pyramid was just under 147 metres tall, but over the
years it was robbed of its outer casing and capstone and has
lost approximately 10 metres in height. Each side points directly
towards a cardinal compass point - north, south, east or west -
which would have required some knowledge of astronomy. The
sides slope at an angle of 51 degrees and 51 minutes. They
measure 230 metres in length, with a maximum error between
side lengths of less than 0.1%.
The Great Pyramid is said to be made of some two million huge

stone blocks, each weighing more than two tons. The heaviest
blocks, used as the ceiling of the king’s burial chamber, each
weigh an estimated 40 to 60 tons. The phenomenal weight
that would otherwise bear down on the King’s Chamber is
diverted by an ingenious system of stress-relieving chambers
and immense granite beams above it. Most of the stone was
quarried locally on the Giza plateau, but the casing stones,
which came from Tura, and the granite of the burial chamber
walls, which came from Aswan, had to be transported to the site
along the Nile.
Copper tools such as chisels,

drills and saws were probably
used to cut the relatively soft
stone, and it is thought that the
abrasive properties of sand
might have been used to help
cut through the granite. It is
not known exactly how the
stone blocks were put in place,
although researchers think
they would have been moved
towards the pyramids on
sledges, with the aid of rollers
and levers, over ground first
made slippery by liquid.
93
They would then have been pushed and/or pulled into their
positions, probably with the help of papyrus twine, along a
system of gradually sloping straight or spiral ramps that were
coated with mud and water to reduce friction. Finally, the outer
layer of casing stones was finished from the top down and the
ramps dismantled as the work was completed.
The ramps are usually described as standing at right angles

to the pyramid under construction, but it is not clear how these
could be lowered and raised as the pyramid grew. Instead,
assuming that the ‘step’ pyramid was built before being filled
with stone and covered with its limestone casing, it seems more
likely and practical for the ramps to have instead run from one
step to the next alongside the faces of the pyramid.

Egyptian Pyramids. Wikipedia
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Egyptian_pyramids
Egypt: Secrets of an Ancient World. National Geographic
http://www.nationalgeographic.com
The Great Pyramid. ©John Neal
http://www.secretacademy.com/pages/greatpyramid.htm
The Great Pyramid of Giza
http://ce.eng.usf.edu/pharos/wonders/pyramid.html
The Pyramids. Nova Online Adventurer
http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/pyramid/explore/
Egypt: The Pyramids Of Giza
http://www.culturefocus.com/egypt_pyramids.htm
94
Chapter Nine
Directory
Middle East Regional Offices
International Offices
nine directory
Middle East Regional Offices
Lebanon
Davis Langdon
Khalid Chatilla Bldg
Australia Street, Rawche-Shouran,
P O Box 13-5422, Beirut, Lebanon
T: +9611 780 111 | F: +9611 809 045
E: DLL.MI@cyberia.net.lb
Contact: Muhyiddin Itani
Arabian Gulf
Davis Langdon
P.O. Box 7856
Dubai, United Arab Emirates
T: +971 4 3242919 | F: +971 4 3242838
P O Box 127739
Abu Dhabi , United Arab Emirates
T: +971 2 6457552
E: neil.taylor@davislangdon.com
E: peter.evans@davislangdon.com
E: richard.vaughan@davislangdon.com
Contacts: Neil Taylor / Peter Evans / Richard Vaughan
Davis Langdon
P.O. Box 640
Manama, Kingdom of Bahrain
T: +973 17 588796 | F: +973 17 581288
E: steven.coates@davislangdon.com
Contact: Steven Coates
Davis Langdon
P.O. Box 3206
Doha, State of Qatar
T: +974 458 0150 | F: +974 469 7905
E: stuart.feeney@davislangdon.com
E: steven.humphrey@davislangdon.com
Contacts: Stuart Feeney / Steven Humphrey
London Head Office

Davis Langdon LLP
MidCity Place, 71 High Holborn
London W1V 6QS, UK
T: +44 (0)20 7061 7000 | F: +44 (0)20 7061 7061
E: derek.johnson@davislangdon.com
Contact - Regional Managing Partner: Derek Johnson
95
directory nine
International Offices - Asia
Brunei
Davis Langdon & Seah
Juruukur Bahan Utama-DLS
Petrokon Utama SDN BHD
25, BT Complex, Kg. Jaya Setia, Mukum Berakas ‘A’
Bandar Seri Begawan BB2713
Negara Brunei Darussalam
T: +673 2 332833 | F: +673 2 332933
E: dlsbsb@dlsbrunei.com
Contact: Justin Teoh / Yusof Shafie
Also at: Kuala Belait
China
21st Floor, 2101 Leighton Centre
77 Leighton Road, Hong Kong
T: +852 2830 3500 | F: +852 2576 0416
E: dlshk@dlshk.com
Contact: Joseph Lee
Also at: Beijing, Chongqing, Guangzhou, Macau, Shanghai,

Shenzhen, Wuhan
India
Davis Langdon & Seah Consulting India Pvt Ltd
3rd floor, Raheja Chancery Building
Bangalore 560 025, India
T: +91 80 4123 9141 | F: +91 80 4123 8922
E: dlsindia@dls.com.sg
Contact: Jim Pollock / Lorimer Doig
Also at: Mumbai, Hyderabad
Indonesia
Davis Langdon & Seah Indonesia
Level 18, Ratu Plaza Office Tower
Jalan Jeneral Sudirman 9, Jakarta 10270, Indonesia
T: +62 21 739 7550 | F: +62 21 739 7846
E: dlsjkt@dls.co.id
Contact: Peter Robinson / Jim Pollock
Also at: Bali, Surabaya
96
nine directory
Japan
Sato Facilities Consultants, Inc.
Toranomon Kiyoshi Bldg.
4-3-10 Toranomon
Minato-ku, Tokyo
T: +81 3 5402 6080 | F: +81 3 5402 1200
E: sato@sfc-net.co.jp
Contact: Takayoshi Sato
Also at: Nagoya Aichi
Korea
Davis Langdon & Seah Korea Co Ltd
429 G-Five Central Plaza
#1685-8 Seocho 4-dong
Seocho-gu, Seoul,
Korea 137-882
T: +62 21 739 7550 | F: +62 21 739 7846
E: dlskorea@dls.com.sg
Contact: Max Lee Mun-Su / Goh Chok Sin
Malaysia
Davis Langdon & Seah (Malaysia) Sdn Bhd
2 Jalan PJU 5/15
Kota Damansara
47810 Petaling Jaya
Selangor Darul Ehsan, Malaysia
T: +60 3 6156 9000 | F: +60 3 6157 5662
E: info@dlsjubm.com.my
Contact: Loo Ming Chee / Ong See Lian / Karim Ali / Justin
Teoh / Mahamad Faiz Awang
Also at: Johor Bahru, Kota Kinabalu, Penang
Philippines
Davis Langdon & Seah Philippines Inc
4th Floor, King’s Court I Building
2129 Pasong Tamo, Makati City
Manila, Philippines
T: +63 2 811 2971 | F: +63 2 811 2071
E: manila@dls.com.ph
Contact: Alan Hearn
97
directory nine
Singapore
1 Magazine Road
#05-01 central Mall
059567 Singapore
T: +65 6222 3888 | F: +65 6224 7089
E: dlssp3@dls.com.sg
Contact: Seah Choo Meng
Thailand
Davis Langdon & Seah & LECE (Thailand) Co. Ltd
10th Floor, Kian Gwan 2 Building
140/1 Wireless Road
Lumpinee, Patumwan
Bangkok 10330, Thailand
T: +66 2 253 7390 | F: +66 2 253 4977
E: general@dls.co.th
Contact: leong Choong Peng
Vietnam
Hanoi Branch Office
#706 7th Floor North Star Building
4 Da Tuong Street
Hoan Kiem District, Hanoi, Vietnam
T: +844 942 7526 | F: +844 942 7526
E: dlsvietnam@hcm.vnn.vn
Contact: Seah Choo Meng
Also at: Ho chi Minh City
98
nine directory
Africa
South Africa
Davis Langdon
Ground Floor, MPF House
32 Princess of Wales Terrace
Sunnyside Office Park
Parktown 2193, South Africa
T: +27 11 484 2330 | F: +27 11 484 2361
E: corp@davislangdon.co.za
Contact: Johan Kemp
Also at: Bloemfontein, Cape Town, Durban, George,

Klerksdorp, Pietermaritzburg, Port Shepstone, Pretoria,
Richards Bay, Somerset West, Stellenbosch, Tygerberg,
Vaderbilpark and Botswana
Australasia
Australia
Davis Langdon
Level 20, 350 Queen Street
Melbourne
Victoria 3000
Australia
T: +61 3 9933 8800 | F: +61 3 9933 8801
E: mbeattie@davislangdon.co.au
Contact: Mark Beattie
Also at: Adelaide, Brisbane, Cairns, Canberra, Darwin, Hobart,

Perth, Sunshine Coast, Sydney and Townsville
New Zealand
Davis Langdon
Level 10, Citigroup Centre
23 Customs street East
PO Box 935
Auckland
New Zealand
T: +64 9 379 9903 | F: +64 9 309 9814
E: auck@davislangdon.co.nz
Contact: Chris Sutherland
Also at: Christchurch and Wellington
99
directory nine
Europe
United Kingdom
Davis Langdon LLP
Davis Langdon Crosher & James
Davis Langdon Mott Green Wall
Davis Langdon Schumann Smith
Midcity Place
71 High Holborn
London WC1V 6QS
T: +44 (0)20 7061 7000 | F: +44 (0)20 7061 7061
E: rob.smith@davislangdon.com
Contact: Rob Smith
Also at: Aberdeen, Birmingham, Bristol, Cambridge, Cardiff,

Edinburgh, Glasgow, Leeds, Liverpool, Maidstone, Manchester,
Milton Keynes, Norwich, Oxford, Peterborough, Plymouth,
Southampton and Stevenage
Ireland
Davis Langdon PKS
24 Lower Hatch Street
Dublin 2, Ireland
T: +353 1 676 3671 | F: +353 1 676 3672
E: dlpks@dlpks.ie
Contact: Norman Craig
Also at: Cork, Galway and Limerick
Russia
Ruperti Project Services International
8th Martha Street, Bld 11. Block 1
Moscow 127083, Russia
T: +7 495 983 0850 | F: +7 495 933 7851
E: info@ruperti@davislangdon.com
Contact: Anthony Ruperti
Spain
Davis Langdon Edetco
C/Muntaner, 479, 1-2
Barcelona 08021, Spain
T: +34 93 418 6899 | F: +34 93 211 0003
E: fmonells@edetco.com
Contact: Francesc Monells
Also at: Girona
100
nine directory
United States of America
USA
Davis Langdon
301 Arizona Avenue
Suite 301
Santa Monica
California 90401
USA
T: +1 310 393 9411 | F: +1 310 393 7493
E: nbutcher@davislangdon.us
Contact: Nick Butcher
Also at: Boston, Honolulu, Lost Angeles, New York,

Philadelphia, Sacramento and San Francisco
101
directory nine
102
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two: middle east key data

three: construction cost data

International Building Cost Comparison 7

four: project management

Public Private Partnership 31

five: property investment

six: building control

Building Regulations and Compliance 67

seven: weights and measures

Weights and Measures 71

eight: some interesting facts

The ‘Arabic’ Numerical System 73

nine: directory of offices

Middle Eastern Regional Offices 95

Our Goal is to build the

The Middle East is a very important

We have previously published exchange rates, comparative

Our overarching aim is to demonstrate our commitment to

We hope you find the Handbook of interest and that the

History of Davis Langdon in the Middle East

Davis Langdon is the longest established professional

The practice currently has established offices in Bahrain, Doha,

Davis Langdon has an extremely broad client base in

The Middle East offices of Davis Langdon are members of

Middle East Region

In each location, resident directors and associates lead

Successful projects are born of sensible and realistic property

We understand that clients are increasingly concerned about

Specialist Service Lines in the Middle East:

The Davis Langdon Middle East advantage:

The consistently high standard of professional service provided

Construction Consultant/Surveyor of the Year

Project/Construction Manager of the Year

Top International Cost Consultant

100 Best Companies to Work For

British Construction Industry Award

Project of the Year

Middle East Key Data

Local Currency to USD 1.00

2006 Half Year 2007 01/07/2007

Egyptian Pound 6.0235 5.9656 5.7132 5.3611 5.7863

Jordanian Dinar 0.7090 0.6884 0.7075 0.6934 0.7136

Syrian Pound 51.910 49.261 51.357 493514 53.166

Saudi Riyal 3.7506 3.7415 3.7517 3.7481 3.7517

Kuwaiti Dinar 0.2930 0.2829 0.2900 0.2831 0.2882

Qatari Riyal 3.6798 3.4478 3.6459 3.4721 3.6424

Bahraini Dinar 0.3779 0.3580 0.3800 0.3603 0.3838

UAE Dirham 3.6828 3.6397 3.6737 3.6679 3.6740

Omani Rial 0.3853 0.3658 0.3849 0.3715 0.3860

Construction Cost Data

Building Type Beirut Riyadh Doha Manama Dubai

- High Rise 990 1100 1780 1350 1400

Building Type Beirut Riyadh Doha Manama Dubai

- High Rise 300 380 500 400 400

Description Unit Beirut Riyadh Doha Manama Dubai

Structural Steel in Beams kg 4.0 2.7 4.4 2.2 4.0

Description Unit Beirut Riyadh Doha Manama Dubai

3) Grade 20 (OPC) m3 55 70 175 87 70

Description Unit Beirut Riyadh Doha Manama Dubai

Site Engineer Month 2500 4000 4000 5000 9000

Joinery 6% 96% 0% Tiling 23% 77% 0%

The Middle East, unlike developed economies in countries such