1.

Chapter 4
Digital Transmission
(Part 1)
.

Chapter 4 Topics

We have three main topics:

1. Introduction
2. Digital to Digital Conversion
a) Line Coding
b) Block coding
c) Scrambling

3. Analog to Digital Conversion

a) Pulse Code Modulation(PCM)
b) Delta Modulation(DM)

4. Transmission Modes
5. DTE and DCE Interfaces
1.2

1. Introduction
In this chapter we discuss digital transmission

We have two cases

a) If we have Digital Data

1.3

1. Introduction
In this chapter we discuss digital transmission

We have two cases

b) If we have Analog Signal

1.4

1. Introduction
Before we discuss these two case lets introduce some
definitions
Data Element
is the smallest entity that
can represent a piece of
information (bit)
(bit)..
is what we need to send

Signal Element
is the shortest unit of a
digital signal (voltage
level)
is what we can send

is being carried

is the carrier

1.5

1. Introduction
Ratio (r) which is the number of data elements
carried by each signal element

1.6

1. Introduction
Real Example:
Suppose each data element is a person who needs to
be carried from one place to another
another.. We can think of
a signal element as a car that can carry people
When r = 1, it means each person is driving a car
car..
When r > 1, it means that more than one person
travelling in a car
car..
When r =1/2, it means that one person drive car and
trailer..
trailer

1.7

1. Introduction

Data Rate
Signal Rate
Is the number of data Is the number of signal
elements (bits) sent in l elements sent in 1 sec
sec..
sec..
sec
The unit is bits per second The unit is the baud
sometimes called the bit sometimes called the pulse
rate
rate or baud rate
1.8

1. Introduction
One goal in Telecommunications is to increase the
date rate (increases the speed of transmission
transmission)) while
decreasing the signal rate (decreases the bandwidth
requirement)).
requirement
Real Example
Example::
In our Car
Car--people analogy, we need to carry more
people in fewer cars to prevent traffic jams
jams.. We have
a limited bandwidth in our transportation system
1.9

1. Introduction
The relationship between Data Rate and Signal Rate
can be represented by
by::

Where
S = No
No.. of signal elements,
c = case factor (worst, best or average),
N = data rate (bps),
r = ratio between data and signal elements.
1.10

1. Introduction
Example:
Example:
A signal is carrying data in which one data element is
encoded as one signal element (r =1). If the bit rate is
100 kbps, what is the average value of the baud rate
if c is between 0 and 1?
Solution::
Solution

1.11

1. Introduction

Bandwidth::
Bandwidth
Digital Signal that carries information is
nonperiodic
Bandwidth of a nonperiodic signal is continuous
with an infinite range
range..
Digital Signals we encounter in real life have a
bandwidth with finite values
values..
The Bandwidth is theoretically infinite, but many
of the components have small amplitude that they
can be ignored
ignored.. So The effective bandwidth is
finite
1.12

1. Introduction

Bandwidth::
Bandwidth
rate,, not the bit rate,
We can say that the baud rate
determines the required bandwidth for a digital
signal..
signal
If we use the transportation analogy, the number of
cars affects the traffic, not the number of people
being carried
carried..

1.13

1. Introduction

Bandwidth::
Bandwidth
The Bandwidth (range of frequencies)
proportional to the signal rate (baud rate)
rate)..

is

The minimum bandwidth can be given as

The maximum data rate if the bandwidth of the

channel is given
given..

1.14

1. Introduction

Example
The maximum data rate of a channel (see Chapter 3)
is (defined by the Nyquist formula)
formula).. Does this agree
with the previous formula for Nmax?
Solution
A signal with L levels actually can carry log
log22 L bits per level
level..
If each level corresponds to one signal element and we
assume the average case (c = 1/2), then we have

1.15

1. Introduction
Considerations
Before discussing different Line Coding Schemes
Schemes,, we will discuss the main
considerations affecting on the choice of line coding scheme
scheme::

a) DC Components
When the voltage level in a digital signal is constant for a while,
the frequency spectrum (according to Fourier analysis) creates
very low frequencies (around zero), called DC (direct
(direct--current)
components,, these frequencies present problems for a system
components
that cannot pass low frequencies

1.16

1. Introduction
a) DC Components

1.17

1. Introduction
b) Baseline Wandering
1- the receiver calculates a
running average of the received
signal power.(baseline)
2- A long string of 0s or 1s can
cause a drift in the baseline
(baseline
baseline wandering) and make it
difficult for the receiver to decode
correctly

1.18

1. Introduction
c) Transmission power and bandwidth efficiency
The transmitted power should be as small as possible, and the
transmission bandwidth needs to be sufficiently small
compared to the channel bandwidth
bandwidth..

1.19

1. Introduction
d) Self
Self--synchronization
The receivers bit intervals must correspond exactly to the
sender's bit intervals
intervals.. If the receiver clock is faster or slower,
the bit intervals are not matched and the receiver might
misinterpret the signals
signals..

1.20

1. Introduction
d) Self
Self--synchronization

A self-synchronizing
synchronizing digital signal includes timing information in the
data being transmitted. This can be achieved if there are transitions in
the signal that alert the receiver to the beginning, middle, or end of the
pulse. If the receiver's clock is out of synchronization, these points can
reset the clock.

1.21

2. Digital to Digital Conversion

Line Coding Schemes
We can divide line coding schemes into five broad categories,
as shown in the figure below
below..

1.22

2. Digital to Digital Conversion

Unipolar Scheme
In a unipolar scheme, all the signal levels are on one side of
the time axis, either above or below
below..
NRZ (Non
(Non--ReturnReturn-toto-Zero)

1.23

2. Digital to Digital Conversion

Polar Schemes
In polar schemes, the voltages are on the both sides of the
time axis
axis..

NRZ (Non
(Non--ReturnReturn-toto-Zero)
NRZ--L (NRZ
NRZ
(NRZ--Level) and NRZ
NRZ--I (NRZ
(NRZ--Invert).
Invert).

1.24

2. Digital to Digital Conversion

RZ (Return(Return-toto-Zero)
zero.. In RZ, the
It uses three values
values:: positive, negative, and zero
signal changes not between bits but during the bit
bit..

1.25

2. Digital to Digital Conversion

Biphase: Manchester and Differential Manchester
It uses three values
values:: positive, negative, and zero
zero..

1.26

2. Digital to Digital Conversion

Bipolar Encoding

In bipolar encoding, we use three levels: positive,

zero, and negative.

1.27

2. Digital to Digital Conversion

Bipolar schemes: AMI and pseudoternary

1.28

2. Digital to Digital Conversion

Bipolar schemes: AMI and pseudoternary
The advantages:
1- There is no DC component and no baseline wandering.
2- single
single--errorerror-detection capability .
3- less bandwidth .
4- Immunity to noise & other interferences.

1.29

2. Digital to Digital Conversion

Bipolar schemes: AMI and pseudoternary
The disadvantages:
1- There is a synchronization problem .
(It can be solved by Scrambling technique)

2- Some Complexity.
Finally, AMI is commonly used for longlong-distance communication.

1.30

2. Digital to Digital Conversion

Scrambling: is a technique used in digital-to-digital
digital
conversion, means modifying part of the rules in line coding
scheme to provide bit synchronization.

We have two common scrambling techniques B8ZS

and HDB3.

1.31

2. Digital to Digital Conversion

B8ZS (Bipolar with 88--zero substitution)
B8ZS substitutes eight consecutive zeros with OOOVBOVB.

1.32

2. Digital to Digital Conversion

B8ZS (Bipolar with 88--zero substitution)

1.33

2. Digital to Digital Conversion

HDB3 (High(High-density bipolar 3 -zero)
HDB3 substitutes four consecutive zeros with 000V
or B00V depending
on the number of nonzero pulses after the last
substitution.

1.34

2. Digital to Digital Conversion

HDB3 (High(High-density bipolar 3 -zero)

1.35

2. Digital to Digital Conversion

HDB3 (High(High-density bipolar 3 -zero)

1.36