Documenti di Didattica
Documenti di Professioni
Documenti di Cultura
DONALD R. MACGORMAN
National Severe Storms Laboratory, NOAA, Norman, Oklahoma 73069
1.
INTRODUCTION
There have been many reports of unusual lightning characteristics in tornadic storms. For example, eyewitnesses
have reported scorchingbeneath tornado funnels, a steady
has been learned from analysis of data from lightning mapping systems.
2.
LIGHTNING TERMINOLOGY
Prior to 1975most quantitativemeasurementsof lightning in-cloud, cloud-to-air, and cloud-to-cloud lightning together
in the intracloud lightning classification. Cloud-to-ground
sferics, the electromagneticnoise radiated by lightning. lightningcan be further classifiedby the polarity of charge
These measurements were difficult to interpret, because thatit effectivelylowersto ground:Positivecloud-to-ground
A cloud-to-ground
lightningflashusuallybeginsinsidethe
cloudand is first apparentwhen a faint channel,calledthe
steppedleader,movesfrom the cloudto the groundinjumps
roughly50-100 m long. When the steppedleaderconnects
with the ground,a brightpulsemovesback up the lightning
!74
REVIEW
OF LIGHTNING
IN TORNADIC
STORMS
BURSTRATEversus FREQUENCY
4O
. 30
Initial
:I i : ::::l
:l ' : :'Jill
Tornadic
Storms
--.-.
X Severe
Storms
20
'"-' 10
H ...... e-.---.......
....../Thunderstorms
31.6 kHz
100 kHz
316 kHz
1 MHz
3.16 MHz
Frequency
Fig. 1. Average sferics burst rate as a function of receiver frequency for various storm classifications[from MacGorman et al.,
1989]. Data are from four tornadic storms, three nontornadic severe
storms, and seven nonsevere thunderstorms. Sferics burst rates
were measuredat 10 receiver frequencies between 10 kHz and 137
MHz, indicated by dots. There was little change above 3 MHz, so
higher frequencies are not shown.
SFERICS STUDIES
storms examined
independent of frequency.
There were exceptions to all of these findings. In several
cases, high sferics rates did not occur in tornadic storms
stormsgrew rapidly taller, but ratespeakedearlier in storms [Ward et al., 1965; Stan3'brdet al., 1971; Lind et al., 1972;
that had more violent severe weather. Rates peaked about Taylor, 1973; Greneker et al., 1976; Johnson et al., 1977;
1.5 hour before tornadoes and decreased during tornadoes to MacGorman et al., 1989]. Taylor, who examinedthe largest
about 40% of peak value. At frequenciesof 150 kHz and number of storms, found that roughly 20% of tornadic
higher, sfericsrateswere found to increaseuntil tornadoes storms did not have high sferics rates [MacGorman et al.,
explainssomenonseverestormswith highsfericsrates[e.g.,
storms.
muchlarger than the numberof tornadicstorms[MacGorfrequencysfericsincreasedfor sfericsof large amplitude man et al., 1989]. Sometornadic stormswithout high sferics
when storms were more severe; the ratio was 1:20 before rateshad only weak tornadoes[e.g., Johnsonet al., !977],
storms
Later studiesat frequencybandsup to 150 MHz [Silberg, MacGorman et al., 1989]. However, these situationsdid not
1965; Taylor, 1973;Stanford et al., 1971;Johnsonet al., accountfor all exceptionsto the rule that 3-MHz sferics
1977]found that the increasein sfericsrates during severe ratesare muchhigherin tornadicstormsthan in nonsevere
The mostobviousinferencefrom the increasingnumberof
sferics at high frequencies and the decreasingor constant
number at low frequencieswas that intracloudflash rates
MAcGORMAN
175
airborneobservations
of Shanmugatn
and Pybus[1971]. originatedalongazimuthsto low-levelreflectivitycoresand
Both reported that horizontalpolarizationof sfericsin- that sfericsrateswere largerfrom coreswith higherrefleccreasedand verticalpolarizationdecreased,indicatinga tivity. Furthermore, Brown and Hughes [1978]found that
greaterpreponderanceof horizontallightningchannels,as
the sfericsrate and stormseverityincreased.
the pattern in the number of VLF sferics(which are producedpredominantlyby return strokes)from the Union City
Other observationsalso supportedthis interpretation. tornadicstormwassimilarbothin timeandspaceto patterns
Jones[ 1958]reportedwatchinga stormwhenit wasproduc- in reflectivity at low levels of the storm.
ing high sfericsrates about 1 hour before a tornado;no
Although the sferics studies clearly demonstratedthat
groundflashescould be seen, but relatively dim circular lightningtended to evolve in characteristicpatternsin tor-
patches,about0.5 km in diameter,wereilluminated
in rapid nadic storms, there were a number of uncertainties. (1)
succession
on the sideof the storm.He suggested
that these There were uncertaintiesin extracting lightningflash type
were an unusualform of intracloudlightning.Electric field
ratewas 12 min-1 duringthe tornado[Gunn,1956].Von- the types of storms that produced tornadoes in order to
negut and Moore [1957] inferred from recordingsof the
cloud-to-ground
flashesnear the tornado. Unusuallyhigh
tornadic
and Tettelbach[1980], who usedsatellite-borneopticaldetectors. Films of 17 tornadoes and one funnel cloud docu-
that touchdown
of the tornado
the high sferics rate. Although larger-amplitudesfericsclustered more closely about a central core near the azimuth of
the tornado, sfericsas a whole were spreadamongazimuths
spanning most of the storm. A similar lack of correlation
with
the
time
and
location
of tornado
touchdown
was
4.
until the tornado began dissipating. Negative cloud-togroundflash rates reached a relative maximum after the last
tornado, as its mesocyclone core dissipated, and reached an
absolute
maximum(about4 min-) as the lastmesocyclone
min- duringthemostviolenttornadoandwerewellcorrelated with low-level cyclonic shear when the shear was
in the sferics burst rate but were not coincident with any
peaks.
Several studiesconsideredchangesin tornadicstormsthat
were correlated with the high sferics rates. For example,
severalinvestigatorsfound periodicitiesof 10-60 min in the
176
12
30
KM
20
1.5
KM
30
1.5
KM
20
,.i':::
=:
r,;':
10
< 40
'i
3o
1.2
0.8
0.4
12
0.0
z 10
10 KM
1803
1815
1830
TIME
0,
1845
....
i"
1900
1920
(CST)
Fig. 3. Time series plots of cyclonic shear at the 1.5- and 5-km
levels and of ground flash rates within 10 km of the mesocyclone
center in the Edmond storm of May 8, 1986 [from MacGorman and
occurred.
1833
1900
1930
20'00 '
TIM E (CST)
TORNADO
[
' ..'
.'..':'iI []
Fig. 2. Time series plots of cyclonic shear at the 1.5- and 6-km
levels and of ground and intracloud flash rates within 10 km of the
mesocyclone core in the Binger storm of May 22, 1981 [from
MacGorman et al., 1989]. The bars on the bottom indicate when
tornadoes occurred.
MAcGORMAN
177
(a)
70
6o
so
40
30
(b)
anotherstormbeganto overtakeit from the west. MacGorman and Nielsen [1991] suggested
that the increasein flash
rates in both storms when the mesocyclone was strongest
They alsosuggested,
however,that the deeperand stronger
35
-15
important
classof thunderstorm
electrification
mechanisms
the microphysics
of the storm.Subsequent
transport
is
dominated
initiallyby thesedimentation
of graupel
butmay
becomedominated
by the relativevelocityof the windsin
different
regions
asthegraupel
andicecrystals
movefarther
apart.Thunderstorm
measurements
[e.g.,KrehbieI,
1981;
Byrnne
et al., 1983;Chauzy
et aI., !985;Dyeet al., I986;
Koshakand Krider, 1989]suggest
that mostof the main
negative
charge
at middle
levels
ofthestorm
isongraupel
andprecipitation,
whilethemain
positive
charge
isgenerally
onicecrystals
atcolder
temperatures
(thenextsection
will
10
20
7O
collisions
includethe strength
anddepthof theupdraftand
0
(kin)
30
(c)
-5
EAST
relieson microphysical
particleinteractions
to placecharge
of one signon graupelandchargeof the opposite
signon
cloudice. Suchmechanisms
are affected(1) by factorsthat
transport
of thecharged
particles
intodifferent
regions
of a
-10
,.-, 60
E
I-.. 50
o
,,..F"20
4O
..
'4.0
30
I
-20
-lO
.......I
o
EAST
lO
,I
1__
20
(kin)
discussonepossibleexception).
Fig.4. Lightning
ground
strikes
superimposed
onradarreflectivityatthe3-kmleveloftheMay8, 1986,
Edmond
storm
during
three
Several
investigators
haveobserved
thata strengthening
periods:
(a)
1802-1806
CST,
(b)
1814-1817
CST,
and
(c)
1834-1838
updraft
ataltitudes
colder
than-20Cincreases
flashrates
[fromMacGorman
andNielsen,199!].Therewasa tornado
(seediscussion
byMacGorman
etal.[!989]).
ThisprobablyCST
onlyduring
theperiodin Figure
4b. Minuses
indicate
thestrike
explains
theobserved
increases
in flashratesduring
the pointofflashes
thateffectively
lowered
negative
charge
toground;
tornadic
stage
oftheBinget
andEdmond
storms.
MacGor-pluses,
flashes
thateffectively
lowered
positive
charge.
Thelarge
core.Radarreflectivity
is
manet al. [1989]alsoobserved
increasing
areasof large dotmarksthecenterof themesocyclone
reflectivity
atheights
between
6kmand8kmshortly
beforelabeledin dBZ.NotethatFigure4b hasa differentdistance
178
REVIEW
OF LIGHTNING
IN TORNADIC
STORMS
TOTALCHARGEDENSITY (NC/M**3)
2{
i '
i'
i ....
2
0.
1 0.
2{3.
30.
4.
50.
60.
HORIZONTAL DISTANCE
Fig. 5. Total space charge density in a southwest-northeastvertical cross section through the main updraft, from a numerical
simulation of the Binger storm of May 22, 1981. Solid contours
indicate zero or positive net spacechargedensity; dashedcontours,
MAcGORMAN
179
30
w
20
FO
POSITIVE CLOUD-TO-GROUND
Ill
F1
F4
F1
FO
1800
1900
30
% 20
andpositivegroundflashratesincreased
to theirmaximum
value during the tornado, near the time when negative
groundflashratesalsopeaked(seeFigure3). MacGorman
15()0
1600
1700
2000
2100
TIME (CS'I)
storm),and sometimes
mostof the groundflashesin the
stormwere positivegroundflashes.
largenumbers
of positiveground
flashes,
preliminary
evidencesuggests
that whenrelativelyhighflashratesand tornadonearHutchinson,Kansas,on March26, 1991.This
produced
severe
weather
throughout
muchofitslife.
densities
of positivecloud-to-ground
lightning
occur,they storm
are associatedwith severeweather. Reap and MacGorman
[1989]reportedin a climatological
studythattherewas a
groundflashratescomparable
to orlarger
correlation
betweena highdensityof positivegroundflashes thepeaknegative
flashrates.An example
andsevereweather.Furthermore,in August1990andspring thantheearlierpeakpositiveground
modeisgivenin Figure7, whichshows
ground
1991,MacGorman
and Burgess
[1991]observed
several ofthesecond
flash
rates
for
the
storm
that
produced
an
F5
tornado
in
stormsthat wereunusualbecause(1) mostcloud-to-ground
Plainfield,
Illinois,
on
August
28,
1990.
Prior
to
the
F5
flashes
werepositive
ground
flashes
and(2)ground
strike
pointsof positive
cloud-to-ground
lightning
occurred
in tornadomostgroundflashesin the stormwerepositive.
ratedupto
denseclusters,muchlike the clusters
of negative
ground Duringthisperiod,largehailandfourtornadoes
F2
were
produced.
Three
of
these
tornadoes
occurred
during
flashesobserved
in mostelectrically
activestorms.(Positive
the
period
of
maximum
positive
ground
flash
rates.
ground
flashes
aregenerally
infrequent
anddiffuse.)
Allof
lightning
thestorms
withfrequent
positive
ground
flashes
produced The dominantpolarity of cloud-to-ground
largehail,andmanyproduced
tornadoes.
Similar
observa-switchedas the Plainfieldtornadobegan.Most subsequent
flashes
werenegative,
asshown
clearly
in thetime
tionswerereported
by Rustet al. [1985],CurranandRust ground
series
plots
in
Figure
7.
Also
note
that
there
was
a decrease
[1992],andBranickandDoswell[1992].
flashactivityshortly
beforeandduring
the
These stormswith unusualpositivelightningactivity inoverallground
tornado,muchas described
earlierfor negative
ground
appear
to occurin at leasttwomodes.
In one,positiveF5
flashesin sometornadicstorrns.Negativegroundflashrates
ground
flashes
dominate
cloud-to-ground
activity
throughout
increased
to theirlargestvaluesat theendof thetimeseries
the lifetimeof the storm,including
all tornadicactivity.An
wasmerging
withotherstorms
toform
example
ofa storm
inthismode
isshown
inFigure
6,which plot,whenthestorm
behavior
observed
presents
ground
flash
rates
forthestorm
thatproduced
anF4 a squallline (similarto lightning
180
,1
.....
,i,i i
350
200
:5 5o
o, oo
5O
F1
FO-2
F5
IIIII
HH HHH
400
350
/
200
5 5o
+
lOO
50
o
1200
1300
1400
1500
1600
TIME (CST)
are omitted.
observations
indicate
that
the
character
of the
of negative charge.
The second mechanism discussedby MacGorman and
Nielsen [1991] involved a possible region of significant
positive charge beneath the main negative charge of the
thunderstorm. Such a region could be formed in different
ways. For example, several investigators have suggested
that a lower positive charge could be formed in thunderstorms by a noninductive mechanism studied in the laboratory by Takahashi [1978], Jayaratne et al. [1983], and
others. In most regions in which this mechanism for microphysical charge separation might occur in thunderstorms,
collisions between graupel and ice crystals place negative
charge on graupel and positive charge on ice crystals. These
collisionsresult in the normal tendencyfor the main positive
charge to be generally above the main negative charge. At
temperatures warmer than some threshold between -10
and -20C, however, this is reversed: positive charge is
placed on graupel; negative charge, on ice crystals. If
enough collisions occur between 0C and this reversal temperature, they could create a region of positive charge on
graupel beneath the main negative charge of thunderstorms.
6.
CONCLUSION
MAcGORMAN
will findthefollowing.Almostall stormsthathavemesocyclones will have an increase in intracloud and total flash rates
181
,supercell
storms,which tendto have very largeand strong Brown, R. A., L. R. Lemon, and D. W. Burgess,Tornado detection
by pulsed Doppler radar, Mon. Weather Rev., 106, 29-38, 1978.
updrafts that are quasi-steady,in contrastto updraftsin Burgess, D. W., V. T. Wood, and R. A. Brown, Mesocyclone
lesser thunderstorms.In some tornadic storms, cloud-toevolution statistics, in Preprints, 12th Conference on Severe
groundflasheswill begin and peak shortly after intracloud
Local Storms, pp. 422-424, American MeteorologicalSociety,
Boston, Mass., 1982.
lightning (roughly 10-15 rain later), as in most nonsevere
storms. However, in storms that have updraftslarge and Byrnne, G. J., A. A. Few, and M. E. Weber, Altitude, thickness,
and charge concentrationsof charged regions of four thunderstrongenoughto create prominent, deep weak-echoregions
stormsduringTRIP 1981 basedupon in situ balloonelectricfield
(with high lower boundariesof negativecharge)we expect
measurements,Geophys. Res. Lett., I0, 39-42, 1983.
cloud-to-groundlightningnear the updraft and mesocyclone Chauzy, S., M. Chong, A. Delannoy, and S. Despiau,The 22 June
to be suppressed,so that few ground flashesoccur when the
updraft is strong and ground flash rates peak when the
updraft finally weakens.
There are far fewer data on positive cloud-to-ground
lightning in severe storms, so observed relationships and
suggestedhypothesesshould be regarded as more tentative.
If a tilted chargedistributioncausespositivecloud-to-ground
lightning, then we would expect to see positive ground
flashes in storms in which the top of the main updraft is
displaced sufficientlyfar horizontally from the reflectivity
core. If the described mechanism for the lower positive
charge causespositive cloud-to-ground(+CG) flashes,then
we would expect to see + CG lightningin stormsin which the
number of collisions between graupel and ice crystals is
enhanced at temperatures between freezing and roughly
-15C. Such a situation could occur, for example, if there is
tropical squallline observedduringCOPT 81 experiment:Electrical signatureassociatedwith dynamicalstructureand precipitation, J. Geophys.Res., 90, 6091-6098, 1985.
Church, C. R., and B. J. Barnhart, A review of electrical phenomena associatedwith tornadoes,in Preprints, 1Ith Conferenceon
Severe Local Storms, pp. 337-342, American Meteorological
Society, Boston, Mass., 1979.
Dickson, E. B., and R. J. McConahy, Sferics readingson windstorms and tornadoes, Bull. Am. Meteorol. Soc., 37, 410--412,
1956.
It may be difficult to determinewhich of theseor other Dye, J. E., J. J. Jones,W. P. Winn, T. A. Cerni, B. Gardiner,D.
mechanismsare responsiblefor positive cloud-to-ground Lamb, R. L. Pitter, J. Hallet, and C. P. R. Saunders,Early
lightning.For example, the large separationreportedbeelectrificationand precipitationdevelopmentin a small isolated
Montanacumulonimbus,J. Geophys.Res., 9I, 1231-1247,1986.
tweenthe mesocyclone
andprecipitationfor somestormsin
which positive ground flashesdominate [Branick and Goodman,S. J., and D. R. MacGorman, Cloud-to-groundlightning
182
REVIEW
OF LIGHTNING
IN TORNADIC
STORMS
duringactive Floridathunderstorms,
J. Geophys.Res., 94, 11651186, 1989.
Krider, E. P., A. E. Pifer, and D. L. Vance, Lightning directionfindingsystemsfor forestfire detection,Bull. Am. Meteorol.Soc.,
61, 980-986, 1980.
1979.
lightning detection network, Bull. Am. Meteorol. Soc., 64, 10291037, 1983.
Shanmugam,K., and E. J. Pybus,A note on the electricalcharacteristicsof locally severe storms, in Preprints, 7th Conferenceon
SevereLocal Storms,pp. 86-90, AmericanMeteorologicalSociety, Boston, Mass., 1971.
of the Troposphere,
editedby V. E. Derr, pp. 17-1-17-17,U.S.
1991.
lightningdetectionby a direction-finder
network,J. Geophys.
MacGorman, D. R., and W. L. Taylor, Positive cloud-to-ground Vaughan,O. H., Jr., and B. Vonnegut,LuminouselectricalpheRes., 94, 13,313-13,318, 1989.
MeteorologicalSociety,Boston,Mass., 1985.
MacGorman,12).R., D. W. Burgess,V. Mazur, W. 12).Rust,W. L.
Vonnegut,
B., andC. B. Moore,Electricalactivityassociated
with
the Blackwell-Udall tornado, J. Meteorol., 14, 284-285, 1957.
1990.
Observed
lightning
flash
Orville,R. E., andB. Vonnegut,
Lightning
detection
fromsatellites, Ziegler,C. L., andD. R. MacGorman,
ratesrelativeto modeledspacechargeandelectricfielddistribuin ElectricalProcessesin Atmospheres,editedby H. Dolezalek
tions in a tornadicstorm (abstract),Eos Trans.AGU, 71, 1238,
and R. Reiter, pp. 750-753,DietrichSteinkopffVerlag,Darm-