ENERGYCON 2014 May 13-16, 2014 Dubrovnik, Croatia

Conceptual Design of a Liquid-Based Variable

Inertia Flywheel for Microgrid Applications
James Braid #1
#

School of Electrical and Information Engineering, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg

Private Bag 3, Wits, 2050, Johannesburg, South Africa
1

james.braid@wits.ac.za

AbstractFor a rural microgrid requiring simplicity and

robustness, a ywheel-generator combination directly coupled
to the grid offers both energy storage and inherent stability.
The tradeoff of using a directly-coupled ywheel with a constant
moment of inertia is that the amount of energy extractable
from within the narrow band of synchronous speeds is limited.
Furthermore, a large amount of unusable energy remains within
the ywheel below the grids minimum frequency. By using
a ywheel with a variable moment of inertia, although the
nett energy may be less, the extractability can be increased by
straightforward design. This paper presents the concept of a
liquid-based ywheel where the moment of inertia is engineered
to be a function of speed by appropriately sizing and shaping
the liquids spinning container.
Index TermsVariable inertia, liquid ywheel, extractable
energy

I. I NTRODUCTION
A. Rural Microgrids
This paper follows on from [1] where simplicity and robustness are paramount for survival in the deep-rural and tough
conditions of Africa. In hostile environments with minimal
maintenance and a lack of technical support, the use of power
electronics and smart technologies may be inappropriate in
these circumstances. Such a microgrid is envisaged to provide the user with the most basic form of electrical supply;
loads would typically be small and primarily resistive [1].
Subsequently, the tight frequency limits imposed on modern
networks need not be applied. For the purposes of this paper,
the microgrid requires a base frequency of 50 Hz with a
20 % variation either side being the limits of operation i.e.
a frequency band from 40 Hz to 60 Hz.
B. Energy Storage in Flywheels
The rotational energy W of a solid body spinning at about
its Z-axis is given by equation 1,

1
W = I d = I 2
(1)
2
where the bodys moment of inertia I is determined from its
mass distribution dm along its radius r, given by equation 2.

I = r2 dm
(2)
From equations 1 and 2, the rotational energy of the
ywheel is directly proportional to the product of 2 and r2 .

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In high-energy ywheels, the speed and diameter would be

maximums, typically limited by the circumferential speed r,
approaching the speed of sound.
C. Extractable Energy
For a base-speed of 0 , the frequency band dened above
corresponds to synchronous speed limits of 1 = 0.8 0 and
2 = 1.2 0 respectively. At the upper limit of 1.2 P U , a
total energy of W2 = 1.44 21 I02 would be stored in the
ywheel having a moment of inertia I. As energy is extracted
slowing down its speed to the lower limit of 0.8 P U , the
remaining unusable energy is W1 = 0.64 12 I02 ; the energy
extracted between 2 and 1 being W = 0.80 12 I02 . When
expressed as a ratio of extractable energy to total energy, a
value of 0.80
1.44 = 55.6 % results, illustrating the disadvantage of
using a direct-coupled ywheel. Conversely, when running up
the ywheel from zero-speed under black start conditions for
example, 0.64
1.44 = 44.4 % of the ywheels total energy needs to
be imported before the microgrids minimum frequency limit
of operation is reached.
In the example above, since the moment of inertia remained
constant, the sensitivity of the ywheels stored energy to
its speed is clearly evident, typical of a solid-body ywheel.
For the same speed range, a higher percentage of extractable
energy could only be achieved if the moment of inertia I
remained low for speeds below 1 , and high for speeds
between 1 and 2 , implying a non-solid body ywheel.
Although W would remain more or less the same, the
reduced W1 (and hence W2 ) would result in an improved ratio.
D. Literature Survey
Reference [2] presents a low-cost ywheel with an epoxy
composite disk capable of storing 300 W h of energy. The
ywheels intended use is in rural electrication projects where
the primary energy source is solar panels. The motor-generator
is a brushless DC machine, and bi-directional power ow is
achieved with a DC-DC converter, supplying a 12 V bus. The
intended application of the ywheel presented in this paper is
similar; minus the power converter and supplying an AC grid.
In distribution systems, ywheels are often used to improve
the power quality. Most ywheel systems incorporate two
power electronic converters: when storing energy, one drive
accelerates the disk via a three-phase motor; when extracting
the energy, the output of a three-phase generator (often the

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same machine as the motor) is typically rectied to DC and a

50 Hz grid-connected inverter exports the power to the grid.
The system design for one such example is given in [3]. In
this paper, the power electronic converters are done away with
and the ywheels machine is directly coupled to the grid. This
simplies the system but signicantly reduces the amount of
usable energy stored.
For use in hoisting applications on an oil rig, a variable
inertia ywheel is proposed in [4] to recover and reuse the
potential energy stored in the suspended tubing string. The
variable inertia characteristic is achieved by selectively engaging three equally-sized ywheels onto a common driven shaft,
resulting in three different moments of inertia - a somewhat
complex mechanical drive train is required to implement this.
The speed of the directly-coupled motor-driven ywheel is
typically in the range of 975 rpm to 1430 rpm; the mass of
each ywheel being 458 kg. In this paper, the slow speed and
directly-coupled aspects are common whilst the complexity of
engaging a number of constant-inertia ywheels is replaced
with the simplicity of a single variable-inertia geometry.
True variable inertia ywheels often employ a mass-shifting
mechanism within where, as the speed of rotation increases,
the mass elements move radially outwards due to the centripetal forces exerted. These mass elements are then retracted
using springs or gravity; the centrifugal governor of Sir James
Watt is a classic example. More modern day examples can be
found, such as the three designs proposed in [5]. In this paper,
the mass elements are replaced with liquid, dispersed by the
centripetal forces and retracted by gravity.
For use in a screw press, [6] proposes the use of ywheels to
provide the energy prole required through the pressing cycle
and to improve the presss overall efciency. Two ywheels are
used: a xed-speed ywheel is constantly driven and power
is transferred, when required, to a variable inertia ywheel
via an activated coupling. Once the required energy level has
been reached, power is then similarly transferred to the screw
spindle. The variable inertia ywheel takes the form of a
centrifugal governor, as described above.
An unusual variable inertia ywheel is presented in [7]
having the same objective as this paper: to improve the extractability ratio of the energy stored. The ywheel presented
comprises an elastomer ring that expands non-linearly due to
the increasing centripetal forces and hence achieves its variable
moment of inertia. An extractability ratio of 80 % is achieved
over a speed range of only 0.05 P U , somewhat better than
that of the ywheel presented in this paper and signicantly
better than that of a typical solid-body ywheel. The speed of
operation however is approximately 7500 rpm.
E. Problem Statement
This paper is constrained to the conceptual design of a
liquid-based ywheel, inherently having a speed-varying moment of inertia, with the objective of improving the percentage
of extractable energy. The work presented is purely theoretical; all electrical and mechanical aspects of the ywheel
are subjects for future work. For proof-of-concept purposes,

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the ywheel is treated as being perfectly ideal: friction and

windage losses, aero- and uid- dynamics, etc. are ignored.
II. BACKGROUND
A. Rotating Liquids
The curve of a liquids free surface in a rotating container,
described by Newton, is given by the parabola in equation 3;
essentially the balance between the molecules rotational kinetic energy and potential energy. This is often applied in
liquid metal telescopes where the large diameter reector of
liquid metal rotates at precisely the required speed to achieve
the curvature for the desired focal length.
In a liquid-based ywheel containing a predened volume
of uid, as the speed of the rotating container increases, the
uid is dispersed radially towards the outer surface. This
results in a redistribution of mass and, from equation 2, an
increasing moment of inertia; as a function of speed.
h=

1 2 2
r
2g

(3)

From equation 3, the height h along the curve at radius

r grows rapidly due to the product of 2 and r2 . This has
the fundamental disadvantage in this application in that the
stored energy, given by equations 1 and 2, also depends on the
product of 2 and r2 i.e. a high-energy liquid-based ywheel
would have an impractical height! However, for low-energy
applications and with careful consideration given to the speed
and radius of the ywheel, a feasible solution may be found.
B. Constant Moment of Inertia
In a rotating solid-body object where the mass distribution
dm is not uniform, equation 2 can be expressed in terms of its
density and elemental volume dV by means of dm = dV .
By considering the objects cross-sectional prole Z(r) in the
r-Z plane and slicing it up into a series of concentric rings
from the Z-axis to its outer radius R, each of thickness dr,
the elemental volume is given by dV = 2r Z(r) dr and the
moment of inertia is calculated using equation 4:
 R
I = 2
r3 Z(r) dr
(4)
0

Since the total inertia is the sum of moments of each ring

(each being a hoop with Ir = M R2 ), equation 4 can be
computed using the Riemann sum given in equation 5.
I=

R


Ir

where :

Ir = 2 r3 Z(r) dr

(5)

r=0

Moments of inertia for three common geometries are listed

in Table I; moments of inertia and energy densities for more
complex geometries of practical ywheels can be found in [8]
and [9] respectively. In all three cases, the mass M and outer
radius R remain constant, only the distribution of the mass is
changed. In the rst case, with the mass bound close to the axis
of rotation, a very low moment of inertia results. In the second
case, as the mass distribution moves radially outwards, the

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moment of inertia increases. The highest moment of inertia is

achieved in the third case, where all of the mass is concentrated
on the outer radius. Since I R2 , the sensitivity of the
moment of inertia to the radius is evident.



TABLE I
M OMENTS OF INERTIA FOR COMMON GEOMETRIES .



Geometry

Moment
Irod =

1
M R2
8

Idisk =

1
M R2
2



 

Description
narrow rod of r =











1
R
2









Ihoop = M R2

solid disk of r = R


















 

hoop of r = R
Fig. 2.

Energy vs speed for corresponding moments of inertia.



the extractable energy is halved to Wdisk = 0.40 P U whilst

the extraction ratio remains the same. For the variable inertia
ywheel ( markers), at 1 the energy is W1 = 0.35 P U
and at 2 the energy is W2 = 1.09 P U . This results in
Wvar = 0.74 P U of extractable energy, comparable to
Whoop , and having a ratio of 67.9 %; an improvement of
12.3 %. Furthermore, the unusable energy remaining in the
ywheel below 1 is half that of the hoop-type ywheel.
Consequently, when spinning up the ywheel from zero-speed,
only half the energy is now required to reach the microgrids
minimum frequency limit of operation.
In essence, when operating within the desired speed range,
Wvar takes the same curve as Whoop , shifted downwards by
Wdisk evaluated at 1 .



III. C ONCEPTUAL D ESIGN

C. Variable Moment of Inertia

By transforming the geometry of the ywheel employed in
Section I-C from a disk to a hoop at a predened transition
speed, a variable moment of inertia Ivar results, effectively
doubling from Idisk to Ihoop as shown in Figure 1. For
comparative purposes, a step- (at 1 ) and a more realistic
ramp- change (at 0.6 P U speed) in Ivar is illustrated. Since the
moment of inertia is now a function of , the energy stored
within the ywheel is calculated using the integral form of
equation 1.


 
 



The ywheel takes the form of a spinning container having

an engineered shape and lled with a nite volume of liquid, as
illustrated in Figure 3. The prole of the container, described
in the r-Z plane, comprises two curves: Ztop (r) and Zbot (r),
dening the top- and bottom- surfaces respectively. The curve
of the uids surface, dened by equation 3, is Zf luid (r); the
depth of the uid at any point being a function of both speed
and radius. Naturally, the liquid occupies the space between
Zf luid and Zbot as shown.


































 

A. Moment of Inertia vs Speed

Fig. 1.

Step- and ramp- changes in Ivar from Idisk to Ihoop .

Figure 2 shows the corresponding energy functions for each

of the moments of inertia plotted in gure 1. Evident from the
gure is the almost insignicant difference between the stepand ramp- change in Ivar at a speed of 0.8 P U . From gure 2,
for a hoop-type ywheel ( markers), the extractable energy
between 1 and 2 is Whoop = 0.80 P U and, expressed
as a ratio, corresponds to 55.6 %; as determined previously in
Section I-C. Similarly, for a disk-type ywheel ( markers),

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From Figure 3, at low speeds, the liquid drains to the

bottom of the container resulting in a mass distribution concentrated close to the Z-axis; the resulting Ivar could loosely
be approximated to Irod as per Table I-1. As the speed of
rotation increases, the uid is dispersed outwards and the mass
distribution moves away from the Z-axis. At the transition
speed, with a container having a bottom surface curve parallel
to that of the uids surface, a constant-depth prole and hence
disk-like mass distribution results; consequently Ivar would
correspond to Idisk as per Table I-2. For higher speeds, the

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IV. M ODELING AND S IMULATIONS



Fundamental to all simulations is the modeling of the uids

dispersion within the container at a given speed. Although the
curvature of the uids surface is dened, because the volume
of the liquid remains constant, the depth of the uid at r = 0
decreases as the uid is dispersed outwards.










A. Depth of Fluid





To calculate the depth at r = 0 for a given speed, a form of

graphical convolution, as illustrated in gure 4, is performed
using scripting code. The uids curve, starting from a height
C above the containers bottom curve, is lowered in a loop
routine, down the Z-axis in incremental steps.
























 

dr
-

Fig. 3. Containers prole dened in the r-Z plane showing the uids
distribution at zero-speed.

liquid is conned to the outer wall of the container such

that the cross-sectional prole and hence mass distribution
resembles those of a hoop, and hence Ivar approaches Ihoop
as per Table I-3.

Z
6

dV 

?
0

Fig. 4.

Zf luid
@Z
I
bot

-r

Parameters used to perform graphical convolution to determine C.

B. Demonstration Flywheel
A ywheel with a base-speed of 0 corresponding to
300 rpm, an outer radius of R = 200 mm and lled with
25 l of water, is modeled below. These numbers have been
chosen for illustration purposes only; a legitimate design
would primarily be based on the energy storage requirements.
To attain a base-frequency of 50 Hz, a 20-pole generator,
possibly built into the unused cavity of the ywheel, would
need to be employed. The 0.8 to 1.2 P U frequency band
stipulated in Section I-A correspond to synchronous speeds
of 240 and 360 rpm respectively. With reference to Figure 2,
to store the highest possible energy within this speed range,
the steepest possible slope for WV ar is required. This implies
that the highest moment of inertia (i.e. Ihoop ) must already be
adopted by 1 i.e. a transition at a speed somewhere below
0.8 P U .

V =

R


dV (r)

where :

(6)

and :

(7)

Z(r) = (Zf luid (r) + C) Zbot (r)

(8)

r=0

dV (r) = 2r Z(r) dr

The loop continues until the summed volume equals the set
uid volume, returning the vertical offset C. A negative value
of C simply means that all the uid has been displaced away
from the Z-axis.
B. Fluid Dispersion

C. Transition Speed
Since a step-change transition of Ivar would not be possible
in a rigid container, a speed range of 0.4 P U centered about
0.6 P U is assumed to be sufcient for a ramp-change to span;
this corresponds to a transition speed of 180 rpm.
From equation 3, the uid surface is dened by Zf luid (r) =
2 r2
2g ; to achieve a moment of inertia equal to Idisk at
the transition speed of 180 rpm, the bottom surface of the
container must take the same curve of Zbot (r) = 18.109 r2 .
At this speed and for a radius of r = 200 mm, the surface of
the liquid rises to h = 724 mm above its minimum point at
r = 0. Finally, a simple at surface with a sufciently large
void below for the uid to occupy, is dened for the containers
top by Ztop (r) = 1200.

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After each iteration, the volume V between the two curves

is determined from the Riemann sum in equation 6.

For speeds from zero to 1.4 P U , the above method is used to

determine the uids dispersion within the container. Table II
shows the resulting uid surface (dark trace) at the labeled
speeds (the axes remain the same as those in Figure 3).

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TABLE II
F LUID DISPERSION WITHIN CONTAINER FOR INCREASING SPEEDS .











ENERGYCON 2014 May 13-16, 2014 Dubrovnik, Croatia

As the speed increases the uid disperses radially outwards

as expected. At 0.6 P U the uids surface is clearly parallel to
the containers bottom surface, as it was engineered to be. At
high speeds, the inner surface of the displaced uid approaches
the vertical. The sequence of plots in Table II generally follows
the trend of Table I where, as the mass distribution moves
outwards, an increasing moment of inertia results.
Table III plots the depth of the uid Z(r) along the
containers radius, given by equation 8, for increasing speeds
(Z-axis: 200 mm/div, r-axis: 50 mm/div).
TABLE III
F LUID DEPTH ALONG RADIUS WITH INCREASING SPEEDS .

I =

R


dI(r)

(9)

r=0

Finally, the variable moment of inertia Ivar () across the

entire speed range is given by the series of inertiae:
1.2 P U

Ivar () = (Iw )
(10)
=0

Equation 10 is plotted in Figure 5 together with Idisk and

Ihoop determined with M = 25 kg and R = 200 mm (as per
Table I) for comparison purposes.

















At 0.6 P U the disk-like cross-sectional prole is clearly

visible. At speeds above 1.0 P U , the uid begins to take on
a hoop-like geometry.
From the depth proles of the uid the elemental volumes
dV are calculated from equation 7. Table IV plots dV (r) along
the containers radius for increasing speeds (Z-axis: 0.2 l/div,
r-axis: 50 mm/div).























COMPONENTS ALONG RADIUS FOR INCREASING SPEEDS .

















From Table V the rapid growth in inertia outwards along

the radius is clearly evident. The resultant moment of inertia
I at each speed is given by equation 9.

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Variable moment of inertia across the entire speed range.

Figure 5 compares well with Fig. 1 and shows that a ramp

change in Ivar is a good approximation. In contrast to that in
Fig. 1, Ivar never reaches Ihoop ; the latter resulting from the
entire mass being located at the outer radius i.e. the hoop is
innitely tall and thin. Furthermore, Ivar begins well below
Idisk at low speeds, due to the pooling of uid close to the Zaxis; Irod would make a better approximation at low speeds.
In both gures 5 and 1, at the transition speed of 0.6 P U , Ivar
equals Idisk as designed. Similarly in both gures, Ivar rises
towards its highest value by 1 , as required.
Since Ivar is a function of speed, the resultant energy-vsspeed relationship is determined from the integral form of
equation 1, or by the Riemann sum in equation 11.
Wvar () =

Ivar ()

(11)

TABLE V







The volume of the liquid inside the container remains

constant at 25 l and can be conrmed using equation 6 in
each of the ve cases. Subsequently, the mass distribution
is determined from substitution into dm = dV (where
= 1000 kg/m3 for water) and simply results in a scaled
version of the plots above.
Next, the elemental moments of inertia for each piecewise segment of mass is calculated from dI = r2 dm, which
essentially scales the previous plots by r2 . Table V plots dI(r)
along the containers radius for increasing speeds (Z-axis:
0.01 kg.m2 /div, r-axis: 50 mm/div).
I NERTIA



ALONG RADIUS WITH INCREASING SPEEDS .

Fig. 5.







TABLE IV
VOLUME DISTRIBUTION





Equation 11 is plotted across the speed range from zero to

1.4 P U in Figure 6, together with Wdisk and Whoop duplicated
from Fig. 2 for comparison purposes.
Comparing gures 6 and 2, good agreement exists between
the two graphs. Evident from Figure 6 is a larger separation
and slight divergence between Whoop and Wvar , implying that
the latter will have a higher extractability ratio since W2 will
be less. At low speeds, due to the moment of inertia Ivar being
less than Idisk , the energy Wvar is also consequently lower
than anticipated.

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it is deemed to be relatively easily to source, for lling of the

ywheel in situ.
From the experience gained, the following future considerations may improve the design: The use of multiple transition
points in the curves of both the bottom- and top- surfaces of
the container, to effectively shape Figure 6 as desired. Possible
use of elastic materials in the containers construction to alter
its shape with speed, in an attempt to accelerate the transition
of Ivar . Inclusion of horizontal bafes to restrict the vertical
growth of the uids curve with speed. Use of radial ns on
the inside surface of the container to ensure that the uid and
container rotate as one mass i.e. no slip. The use of two liquids
having vastly different densities will result in the heavier uid
moving outwards and the lighter one moving inwards, with
increasing speed; this may result in a greater change in the
moment of inertia.








































Fig. 6.

Energy vs speed for variable moment of inertia ywheel.

VI. C ONCLUSION
At 1 the energy stored in the variable inertia ywheel
is W1 = 0.31 P U , slightly less than that of Wdisk . At
2 , W2 = 0.93 P U , a difference of 0.16 P U from that
predicted in Section II-C, directly caused by Ivar failing to
reach the theoretical Ihoop on which the prediction is based.
Consequently, the extractable energy Wvar = 0.62 P U is
lower than anticipated, but when expressed as a ratio, still
yields 66.7 %; i.e. 11.1 % more than the hoop-type ywheel.
When compared to the elastomer ywheel in [7], the
extractability ratio of this liquid-based ywheel is not as high
as the 80 % of the former. In addition, the former achieves
this within a narrower speed range of 0.05 P U which, if
used in the same application as this paper, would result in
a frequency band from 48.5 Hz to 51.5 Hz. This signicant
improvement comes at a price however, the high-speed of
operation (approximately 7500 rpm) far exceeds the 3000 rpm
limit imposed on a ywheel that is to be directly coupled to
the grid.
V. O BSERVATIONS AND R ECOMMENDATIONS
With reference to Figure 6, 1.0 P U of energy corresponds to
approximately 500 J; combined with its low speed (300 rpm)
and large dimensions (1200 mm high 400 mm diameter),
the demonstration ywheel presented has no immediate practical applications. However, the concept of a speed-varying
moment of inertia has been demonstrated.
During the simulation process it was noted that: The curve
of the uids surface, dened by equation 3, is independent
of the volume of liquid beneath it, the shape of the container,
or the density of the uid. Equation 3 therefore offers little
freedom of design and hence simple geometries will result in
high aspect ratio containers (i.e. tall and narrow) with a large
volume of unused space in the center. The uids density only
impacts the resultant moment of inertia; water was chosen as

978-1-4799-2449-3/14/$31.00 2014 IEEE

The concept of a variable moment of inertia ywheel has

been demonstrated; using a container having an engineered
shape, the resultant dispersion of the liquid within, at increasing speeds, results in the moment of inertia increasing
from that of a disk-type ywheel to that of a hoop-type
ywheel, all three constrained to the same mass and outer
radius. Although the extractable energy within the set speed
band remains similar to that of a hoop-type ywheel, the
percentage of extractability increases by more than 10 %.
In addition, the unusable energy remaining below the lower
speed limit is halved. Despite the demonstration ywheel
being somewhat impractical, a design methodology and several
future considerations have been presented.
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[3] J. Zhang, Z. Chen, L. Cai, and Y. Zhao, Flywheel energy storage system
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