Documenti di Didattica
Documenti di Professioni
Documenti di Cultura
Giovanni B. Barla
Department of Structural Engineering
Politecnico di Torino
Torino, Italy
Stefan H. Boshkov
Henry Krumb School of Mines
Columbia University
New York, New York
ABSTRACT
The block caving method is examined in this paper on the basis of experimental results and observations in the field, and through the use of numerical
modeling by the Finite Element Method. The Grace Mine, developed by a panel
caving method, served as a reference case. However, the results obtained and
the simulation techniques which have been developed may find useful application
in more general conditions as encountered in other mining operations by block
caving. Following a brief description of the Grace Mine and of the mining
method, the problems associated with the behavior of underground drifts at the
production levels, during undercutting and caving, are addressed. The most
important results obtained through monitoring of strains and loads in the
supports of a runway are discussed, while giving relevance to the sequence of
mining operations in the immediate vicinity. The most important geomechanical
data, as provided for subsequent modeling, are described with reference to:
(a) rock mass characterization and (b) in situ state of stress. Then, the
numerical modeling procedures, developed by the Finite Element Method in order
to predict the caving phenomena and the behavior of underground openings during
undercutting, are discussed. Finally, an attempt is made to compare the predictions of the numerical analyses with,the measurements carried out at the
instrumented site. Suggestions as to how to improve the results both qualitatively and quantitatively are also given.
no c a s e was v i o l e n t , b u t g r a d u a l and u n r e l e n t i n g .
MINE DESCRIPTION
The Grace Mine i s s i t u a t e d approximately 1 0 km
s o u t h o f Reading ( ~ e n n s ~ l v a n i a ) U
. p t o t h e end of
1978, a magnetite orebody, w i t h an average t h i c k ness of 100 m , about 400 m wide, h a s been mined a t
a depth o f 700 m by t h e p a n e l c a v i n g method.
FIGURE 1 - Mine p l a n .
IXSTRUMENTED RUNWAY
With t h e purpose o f d e t e r m i n i n g t h e l o a d on s t e d
s e t s and s t r a i n s i n t h e c o n c r e t e l i n i n g , it was dec i d e d t o i n s t r u m e n t an o r e h a u l a g e runway (Runway
6 0 9 ~ ,6 t h l e v e l ) , a t tvo a d j a c e n t e n t r i e s t o t h e
caved o r e , a s shown i n F i g u r e 3.
T h i s runway was i n s t r u m e n t e d between November
1 9 7 3 and October 1974 (Agarwal e t a l . , 1 9 7 3 ) . The
equipment i n s t a l l e d i n c l u d e d c o n c r e t e s t r a i n t r a n s m i t t e r s and l o a d c e l l s . The s t r a i n t r a n s m i t t e r s
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ANALYSIS OF
Monitoring o f s t r a i n t r a n s m i t t e r s and l o a d c e l l s
a t t h e instrumented runway was i n i t i a t e d j u s t a f t e r
i n s t a l l a t i o n . By January 1974, most of t h e t r a n s ducers could be d e t e c t e d a t given time i n t e r v a l s .
The measurements were c a r r i e d o u t a f t e r t h e incept i o n of undercutting near t h e instrumented s i t e ,
t o t h e end of 1975.
Subsequently, monitoring o f equipment i n s t a l l a t i o n was d i s c o n t i n u e d and measurements were c a r r i e d
o u t i n A p r i l 1976, May i 9 7 7 , and a few t i m e s i n
t h e summer o f 1977, w i t h r e a d i n g s t a k e n on J u l y
1977, l a s t day of o r e p r o d u c t i o n a t t h e mine. The
instrumented s i t e was a l s o v i s i t e d i n May 1978,
a f t e r t h e mine had been c l o s e d down f o r some t i m e .
No readings could be performed, a s t h e m o n i t o r i n g
s t a t i o n appeared t o be damaged beyond r e p a i r .
A number of c e l l s became i n o p e r a t i v e d u r i n g
mining and caving o p e r a t i o n s . I n a few c a s e s , t h e
allowable measurement r a n g e appeared t o be exceeded.
Also, p r i o r t o October 1975, t h e c o n n e c t i r i ~c a b l e s
o f many gages were damaged d u r i n g d r i l l i n g operat i o n s a t t h e s i t e and l a t e r a t t e m p t s a t r e p a i r
were n o t s u c c e s s f u l . I n f a c t , a s e t o f measurements c a r r i e d o u t d u r i n g May 1977 showed t h a t more
than seventy p e r c e n t o f t h e c e l l s i n s t a l l e d a t
t h e s i t e ;;ere no l o n g e r o p e r a t i v e .
The changes i n t h e v a l u e s o f t h e p r i n c i p a l
s t r a i n s i n t h e c o n c r e t e l i n i n g , e x c e p t f o r a few
l o c a t i o n s , appear t o f o l l o w a n e a r l y s i m i l a r p a t t e r n o f behavior. A t r e n d i n t h e v a r i a t i o n o f t h e
p r i n c i p a l s t r a i n s d i r e c t i o n s d u r i n g mining i s more
d i f f i c u l t t o be r e c o g n i z e d . However, an a t t e m p t
was made a s shown i n F i g u r e 5 , t o g a i n some i n s i g h t s i n t o the general behavior p a t t e r n of t h e
c o n c r e t e l i n i n g . C o n s i d e r a t j o n was g i v e n mainly
t o t h e measurements o f s t r a i n s a t a few l o c a t i o n s
along t h e instrumented runway, s e l e c t e d on t h e
b a s i s o f t h e performance o f s t r a i n c e l l s f o r t h e
complete o b s e r v a t i o n p e r i o d .
The l o a d s a t t h e b a s e o f t h e s t e e l s e t s duri n g mining a r e more r e a d i l y i n t e r p r e t e d t h a n
changes i n s t r a i n i n t h e c o n c r e t e l i n i n g . I n o r der t o o f f e r a comprehensive view o f t h e l o a d i n g
behavior p a t t e r n , t h e r e s u l t s o f measurements a t
a number of l o a d c e l l s a l o n g t h e runway were used
t o e v a l u a t e a t each d a t e a meax v a l u e o f t h e l o a d
a c t i n g a t t h e base of each p o s t ( F i g u r e 6 ) . Again,
t h e c h o i c e of t h e neasured v a l u e s was based mainly
upon t h e l o a d c e l l s which remained a c t i v e d u r i n g
the observation period.
By r e l a t i n g t h e r e s u l t s o f measurements a t t h e
246
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;
acdercutting at ~ h e
oOr, ?z?,i, L.-v.il Lit-(;;.::s,ir! t o n f f e c t
s t r a i n val2-s ir, ti;- :,-'ncr.e:il i n i n g , onLy ..rhrn tnr u n d e r c u t t i n g t. i g z , u~ oni: t!,r 1orli:ituuinal '1;r e c t i o n of
t h e r i l n v y , i s rlcar-iy 3t.ove one end o f che i n s t r u :nentei rimway ( i n ti^., irr~meciiate v i c i n i t , y o f t h e El:
e n t r y ) . The s t r a i n s t a t e a t t h e back of t h e runway a p p e a r s ti; b e d e f i n e d uy n e a r l y h o r i z o n t a l cc;n
p r e s s i v e jc2 j a n d r ~ e a r l yv e r t i c a l ( E ~ )t e n s i l e
strains.
2 . The t , e n s i l e s t r a i n ( c l ) genera1l.y i n c r e a s e s
q - a d u a l l y t o r e a c h a maximum v a l u e , where t h e Lind e r c u t p a s s e s o v e r e a c h gage l o c a t i o n . At t h e s c m e
t i m e , ttle c o m p r e s s i v e s t r a i n (2) i n c r e a s e s , t o
d r o p down tg a n e a r z e r o v a l u e , vhen t h e p i l l a r
above e a c h l o c a t i o n i s b l a s t e d .
3. During u n d e r c u t t i n g a t t h e 508 E a s t l e v e l , n
small r e l a t i v e r o t a t i o n of t h e p r i n c i p a l axes o f
s t r a i n / s t r e s s i s o b s e r v e d t o t h e l e f t , when f a c i n g
t h e r o s e t t e a l o n g t h e runway, from e n t r y E 3 t o "'.
C o n v e r s e l y , when u n d e r c u t t i n g i s i n i t i a t e d a t t h e
509 E a s t l e v e l , t h e p r i n c i p a l s t r a i n s / s t r e s s e s g e n
e r a l l y show a d e f i n i t e t r e n d t o r o t a t e t,o t h e
r i g h t , e x c e p t f o r l o c a t i o n 5 . Rowever, i t a p p e a r s
p o s s i b l e t h a t t h i s d i f f e r e n t b e h a v i o r c a n be due
t o t h e p r o x i m i t y t o t h e j u n c t i o n w i t h e n t r y E3.
F i n a l l y , when t h e u n d e r c u t a t t h e 605)E a s t l e v e l
i s near t o completion, t h e r e l a t i v e r o t a t i o n t o
tile r i g h t a p p e a r s t o 'ce s i g n i f i c a n t .
Therefore,
a s t h e maximurn p r i n c i p a l s t r a i n tl i n c r e a s e s i n
t e n s i o n , i n c o n j u n c t i o n w i t h t h e minimum p r i n c i p a l
s t r a i n t 2 i n c r e a s i n ~i n :ompression, a r e l a t i v e rc
t a t i o n t o t h e r i g h t i s observed f o r t h e p r i n c i p s l
strain/sfress direction.
4. I n most i n s t a n c e s , t h e l o a d c e i l s l o c a t e d
near t h e dinbase-nagnetit- contact zppear t o respond p r o m p t l y t o t h e s t r e s s i n c r e a s e t s i i i r l g ? l a c s
a t t h e f a c e o f t h e u n d e r c u t a f t e r f a n ho:es i ~ l a s t i n g a t bot':~ t h e 605 E a s t a n d 639 E a s t i e v e l s .
'5Tht
loads i n t h e :;teei s e t s a r c seen t o i n c r e a s e c r s d g
a l l y w i t h :!:axi::~mi val-es b e i n g a t t a i n e d a f t e r f a n
h o l e s ; e r e 3 l z s t e c i a t t h e h O ] Z a s t Ie7rt:l. A i ~ n g
t h e i n s t r u m e n t e d runway, t h e l o a d t c e l l s loc:3.ted bc
tween t h e two e n : . r i e s and toward t h e ~ m d c r c u % t i r i f :
d r i f t show t h e g r e a t e s t l o a d i n c r e a s e . I n a number
o f c a s e s t h e - e l l s became i n o p e r a t i v e becaus:? t h e
maximum m e a s u r i n g r a n g e was e x c e e d e d . I t i s s i z n i f i c a n t t o not.;. t h a t t h i s t o o k p l a c e f o r 311 tt:c
c e l l s l o c a t e d n e a r t h e j ~ n c t i o n s between runway
and e n t r i e s . A3 t h e u n d e r c u t a i t h e 609 E a s t l e v e l
a p p r o a c h e d t h e c r o s s s e c t i . c n o f g a g e s l o c z l i o n 5hc
l o a d i n c r e a s e d . As t h e s a x e ~ i r ~ d e r c up ta s s e 2 o - ~ e r
and beyond t h i s s a n e c r o s s :;ectiorl, Itle lsitii ;Lt?c r e a s e d a b r u p t l y t o v a l u e s s l i g l i c i y lar.:er
thsn tne
i n i t i a l o n e s , x e a s u r e d a f t e r f a n h o l e s were b l a s t e l
a t t h e 608 E a s t l e v e l .
j ~;;~.;r~.~r*t:,j
-~,JT:
~r~L
sit,?,
.
GEOiWCHAPJICAL 2ATA
I m p o r t a n t n s s l u n p t i o n s a n 6 c h o i c e s ts be nade i n
t h e f o l l o w i n g a r e c l o s e l y rt?lat,e:i t o n u r l e r i c l l . r:od
cling by t i l e f i n i t e e l e m e n t alethoti. f i a i n l y , t h e
c o n s t i t u t i v e e q u a t i o n s t o be a d o p t e d f o r the des c r i p t i o n o f t h e r o c k mass :jehavior r e q u i r e the
e v a l u a t i o n o f t h e 07;er?ll s t r e n g t h and :ieformzbi-
P r o p e r t i e s o f Rock M a t e r i a l s
The d i a b a s e r o c k was a v a i l a b l e t h r o u g h overcor i n g c a r r i e d o u t f o r t h e determination of t h e i n
s i t u s t a t e o f s t r e s s . A number o f m a g n e t i t e spec-mens c o u l d be o b t a i n e d by c o r i n g a few b l o c k s i n
These same b l o c k s were d e r i v e d
the laboratory.
from caved o r e a t t h e 6 0 9 ~l e v e l . No specimens
were a v a i l a b l e f o r q u a r t z i t e .
A number o f l a b o r a t o r y t e s t s were c a r r i e d o u t i n
o r d e r t o c h a r a c t e r i z e t h e rock m a t e r i a l s . u n i a x i a l
conpression t e s t s , i n d i r e c t t e n s i l e t e s t s ( ~ r a z i l i a n t e s t s ) , a n d p o i n t l o a d s t r e n g t h t e s t s were p e r
formed. I n a d d i t i o n , e p e t r o g r a p h i c d e s c r i p t i o n
The
was p r o v i d e d f o r d i a b a s e and m a g n e t i t e r o c k s .
m a t e r i a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f d i a b a s e and m a g n e t i t e
o.re s u ~ m a r i z e di n T a b l e 1.
Rock Mass
The g e n e r a l g e o l o g y o f t h e orebody was w e l l d o c
lumented a t t h e mine. However, a d d i t i o n a l geomechan
i c a l d a t a on v a r i o u s r o c k f o r m a t i o n s were d e s i r a b l e
f o r a b e t t e r c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n o f t h e r o c k mass.
It
u a s t h e r e f o r e d e c i d e d t o map and perform s t a t i s t i c a l p l o t s o f t h e j o i n t s and d i s c o n t i n u i t i e s a t s p g
c i f i c s i t e s i n niabase. I n keeping with t h e nature
o f t h e g r e s c r i t work, which was n o t o r i e n t e d s p e c i f i
c n l l y toward t h e e v a l u a t i o n o f o r e c a i - a b i l i t y , no
Four
s t r u c t u r e map was performed i n m a g n e t i t e .
s i t e s were c h o s e n f o r geomechanical mapping, where
t h e w a l l d r i f t s w e r e exposed and no s u p p o r t s i n s t a l l e d . At e a c h s i t e , t h r e e s c a n l i n e s , e a c h app r o x i m a t e l y 1 5 rn i n l e n g t h , were g e n e r a l l y l a i d
down p a r a l l e l t o t h e f l o o r .
The d a t a were c o l l e c t
r d by a n s l y s i n g t h e d i s c o n t i n u i t i e s i n t e r s e c t i n g
t h e scan l i n e .
For e v e r y d i s c o n t i n u i t y , t h e f o l l o w i n g d a t a were
recorded:
a ) a t s t a n c e a l o n g t h e s c a n l i n e , from some datum,
t o t h e p o i n t 3 f i n t e r s e c t i o n w i t h each d i s c o n , .L,.
LLAity.
i:) S t r i k e and d i p of e a c h : i i s z o n t i n u i ? , y . Sach
azimuthal bearing i s given with respect t o the
Y o r t h cnd o f 'he compass n e e d l e .
2 ) ;ðer
o r n o t t h e d i s c o n t i n u i t y i s open and by
how much.
dl 'Xhether o r n o t i n f i l l i n g m a t e r i a l i s p r e s e n t i n
t h e open j o i n t s .
e l Z s t i m a t e 3 f t h e n a t u r e 3 f t h e d i s c o n t i n u i t y ma;t
ir:g s u r l ' a c e s
Waviness and s u r f a c e c h a r a c t e r
of' t h e s a n e s u r f a c e s .
I
Diabase
Magnetite
Density ( y d )
Grain Density ( y g )
Porosity ( n l
Sonic v e l o c i t y ( v R )
Compressive S t r e n g t h ( Co)
T e n s i l e S t r e n g t h ( T,)
S t r e n g t h Index ( I s )
Tangent Modulus ( E) ~
Tangent Poisson R a t i o ( v t )
Note:
x = mean v a l u e ;
n = number o f t e s t s ;
s = standard deviation
I t should be observed t h a t t h e f r a c t u r e s p a c i n g
a s determined above i s r e p r e s e n t a t i v e ofa;:L discont i n u i t i e s a t each s i t e , a s evidenced on t h e 7,laZLs
of openings which remained unsupported f o r conside r a b l e l e n g t h o f time a f t e r e x c a v a t i o n . Therefore,
t h i s spacing cannot be used d i r e c t l y t o d e r i v e t h e
diabase rock mass q u a l i t y . I n -any c a s e , it i s o f
i n t e r e s t t o observe t h a t t h e RQD index e s t i m a t e d
on t h e b a s i s o f a l l f r a c t u r e s on t h e w a l l s u r f a c e
would range from a minimum o f approximately 45 p e r
c e n t t o a maximum o f approximately 98 p e r c e n t .
FIGURE 7 - D e n s i t y diagram of d i s c o n t i n u i t y d a t a .
Cumulative a n a l y s i s ( 6 0 4 , 607, 612, 613 E l e v e l s ) .
Higher numerals and l e t t e r s (A,B) s t a n d f o r h i g h e r
density values.
In S i t u State of Stress
The i n s i t u s t a t e o f s t r e s s i n t h e a r e a o f i n t e ~
e s t was determined by u s i n g t h e U.S.B.M. t h r e e component b o r e h o l e deformation gage method. The measg
rement s i t e was s e l e c t e d t o be i n t h e v i c i n i t y o f
t h e i n s t r u m e n t e d o p e n i n g , a t a depth o f a p p r o x i m a t e
l y 700 rn below t h e ground s u r f a c e ( F i g u r e 1) . The
measurements were c a r r i e d o u t by Agarval e t 61.
(1973).
The s t r e s s components were c a l c u l a t e d on t h e
b a s i s o f 36 d e f o r m a t i o n measurements. With r e f e r ence t o a XYZ c a r t e s i a n c o o r d i n a t e system ( t h e X
a x i s i s along t h e East d i r e c t i o n , t h e Y a x i s i s
a l o n g t h e North d i r e c t i o n , and t h e Z a x i s i s v e r t i c a l ) , t h e s t r e s s e l l i p s o i d c a l c u l a t i o n s gave:
248
NUMERICAL i4ODELIBG
The main p u r p o s e o f t h e n u n e r i c a l m o d e l i n p wsrk,
c a r r i e d o u t by means o f t h e F i n i t e Element i~lethod
(FEM), was t o a n a l y s e t h e s t r e s s and d e f o r r c a t i o n
changes around t h e runways, w i t h t h e main i n t e r e s t
b e i n g c e n t e r e d upon t h e i n s t r - & r e n t e d s i t e a t t i l e
609 E a s t l e - r e l . The n u m e r i c a l p r o c e d u r e f i n a l 1 y
a d o p t e d c o n s i s t e d o f t h e fol.lowing ('1:
FIXED
FIGURE 8
i n o r d e r t o e - i x l u a t e t h e j e n e r r t l bch:lvior p - t ! . f r n
o f t h e s u p p o r t s t r u c : t u r e s durini: u:ld.;rcuttint; ?:!,I
caving.
.;,e:.e
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:y-
-30:
:-,
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I 2
F i g u r e 1.
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< .
Uc.
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.
t:le srres:: e l l i p s o i d c a l c a l . a t i o r l s were r e f e r ,.--: f,;) ? ~ r i - k : :he b o r e h o l e , i e f c r m z t i o n gag? :seasurc
!II~:I,:r .
( O )
.- ,. .
,,,AIC:i
(3:
pp! a n z )
in
- J ~ St h e r e -
troduced on t h e b a s i s o f t h e f o l l o w i n g c r i t e r i o n
where
where
o3 =.minimum p r i n c i p a l s t r e s s ; To = rock mass
t e n s l l e s t r e n g t h ; t e n s i l e s t r e s s e s a r e reckoned
t o be n e g a t i v e .
20 = tan-1
27"
2
-o0 - 0;
(8)
According t o ( 4 ) and ( 6 ) , t h e h o r i z o n t a l s t r e s s i n
t h e model i s assumed t o be zero a t t h e s u r f a c e and
t o v a r y a t t h e depth a c c o r d i n g t o a s t r a i g h t l i n e
f u n c t i o n . Tkis assumption i s i n t r o d u c e d a s t h e
s p e c i f i c n a t u r e of t h e s t r e s s f i e l d a t t h e s i t e
i s unknown. Obviously, t h e s t r e s s e s e v a l u a t e d i n
t h e model a r e g r e a t l y a f f e c t e d by t h i s c h o i c e .
Therefore, it i s suggested t h a t i n subsequent
s t u d i e s new assumptions be made on t h e i n i t i a l
s t r e s s f i e l d i n t h e model so t h a t t h e r e l e v a n c e
of it on t h e g e n e r a l p a t t e r n o f b e h a v i o r be a s s e s sed.
M a t e r i a l Models
I n view o f t h e m a t e r i a l b e h a v i o r e x p e r i e n c e d i n
t h e l a b o r a t o r y and according t o r o c k mechanics
p r a c t i c e , t h e following laws were chosen f o r t h e
rock media e n t e r i n g t h e FEM model:
where
El = rock mass deformation modulus; Et = e l a s t i c
t a n g e n t modulus f o r rock m a t e r i a l .
S i m i l a r l y , t h e r o c k mass peak v a l u e f o r t h e cohes i o n a l s t r e n g t h cm was e s t i m a t e d by t h e r e d u c t i o n
f a c t o r Rs
where
c , = rock mass c o h e s i o n ; c;= rock m a t e r i a l cohesion.
A p p r o p r i a t e v a l u e s f o r Rd and Rs were e v a l u a t e d on
t h e b a s i s o f : RQD = Rock Q u a l i t y Designation and
RMR = Rock Mass R a t i n g , f o r Rd ( ~ e e r ee t a l . , 1969;
Bieniawski, 1 9 7 8 ) ; Jf = number o f j o i n t s p e r m ,
f o r Rs (Manev and Avramova-Tacheva, 1 9 7 0 ) .
F i n a l l y , t h e deformation modulus Ed, t h e %isson's
r a t i o n vd, t h e m a t e r i a l c o n s t a n t s C o , To, A , B ent e r i n g e q u a t i o n s ( 9 ) and ( 1 0 ) were chosen a s r e p o r t e d i n Table 3.
S i m u l a t i o n o f U n d e r c u t t i n g and Caving
- Biiine.:ai3 l i ? ~
,'or magnetite :
t h e assumption o f
i d e a l p l a s t i c i t y was made , w i t n t h e s t r e s s
l e v e l i n compression - where l i n e a r e l a s t i c i t y
does n o t hold t r u e - d e f i n e d a c c o r d i n g t o t h e f o l lowing c r i t e r i o n (Bieniawski, 1 9 7 8 ) :
where
Tm = maximum s h e a r s t r e s s ;
on = mean normal
s t r e s s ; Co = rock mass u n i a x i a l compressive
s t r e n g t h ; A,B = mat,erial c o n s t a n t s .
(i) A s t e p by s t e p e x c a v a t i o n a t t h e u i d e r c u t t i n g
l e v e l was s i m u l a t e d , w i t h t h e u n d e r c u t moving downward and a l o n g t h e d i a b a s e f o o t w a l l . The a r e a s
where f a i l u r e o c c u r r e d a t one s t e p ( i - t h s t e p ) were
r e c o r d e d ; t h e s t r e n g t h and d e f o r m a b i l i t y p r o p e r t i e s o f t h e s e same a r e a s were reduced a c c o r d i n g l y ,
b e f o r e c a r r y i n g o u t a new s i m u l a t i o n s t e p ( i + l - t h
s t e p ) , Figure 10.
( 2 ) A s t e p by s t e p e x c a v a t i o n a t t h e u n d e r c u t t i n g l e v e l was a g a i n s i m u l a t e d a s d e s c r i b e d above.
I n a d d i t i o n t o r e d u c i n g t h e s t r e n g t h and deforma-
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ct rt
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ct
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9
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E-
following steps
1. To find which of the three simulation techniques is the most acceptable, on the basis of the
history and progression of caving, as deduced according to the ore production data.
2. To develop a displacement history during
undercutting and caving, later to be used to investigate the behavior of the runways and their
supports, according to the substructure scheme.
The simulation method ( 3 ) appeared to be the
most effective one, with respect to the predicted
extent of caving (~igure13) in the magnetite orebody. Therefore, in relating the caving process
to the behavior of mine supports, this same method
was considered.
252
b ) P. f i r s t computation s t e p - o r a s e r i e s of
c o m p u t a t i o n s t e p s - i n v o l v i n g t h e s i m u l a t i o n of
e x c a v a t i o n o f t h e mine o p e n i n g s i n t h e s e c t i o n ( a t
t h i s s t a g e o n l y t h e runways and u n d e r c u t t i n g d r i f t s
a r e r e p r e s e n t e d ; t h e y a r e supposed t o b e d r i v e n i n
advance w i t h r e s p e c t t o f a n h o l e s b l a s t i n g and und e r c u t t i n g i n t h e same a r e a o f i n t e r e s t ) .
FIGURE13 - C o n t o u r s o f m o b i l i z e d s t r e n g t h R m ( - ) .
S i m u l a t i o n method (3). Type B p a r a m e t e r s . S t e p no.
1 0 . The s h a d e d a r e a snows t h e l i m i t c o n d i t i o n f o r
R, = 0 . 9 .
S t r e s s e s ir, t h e [,line S u p p o r t s d u r i n g Z n d e r c u t t i n g
and Caving
As shown a b o v e , t h e u n d e r c u t t i n g s e q u e n c e and
c a v i n g p r o c e s s were s i m n l a t e d by FEM, i n c o n j u n a t i o n ;rit:i t h e development o f mine workings i n t h e
T h i s a l l o w e d one t o g a i n i n diabase footwall.
s i g h t intr: t h e p a t t e r n of' s t r e s s d i s t r i b u t i o r : i n
m a g n e t i t e and i i n b a s e . Then, t h e p u r v o s e sras ;o
r e l a t e c a v i n g t o tile b e h a v i o r o f n i n e s u p p o r t ; .
Tne s u b b s r u c t u r e scheme
A m o d e l i n g t e c h n i q u e v a s Geveloped, by t l t c u s e
of' he c o a r s e t o f i n e s u b d i v i s i o n r.iethod i n f i n i i , ~
e l e l l e n t a n a l y s i s . According t o t h e s u b s t r u a t ~ r e
scheme i l l u s t r a t . e d i n F i ~ u r el b , t h e a r e a o r I n t e c
e s t i n t h e FdODI1 model ( i n t h e i m L e d i a t c : v i c i n i t y
o f t h e 609 E r u n w a y ) , need b e s u b d i v i d e d i n a f i n e
mesh, s o a s t o z a n f o r n a s c l o s e l y a s p o s s i b l ? to
t h e s e q u e n c e o f m i n i n g and i n s t a l l a t , i o n o f s ~ p p ~ r t s
SUBSTRI
MODEL
,-"
MODEL
- - - - - - - - - - - - - -- -
I
I
I
I
'
simulation of
rts inst-
MINE MODEL
ANALYSIS
on ABCD
(step by step)--sirnulate fans creation
SUBSTRUCTURE ANALYSIS
FIGURE 1 5 - S c h e ~ n a t i cr e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f t h e 111ethod
used i n o r d e r t o analyze t h e s t r e s s p a t t e r n result,
i n g i n t n e mine s u p p o r t s d u r i n g c a v i n g .
so t h a t t h e rock-structure interaction f o r t h i s r u g
way i s now c o n s i d e r e d i n d e t a i l . At t h e same t i m e
t h e e l e m e n t s o f t h e 609 E a s t e n t r y and o f t h e two
undercutting d r i f t s i n t h e substructure a r e p a r t i a l
l y t u r n e d o f f , by a s s i g n i n g t o them a d e f o r m a b i l i t y
which i s g r e a t e r t h a n t h a t o f t h e s o l i d r o c k . The
boundary e l e m e n t s a r e a c t i v e and t h e d i s p l a c e m e n t s
a t t h e periphery o f t h e substructure a r e specified
t o b e t h e same a s t h o s e computed w i t h t h e f i r s t
s t e p i n t h e s i m u l a t i o n o f u n d e r c u t t i n g and c a v i n g .
With t h e s e c o n d s t e p t h e a s s u m p t i o n is made t h a t
t h e e x c a v a t i o n and i n s t a l l a t i o n of s u p p o r t s a t t h e
6 0 8 E a s t runway and a t t h e u n d e r c u t t i n g d r i f t s i n
t h e s u b s t r u c t u r e a r e e f f e c t e d n e a r l y a t t h e same
The s e q u e n c e o f e x c a v a t i o n - t h e 6 0 8 t h runtime.
way completed s u b s e q u e n t l y t o t h e 6 0 9 t h runway c o r r e s p o n d s t o t h a t which t o o k p l a c e i n r e a l i t y as
shown i n F i g u r e 4. However, it s h o u l d b e n o t e d
t h a t t h e presence of t h e supports, except f o r t h e
609 E a s t e n t r y , a r e n o t r e p r e s e n t e d i n d e t a i l .
I n any c a s e , t h e s i m u l a t i o n o f t h e excavation
s e q u e n c e and o f t h e i n s t a l l a t i o n o f s u p p o r t s need
n o t b e t h e same a s r e p r e s e n t e d above. A more det a i l e d a n a l y s i s c o u l d b e p e r f o r m e d by a more r e f i n e d mesh f o r t h e s u b s t r u c t u r e , i n c l u d i n g t h e
i d e a l i z a t i o n o f e a c h s u p p o r t . I n a d d i t i o n , more
t h a n one s i n g l e s t e p o f c o m p u t a t i o n c o u l d b e p e r formed.
I n s t e p 3 t o 5 t h e p r o g r e s s o f undercutting and
o f f a n s e x c a v a t i o n i s s i m u l a t e d by p a r t i a l l y t u r n i n g o f f t h e a p p r o p r i a t e e l e m e n t s and s p e c i f y i n g t h e
known d i s p l a c e m e n t h i s t o r y a t t h e p e r i p h e r y o f t h e
substructure.
Subsequently, t h e remaining s t e p s 6
t o 1 0 i n v o l v e t h e s o l u t i o n o f t h e non l i n e a r e q u i l i b r i u m e q u a t i o n s w i t h no need t o r e f o r m u l a t e t h e
global s t i f f n e s s matrix.
The m a t e r i a l p r o p e r t i e s and t h e non l i n e a r beh a v i o r o f t h e d i a b a s e r o c k mass a r e t h e same a s
p r e v i o u s l y chosen f o r t h e a n a l y s i s o f t h e c o m p l e t e
TWODIl model. The s t e e l - c o n c r e t e s u p p o r t s a r e
s u p p o s e d t o behave a c c o r d i n g t o a l i n e a r e l a s t i c
law f o r t h e complete s t r e s s f i e l d experienced duri n g u n d e r c u t t i n g and c a v i n g .
The e n t i r e sequence o f c a l c u l a t i o n s t e p s i s
summarized i n T a b l e 4. Computation b e g i n s w i t h
t h e e n t i r e model r e p r e s e n t i n g s o l i d r o c k . The i n t e r n a l s t r e s s e s a r e introduced d i r e c t l y i n t h e rock
e l e m e n t s and a r e supposed t o b e t h e s a n e a s t h e
n a t u r a l s t r e s s e s , p r e v i o u s l y c h o s e n f o r t h e TWODI1
model. The 609 E a s t runway i s e x c a v a t e d by u s i n g
a s i r n u l a t i o n p r o c e d u r e which c o n s i s t s o f a p p l y i n g
boundary e x c a v a t i o n f o r c e s and a s s i g n i n g n e g l i g i b l e
s t i f f n e s s e s t o t h e e l e m e n t s Of t h e a r e a t o b e excavated, so t h a t t h e c o n t r i b u t i o n of t h e s e elements
t o the global s t i f f n e s s o f t h e substructure w i l l be
nearly zero.
The second s t e p of t h e c o m p u t a t i o n i n v o l v e s t h e
i n s t a l l a t i o n o f t h e s u p p o r t o f t h e 609 E a s t runway.
Both t h e i n t e r f a c e a n 3 s u p p o r t e l e m e n t s a r e a c t i v e ,
The n u m e r i c a l r e s u l t s o f t h e ?'EM a n a l y s e s , r u n
a c c o r d i n g t o t h e scheme a b o v e and b a s e d upon t h e
d i s p l a c e m e n t h i s t o r y o f t h e s i m u l a t i o n method ( 3 ) ,
a r e i l l u s t r a t e d i n F i g u r e 1 6 f o r s t e p no. 9 , by
giving t h e contours o f mobilized strength i n t h e
r o c k mass.
I n o r d e r t o g a i n some i n s i g h t i n t o t h e s t r e s s e s
i n t h e s u p p o r t o f t h e 609 E a s t runway, t h e v a r i a t i o n s o f t h e p r i n c i p a l s t r e s s e s i n t h e c a p ,cund p o s t s ,
a s u n d e r c u t t i n g and c a v i n g a r e i n p r o g r e s s , a r e a l s o i l l u s t r a t e d i n F i g u r e s 1 7 and 18. I t s h o u l d b e
n o t e d t h a t t h e s e s t r e s s e s a r e e v a l u a t e d , a t t h e mid
n o d a l p o i n t l o c a t e d a t t h e c a p a n d p o s t s , o n tine
b a s i s o f t h e s t r e s s e s i n t h e surrounding elements.
The f o l l o w i n g c o n c l u s i o n s a r e drawn on t h e b a s i s
of the available results:
254
TABLZ
2tep
?:umber.
--
m:
,*i L A . ~ ~
; s e e ? i g u r e 4)
or Lo-
!
1
i
5I
1
6
t o end
%ken
~.
i n +he : ; u t s t r i i c r ~ ; r e 3r:aly::is
--I
S p e c i i ' i e d Displaccrnents
a t t h e outerbo~lnriary
Purpos:,
-No displacement;
specifie~
To i n s t a l l t h e s u p p o r t s a t t i l e same r u n
way. To e x c a v a t e and s u p p o r t t h e 608 l e v
As d e r i v e d from s i m i l a t i o n s t e p 1 - sirnula-
e l runway and t h e r e m a i n i n g d r i f t s i n t h e
s u b s t r u c t u r e . To i n i t i a t e u ! l d e r c u t t i n g
and f o l l o w up t o the: 606 E:ast l e v e l .
t i o n method ( 3 )
To e x c a v a t e f a n a t t h e 607 S a s t l e v e l
and i u l d e r c u t .
As d e r i v e d from s i m u l a t i o n j
step 2
1
f r o r : ~J a n u a r y I 9 7 3
t o J u l y 1974
To e x c a v a t e f a n z t t n e 608 E a s t l e v e l
m d undercut.
As d e r i v e d from s i m u l a t i o n i
szep 3
I
from J u l y 1974
t o 4 u g u s t 1975
T3 e x c a v a t e f a n a t t h e 609 E a s t l e v e l
As d e r i v e d from s i x l u l a t i o n
step 4
!
As d e r i v e d from s i m u l a t i o n
steps 5 t o 10
--
- --
ye;ii- LO70
S'iipr,
tn
L; -
src
\
I
and u n d e r c u t .
To e x c a v a t e r e m a i n i n g f a n s and continue with undercutting.
STEP No.
FIGLEE 1'7 - P r i n c i s a l s t r e s s e s g l and 0 3 i n t h e
s i u p ~ o r te l e r n e n t , ~a + t h e o p e n i n g b a c k . Subst.ruct u r e z n a l y s i s . S t e p no. 1 t o 9 .
255
3. The minimum p r i n c i p a l s t r e s s 03 i n t h e
support i n c r e a s e s g r a d u a l l y i n compression a t t h e
back, f o l l o w i n g s t e p 4, p r i o r t o which s l i g h t l y
t e n s i l e v a l u e s a r e a t t a i n e d . The same 03 s t r e s s
remains t e n s i l e a t t h e s i d e w a l l s i n t h e s u p p o r t ,
b e f o r e r e a c h i n g a near z e r o v a l u e , f o l l o w i n g t h e
same s t e p 4. A t t h e same t i m e , t h e 01 s t r e s s a t
t h e back and s i d e w a l l i s i n c r e a s e d s i g n i f i c a n t l y
with t h e l e f t s i d e w a l l b e i n g l o a d e d i n a more r e markable way w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e r i g h t s i d e w a l l .
4. The i n f l u e n c e o f t h e weight o f t h e caved o r e
i s w e l l evidenced i n t h e g e n e r a l s t r e s s d i s t r i b u t i o n p a t t e r n s observed i n going from s t e p 6 t o 9.
I n a d d i t i o n t o t h e g r a d u a l i n c r e a s e i n t h e Ul
s t r e s s e s i n both t h e rock mass and t h e s u p p o r t , a
f a i l u r e condition i s a t t a i n e d f o r s t e p 7 f i r s t l y
a t t h e l e f t s i d e w a l l i n t h e rock mass. Subsequent
l y , failure i s also attained for step 9 a t the
r i g h t sidewall. Therefore, independently of t h e
presence of t h e s u p p o r t s , t h e d i a b a s e rock mass
around t h e runway i s g r a d u a l l y undergoing a
g r e a t e r s t r e s s l e v e l . A t t h e same t i m e , t h e a1
s t r e s s i n t h e support a p p e a r s t o i n c r e a s e a t b o t h
t h e back and s j d e w a l l s . The p i l l a r s between t h e
f a n s a r e i n no c a s e and f o r a l l s t e p s s u b j e c t e d t o
a s t r e s s l e v e l g r e a t e r t h a n 40-50 p e r c e n t o f t h e
a v a i l a b l e s t r e n g t h . As t h e u n d e r c u t t i n g p r o g r e s s e s
downdip along t h e diabase-magnetite c o n t a c t , t o
t h e noted remarkable v a r i a t i o n i n t h e g e n e r a l
s t r e s s d i s t r i b u t i o n p a t t e r n around t h e runway, from
s t e p 4 t o t h e end, i t does n o t f o l l o w a c o r r e s p o n d
i n g i n c r e a s e i n t h e s t r e s s l e v e l i n t h e same p i l lars.
FIGURE 18 - P r i n c i p a l s t r e s s e s 01 and 0 3 i n t h e
s u p p o r t elements a t t h e opening w a l l s . S u b s t r u c t u r e
a n a l y s i s . S t e p no. 1 t o 9
e s s a r i l y adopted f o r t h e s u p p o r t s , w i t h o u t b e i n g
able t o introduce the e x i s t i n g difference i n the
s t i f f n e s s e s o f t h e m a t e r i a l involved.
I f one
proceed q u a l i t a t i v e l y o n l y , t h e most a p p a r e n t f a c t
i s t h a t t h e n u m e r i c a l a n a l y s i s of t h e s u b s t r u c t u r e
does n o t show a drop i n t h e maximum p r i n c i p a l
s t r e s s e s i n t h e supports sides for s t e p 6 t o 7, a s
t h e u n d e r c u t edge i s known t o have p a s s e d beyond
che l o c a t i o n o f t h e runway. The i n c r e a s e i n t h e
n e a r l y h o r i z o n t a l compressive s t r e s s o b s e r v e d i n
c o n c r e t e a t t h e v a u l t , a s t h e undercut advances
toward t h e runway, seems t o be w e l l p r e d i c t e d on
t h e b a s i s o f t h e s t r e s s e s c a l c u l a t e d i n t h e supp o r t a t t h e back o f t h e opening. The h i g h t e n s i l e
s t r e s s e s measured In c o n c r e t e c o u l d n o t be v i s u a l -
256
1
i t ,
I
:
, : i n a l y s i s , C.XL,'L'~ ; ' ~ r5
Lenl,:r~;y :JT- --111.
'
e~6::rler:i;:
'
in c o n c r e t e , xi, :he v a u l t
3f +t,e operii:~~;, -3 .o- sl;&:iirjr i n tensiriri i r u r i ~s t . 2 ~
$,J
Q.
temporary s t a b i l i z i n g system t h a t a p p l i e s a
s t a b i l i z i n g p r e s s z r e , s u f f i c i e n t t o keep t!:e .sit:!i n g s t a 5 l e d u r i n g u n d e r c u t t i n g , and p e r x i t s t h c
o p e n i n g s h a p e t o deform. Only when t h e i n f l u e n c e
of u n d e r c u t t i n g i s c e a s e d , c o n s i d e r a t i o n w i l i ae
g i v e n t o t h e i n s t a l l a t i o n o f permanent support;.
?L
i:O!ICLUSIOTJS
On the b a s i s o f t n e t h e o r e t i c a l and exper$men-,ul
r e s u l t s o b t a i n e d i n +,he a t n d y r e p o r l e d i n t h e p r e s e n t p a p e r , tile i'cilowing c o n c l u s i o n s can b e i r a w n
w i t h r e f e r e n c e t o t h e b e h a v i o r o f undergro:md dcvelopment and e x t r a c t i o n o p e n i n g s a n d t h e i r supp o r t s , a t zhe Grace Mine.
I . The i i i s t o r y o f s t r e s s changes i n t h e s u p p o r t s ,
y t h e n u m e r i c a l models based ilpon t h e
as predicteri b
F i n i t e Z l e n e n t i ~ l e t h o d , a l l o w s one t o s t a t e t h a t t h e
predominant e f f e c t s on t h e b e h a v i o r o f t h e s u p p o r t s
a r e c l o s e l y r e l a t e d t o t h e d i r e c t i o n and magnitude
o f t h e n a t u r a l s t r e s s f i e l d i n t h e r o c k mass.
The
s t r u c t u r e response o f t h e supports appeared t o be
d e f i n i t e l y c h a r a > c t e r i z e d b y v e r y h i g h compressive
s t r e s s e s a t t h e b a c k , i n t h e c o n c r e t e l i n i n g and
i n t h e s t e e l p o s t s , when t h e u n d e r c u t t i n g i n f l u ence was f e l t around t h e o p e n i n g . The h i g h comp r e s s i v e s t r e s s e s i n c o n c r e t e c o u l d b e proven t o
e x i s t on t h e b a s i s o f t h e i n s t r u m e n t a l measurements.
S i m i l a r l y , t e n s i l e s t r e s s e s w e r e a s c e r t a i n e d t o be
p r e s e c t i n t h e same c o n c r e t e .
2. The l e v e l o f mobili7,ed s t r e n g t h i n d i a b a s e ,
s u b s e q u e n t t o e x c a v n t i o n and ? r i o r t o s u p p o r t s '
i n s t a l l a t i o n , i s such a s t o suqgest t h a t t h e open
i n g would be s t a b l e even w i t h no s u p p o r t s b e i n g
installed.
The t y p e o f s u p p o r t s u s e d , wit,h conc r e t e and s t e e l s e t s r e g u l a r l y s p a c e d , rnakes one
t h i n k t h a t t h e s t a b i l i z i n g p r e s s u r e v a r i e s i n magn i t u d e a l o n g t h e runway and d o e s riot n e c e s s a r i l y
p r o v i d e a contirluous r e s t r a i n i n g e f f e c t o n t h e
opening's contours a s d e s i r a b l e .
Furthermore, the
c o n c r e t e between e a c h s t e e l s e t i s a p p a r e n t l y s u b c
j e c t e d t,o a s t r e s s l e v e l s u c h a s t o make i t t o f r a t u r e and t r a n s f e r i t s l o a d t o t h e ~ i u c hs t i f f ' e r
s t e e l s u p p o r t s . A l s o , t h e c o n c r e t e used t o Y i l ;
t h e gap between t h e & e e l s e t s and t h e e x c a v a t i o n
s u r f a c e i s shown t o b e h i g h l y s t r e s s e . ? d u r i n g ilnd e r c u t t i n g , b o t h at t h e v a u l t and at, t h e s i d e w a l l s ,
so t h a t i t s load carrying capacity i s highly impaired.
3. A r o t a t i o n o f t h e s t r e s s p r i n c i p a l a x e s i n
t h e a r e a where t h e runways a r e l o c a t e d h a s been
d e t e r m i n e d by i n s t r u r i e n t a l measurements and comp u t e r p r e d i c t i o n s . The s h a p e o f t h e o p e n i n g was
shown t o ct:ange s i g n i f i c a n t l y d u r i n g t h e underc u t t i n g o p e r a t i o n s . The t y p e o f s u p p o r t , i n s t s l i e ! - l
i s s u c h a s t o t r y t o l i m i t t h i s d e f o r m a t i o n t o t.ak?
p l a c e , w i t h t h e consequence t h a t t h e same s?lpport,
becomes v e r y h i g h l y and u n e v e n l y s t r e s s e d .
It
seems p o s s i b l e t h a t a d e l a y i n t h e i n s t a l l a t i o n o f
t h e s u p p o r t s and a b e t t e r c o n t r o l o f t h e .undercut-t i n g s e q u e n c e c o u l d be b e n e f i c i a l .
I n any c a s e ,
one should guarantee t h a t t h e s t r e s s concentration
e f f e c t s of t h e u n d e r c u t t i n g a d v a n c i n g toward t h e
runway, and t h e s u b s e q u e n l s t r e s s removal srhicii
t a k e s p l a c e d u r i n g u n d e r c u t t i n g i n t h e immediate
v i c i n i t y o f each d r i f t , does n o t vary s t r o n g l y t h e
l e v e l o f r!iobilized s t r e n g t h i n Lhe r o c k m a s s . T h i s
seems p o s s i b l e t o be a c h i e v e d by t h e a d o p t i o n o f
NOTE:
The views a n d c o n c l u s i o n s c o n t a i n e d i n t h e
o a p e r a r e t h o s e o f t h e a u t h o r s and s h o u l d n o t b e
interpreted a s necessarily representing the o f f i c i a l p o l i c i e s o r recommendations o f t h e I n t e r i o r
D e p a r t m e n t ' s Bureau o f Nines o r o f t h e U.S. Govern
ment .
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Agarwal R., Eben C.F. and T a y l o r C.E.,
1 9 7 3 , "Rock
Mechanics Program a t Grace Mine", T e c h n i c a l
R e p o r t no. 3 , Rock Mechanics L a b o r a t o r y , Henry
Krumb S c h o o l of Mines, Columbia U n i v e r s i t y , N . Y .
B a r l a G. and Boshkov S . H . , 1 9 7 9 , "A s t u d y o f t h e
b e h a v i o r o f underground o p e n i n g s d u r i n g b l o c k
c a v i n g o p e r a t i o n s w , F i n a l R e p o r t on C o n t r a c t
No. 5-0275005, U.S. Department o f t h e I n t e r i o r ,
Bureau o f Mines.
B i e n i a w s k i Z.'?., 1 9 7 9 , "Determining Rock Wass
D e f o r n a b i l l t y : E x p e r i e n c e from Case S i s t o r i e s " ,
I n t . J. Rock Mech. Min. S c i . & Geomech. A b s t r . ,
Vol. 1 5 , pp. 237-247, 1978.
a c e r e D . U . , M e r r i t A.H. and Coon R.F., ' 3 5 3 , " ~ n g i n e e r i c g C l a s s i f i c a t i o n o f i n S i t u Rock",
U n i v e r s i t y o f I l l i n o i s , Department o f C i v i l
E n g i n e e r i n g , T e c h n i c a l R e p o r t no. AFW1,-TR-67lh4.
Manev C. and Avrm.ova Tacheva E. , 1 9 7 0 , "On t h e
V a l u t a t i o n o f S t r e n g t h and R e s i s t a n c e Condition
o f t h e Rock i n X a t u r a l Rock M a s s i f " , ? r o c . 2nd
Congress o f t h e I n t e r n a t i o n a l S o c i e t y f o r Rock
M e c h a n i c s , Vol. 1 , p a p e r 1-10, Beograd.
t l c r r i l l R . X . s n d Sohnson G.E., 1 9 5 4 , " C h ~ i n ~ eisn
S t r a i n and a i s p l a c e ~ ? e n tC r e a t e d by U n d e r c u t t i n g
i n Block C a v i n g u , 4 t h I n t . Conf. o n S t r a t a
C o n t r o l s n d Rock Mechanics, C o h m b i a U n i v e r s i t y ,
New York.
Z i e n k i e w i c z O . C . , 1 9 7 7 , "The F i n i t e Element Method':
14cGraw K i l l Bock Co., London.