CSUNPhysioLab Manual

HUMAN PHYSIOLOGY
Laboratory Manual
BIOL 282
Adapted by
Prof. Maria E. de Bellard
and P.A.Rudy
INDEX
1. MEASURING YOUR REACTION TIME...

2. DIFFUSION, OSMOSIS AND SOLUBILITY
3. NEUROPHYSIOLOGY .
4. SENSORY PHYSIOLOGY
5. MUSCLE PHYSIOLOGY I
6. MUSCLE PHYSIOLOGY II ..
7. BLOOD
8. ELECTROCARDIOGRAM .
9. BLOOD PRESSURE
10. RESPIRATION ...
11. DIGESTION
12. REGULATION OF METABOLISM
13. RENAL PHYSIOLOGY .
14. REPRODUCTION ..
15. PEER EVALUATION ..
1.
MEASURING YOUR REACTION TIME
1. MEASURING YOUR REACTION TIME
Objective:
1. Learn about how fast your reaction time is.
2. Learn about calf size and/or gender effect on vertical jump.
Introduction:
A person's reaction time is a measure of how quickly they can respond to a given stimulus. How long it
takes to react to a rebound could mean the difference between a win and a loss. How long it takes to react
to a stopped vehicle can mean the difference between a safe stop and a collision. It is important to know
your limitations before it becomes a life and death situation.
Since an average human reaction time is only a fraction of a second, it would be impossible to measure it
directly. By using the known properties of gravity, we can determine how long it takes a person to
respond to the dropping of an object by measuring how far the object can fall before it is caught.
From: http://faculty.rpcs.org
Supplies:
a. The Subject, a person whose reaction time is about to be measured.
b. The Releaser, a person who is to assist the subject.
c. Reaction Time Ruler
d. Reaction Time Data Sheet
e. Chair
f. Pencil or Pen
g. Calculator
Methods:
1. The Subject sits in the chair.
2. The Releaser stands facing the Subject and holds the release end of the ruler at eye level, or higher,
between the thumb and first finger of either hand.
3. The Subject positions the thumb and first finger of either hand over the thumb line on the ruler.
The space between the Subjects thumb and first finger should be about 1 inch.
4. When ready, the Subject must tell the releaser to start.
5. Once the subject says to start, the releaser may let go of the ruler at anytime with in the following 10
seconds. At no time during the test period may the Releaser look at the subject. Close your eyes or
look away.
6. The Subject must try to catch the ruler between the thumb and first finger as soon as it begins to fall.
7. When the ruler has been caught, the line under the middle of the Subjects thumbnail should be
estimated. This line represents the number of milliseconds that passed before the ruler was caught.
8. After at least 10 practice drops, the Subject should read aloud each of the following 10 measurements
so the Releaser can write them down on the data sheet. The average of the 10 measurements, (X), is
the Subjects reaction time.
9. Record the age and sex of the Subject on the data sheet.
10. Now switch positions and repeat.
Trial
Student 1
Student 2
Student 3
Student 4
Student 5
Student 6
Total
Average
Questions:
1. Can you improve your reaction time with practice? If so, by what percent?
2. What is your average reaction time?
3. Are you actually measuring two of your reaction times or just one? Are you measuring your
lab partner's reaction time as well as your own?
4. Which kind of people you will expect to have a higher than class average of reaction time?
Why?
2. HOW TO MEASURE YOUR VERTICAL LEAP.
GOAL: This exercise is designed to determine the relationship between a students calf size and
his/her standing vertical jump.
1. Stand with your side to a wall and reach the highest point you can reach (while flat-footed) on
the tape measure. Record this height (SE).
2. Move one step back from the first mark (that of your reach).
3. While keeping the trunk straight, bend at the knees and jump upward touching as high on the
tape as possible; this is the jump height (JH). Record this height in your table.
4. Repeat this five times.
5. Measure the heights of your standing reach and the highest point you touched on the wall.
6. Subtract your standing reach from the height of the highest point you touched on the wall. The
number you find is your vertical jump.
7. Average the five jumps.
8. Record this average on the chalkboard for everyone in the lab.
9. Graph vertical jump height (VJH) versus calf circumference for males and females; make sure
to indicate in the graph whos who. Then use a ruler to draw a best fitting line for both data
plots.
Calf
circumference
Male (M)
Female (F)
SE
JH
VJH
Total
Average
Pre-lab Questions:
1. List the main factors affecting reaction time.
2. List professions that would increase a persons reaction time.
3. On average, which sex has larger calf circumference, by how much?
HOMEWORK:
Do it your self: http://www.serendip.brynmawr.edu/bb/reaction/reaction.html and bring your collected
information.
Go to : http://www.humanbenchmark.com/tests/reactiontime/index.php
Post-Lab questions:
1. Discuss what you think might be possible reasons for these reaction time statistics.
2. Name five professions that would increase ones ability to perform a better standing calf
jump.
2.
DIFFUSION, OSMOSIS AND SOLUBILITY
2. DIFFUSION, OSMOSIS AND SOLUBILITY

Objective:
1. Learn to identify solute, solvent and solution.
2. Learn about osmosis versus diffusion.
The composition of the human body consists largely of water and water soluble substances.
Movement of substances across cell membranes is heavily influenced by both differences in the
concentration of these various molecules (solutes) across the cell membrane and by the permeability of
the lipid bilayer to these materials. If you want to understand how the concentration of a particular solute
is quantified, as well as how differences in concentration influence passive membrane transport you need
to know the difference between solutes, solvent, diffusion and osmosis.
I.
Solutions
A. Molecules
1. Solutes are chemicals that are dissolved i.e. salts, sugars in a solution.
2. Solvents are the dissolving agents i.e. water (the largest solvent in our body)
3. A combination of a solvent and a solute that results in the complete surrounding of the
solute molecules by the solvent is known as a solution.
B. Polarity
1. Polar molecules are those which share electrons. Due to the sharing, they have a high
affinity for one another.
Take water for example: the Hydrogen bonds to a very electronegative molecule (a
molecule that has a strong attraction for negativity) we know as Oxygen. Now, because
the oxygen is more electronegative, the electron that is shared between the two molecules
when the bond is made moves toward the oxygen molecule. This creates a partial
negative and a partial positive side to the water molecule. This "polar" nature allows
water to attract other charged molecules, allowing the molecule to be completely
surrounded by water.
2. Non-polar molecules do not share electrons. Their electrons are distributed evenly and so
they don't have partially charged regions, making the molecule incapable of being
surrounded by water. They are not H2O soluble.
3. When we add detergent to a beaker containing water and oil, the detergent forms a mycell around the oil creating a molecule with polarity. This allows water to surround the
oil giving us a solution. This is why the book says that detergents serve as a bridge when
introduced into a polar/non-polar phase.
C. How to make a solution
1. Molarity is a concept chemists made up to compare solutions.
a. M = (# of moles of solute)
1 L of solution
b. One mole of solute is equal to the solute's molecular weight in grams
II. Membrane Permeability

A. The cell membrane is a semipermeable membrane.
The membrane is made up of lipids and proteins. This keeps the membrane non-polar and
allows it to serve as a barrier to some of the molecules trying to pass into or out of the cell.
B. Other types of membranes are permeable membranes.
These membranes allow passage to almost all types of molecules, depending
upon the size of the membrane desired.
C. Impermeable membranes do not allow the passage of any molecules.
III. Transport across the cell membrane

A. Types of Transport
1. Active transport is the movement of molecules against the concentration gradient, and
thus requires energy.
2. Passive transport is the movement of solutes across the cell membrane from a solution of
higher to a solution of lower solute concentration.
3. Facilitative transport is the movement of solutes from higher to lower concentration with
the help of carrier proteins i.e. glucose with insulin.
B. Diffusion
1. Diffusion is the movement of solutes from a solution of high to a solution of low solute
concentration.
2. Diffusion results from the need for molecules to be at a low energy state. By moving
away from other solute molecules, the molecules decrease the amount of energy being
expended into solution.
3. The rate of diffusion is directly proportional to the differences in solute concentration.
Particles in solution are usually free to move randomly throughout the solution. As these particles
move, they randomly collide with one another. If there is a difference in the concentration (amount
present in the solution) of a particular solute between one region of a solution and another, then there is a
tendency for the substance to diffuse from where it is more concentrated to where it is less concentrated.
Thus net diffusion occurs down a concentration gradient, from an area of high concentration to an area
of low concentration, until a state of equilibrium is reached throughout the volume of the solution. At this
equilibrium (typically when the concentration is homogeneous), there will be no more net diffusion of
solute from one area to another, although random movement of particles will continue.
If such diffusion is unimpeded by the presence of some barrier (e.g., a membrane that is
impermeable to the solute), it is referred to as simple diffusion. In the case of cells, solutes that can
readily pass through the lipid bilayer of cell membranes (i.e., small uncharged molecules or moderatesized nonpolar molecules) are transported across cell membranes via simple diffusion. For example, the
exchange of gases such as O2 and CO2 across the plasma membrane occurs through simple diffusion.
C. Osmosis
1. Osmosis is the net movement of solvent (Water) across the membrane from an area
of lower solute concentration to an area of higher solute concentration.
2. Osmotic Pressure is the ability of a solution to pull in water from a second solution
separated by a semi-permeable membrane. The pressure is directly proportional to
the solute concentration of the first solution.
IV. Tonicity
A. Solutions
1. A solution is hypotonic to another solution if its concentration of solute is lower than the
second solution.
2. A solution is hypertonic to a second solution if the solute concentration is higher in the

first solution.
3. Solutions are isotonic when the solute concentration is the same on both sides of the
membrane.
B. Hydrostatic Pressure
Osmotic pressure occurring in the blood stream, which is responsible for the filtering of the
blood, and system equilibrium.
1. Hemolysis will occur when red blood cells are in a hypotonic solution. Water from the
solution will diffuse from the solution into the RBC, causing the cell to burst.
2. Crenation is seen when RBC'S are in a hypertonic solution. The water from the RBC will
diffuse from the cell into the solution, the keep the system in equilibrium.
For animation go to:

http://www.wiley.com/legacy/college/boyer/0470003790/animations/membrane_transport/membrane_transport.htm
DEMO before students start experiments:

Materials:
Alka-seltzer tablet
Raisins
2 beakers
Water
Beaker 1:
Fill with water and place the Alka-seltzer tablet in the beaker. This is a visual demonstration of what diffusion is; a
solute dissolving in water.
Beaker 2:
Weigh a raisin. Place it in a beaker filled with water at the beginning of class. At the end of class weigh the raisin.
This is a visual demonstration of osmosis; water crossing a semi-permeable membrane across a density gradient.
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Experiments
1) Osmosis and diffusion
In this lab, you will perform an experiment which will illustrate diffusion and osmosis. You will be able
to determine through your observations that in a mixture of substances some substances will diffuse
through a semi-permeable membrane and some will not.
Note: Before performing this experiment note that the following solutions or items will be the tools used
to indicate the presence of certain substances.
1.
Lugols solution contains iodine which is an indicator for the presence of starch. Its goldenbrown color turns blue-black indicating a positive reaction to starch.
2.
Glucose test strips react quickly to small amounts of glucose. The reacting area is the small
bright yellow rectangle on the very end of the plastic strip. A green color indicates a positive test
for glucose. Do not touch the indicator pad with your fingers prior to using.
Procedures:
1.
Fill a plastic cup with distilled (DI) water to within ~2 cm of the top. Test the water for the
presence of glucose and note any color change in the glucose test strip.
2.
Add approx. 30 drops of Lugols solution to the water in the cup and stir.
3.
Obtain a piece of dialysis tubing (membrane) approx. 10 cm long and thoroughly wet one end of
the membrane with water from the beaker. By using your thumb and forefinger open the tubing
by rubbing it.
4.
Tie a knot very tightly close to one end of the tube using string.
5.
Using a pasteur pipete fill of the membrane with a 2% starch solution then place a similar
volume of 1% glucose solution into the membrane and then secure the other end by tying another
knot.
6.
Thoroughly wash the membrane by placing it under running DI water for a few seconds while
gently squeezing the membrane to mix its contents. Observe the initial volume of the membrane.
Mark the initial water level of the cup then place the membrane into the cup.
7.
After 1 hour observe the contents inside the membrane tube and the liquid inside the cup as well
as the cup water level once the membrane is removed from the cup. Test the cup water for
glucose, compare this test to the initial glucose test.
2) Solubility of compounds in polar and nonpolar solvents
Procedures:
1.
Pour 2.0 ml of DI water and 2.0 ml of toluene into a test tube.
2.
Shake the tube and record your observations in the laboratory report.
3.
Using forceps, drop two crystals of potassium permanganate (KmnO4) into the tube. Shake the
tube and record your observations in the laboratory report.
4.
Add 1.0 ml of yellow vegetable oil to the tube. Shake the tube and record your observations in
the laboratory report.
5.
Add a pinch of laboratory detergent to the tube. Shake the tube and record your observations in
the laboratory report.
Place the contents of experiment 2 in the waste container marked Toluene Waste
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HOMEWORK
1.
What does the tubing represent?
2.
What type of transport was occurring in the experiment?
3.
Why can starch not pass through the lipid bilayer?
4.
Why must fat be emulsified before the body can digest and utilize it?
5.
In the human body, what enzyme emulsifies fat or in other words, does what the detergent did in the
experiment?
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3.
NEUROPHYSIOLOGY
3. NEUROPHYSIOLOGY
Objective:
1. The purpose of this lab is to test the learning and memory ability of humans and mice
Learning can be defined as the ability to change the response to a stimulus with experience. The ability
to learn and transmit knowledge through teaching is the basis for the development of human culture and
civilization (2). There are different forms of learning, associative learning, which is a conditioned form
(Pavlovs salivation experiment), and instrumental learning, this is learning by trial and error. The
learning that we will be experimenting today is instrumental learning.
Instrumental learning is a complex form of associative learning in which the subject takes an active role
in the learning process. The reward plays a reinforcing role, instilling the learned behavior repeatedly.
The ability to show and use a learned response improves with repeated exposure and practice, until the
associated memories become more permanent. Learning and memory formation occur in two stages, an
initial short term stage which is followed by a long term stage. Each of these stages are associated with
an equivalent type of memory. When first exposure to learning, if the reward is not exposed, the memory
will dissipate. However, if the subject is continually reinforced with a reward, that short term memory
will turn into a long term memory.
Memory, the ability to retain information or to recover information about previous experiences, is a
function of the brain. When we remember something, a process takes place in which our brains recover
and reconstruct information about things we've done or learned. (http://www.aarp.org).
A) How Memory Works
Memory functions through three steps:
Acquisition
Consolidation
Retrieval
Acquisition. Before you can remember something, you first must learn the information. This is called
acquisition. This acquired information is then put into temporary nerve-cell pathways in the brain. These
pathways are where you store short-term memory.
Consolidation. In order for something to be placed in long-term memory, the nerve pathways have to be
strengthened and reinforced. This process, called consolidation, can take weeks or even months. There are
several factors that affect whether or not information will be put into long-term memory. For example,
you are more likely to retain information if it relates to pre-existing memories or somehow stimulates you
emotionally. Also, it doesn't hurt to have a good night's sleep, as this too helps you retain information.
Retrieval. When people retrieve information, they are literally "recalling" it from the nerve pathways.
The brain reactivates a particular pathway, and information is remembered. This process can be fast or
slow, depending on how familiar you are with the information and how well you learned it in the first
place.
B) This section explains types of memories and how memory changes.
13
Cognition vs. Memory

Many studies of brain aging look at a range of cognitive abilities, beyond memory alone. Cognition
includes not only remembering and forgetting, but also abstract thinking, reasoning, attention,
imagination, insight, and even appreciation of beauty.
Types of Memories
(From: http://www.intelihealth.com/IH/ihtIH/WSHW000/31393/31397/347125.html?d=dmtContent)
Memory is broken down into two types: short term and long term.
Short-term memory, also known as working memory, stores information that you need to remember in the
following seconds, minutes or hours. An example would be a telephone message that you are given and
must remember until you pass it on.
Long-term memory stores information that your brain retains because it is important to you. Basic
information remembered includes names of family and friends, your address, as well as information on
how to do certain activities and tasks. Long-term memory can be further divided into explicit, implicit and
semantic memory.
Explicit memories are facts that you made a conscious effort to learn and that you can remember
at will, for example, the names of state capitals.
Implicit memory is information you draw on automatically in order to perform actions such as
driving a car or riding a bicycle.
Semantic memories are facts that are so deeply ingrained they require no effort to recall. An
example would be the months of the year.
There are large age-related differences with explicit memory, but age has little or no effect on implicit or
semantic memory.
Experiment 1:
LEARNING AND MEMORY PROCEDURE
(Watermaze)
CAUTION: Handle the mice by their tails, they may bite, especially if agitated.
1. Place the mouse on the platform and allow it to sit there for about 30 seconds, (first run only)
Make sure your platform is always in the same place. Additionally, try to remain in the same
relative position during trials because the mouse might be using you as a visual cue.
2. Next, place your mouse in water bath, (always use the same spot to introduce your mouse
into the water maze). Then start your timer.
14
3. Allow your mouse to swim until it finds the platform and record the time it took the
mouse to find the platform. Once the mouse reaches the platform allow it to sit there for 30
seconds. If the mouse does not find the platform by 30 seconds, remove the mouse from the
water and manually place it on the platform. Allow it to sit there for 30 seconds. Record
this as a 30 second value in your data
4. After 30 seconds remove mouse from the water maze and return it to the cage.
5. Perform an additional nine runs (steps 2-3) for a total of ten runs
6. Omit step 1 for all subsequent trials (trials 2-10)
7. Make sure you record the data
8. Graph your results (using graph paper). Seconds to find the platform ( y - axis) vs.
trial number 1-10 (x - axis)
Question:
Based on your results is there any indication that the mice learned the location of the platform?
Explain.
Experiment 2: EEG
In this section you will do an EEG on yourself.
See ADI PowerLab instructions
15
Student Handout
Electroencephalography (EEG)
Introduction
In this laboratory, you will explore the electrical activity of the brain. You will
record and analyze electroencephalograms (EEGs) from a volunteer; look at
interfering signals, and examine the effect on alpha and beta waves by opening
and shutting the eyes, auditory and mental cues.
Background
The cerebral cortex contains huge numbers of neurons. Activity of these neurons
is to some extent synchronized in regular firing rhythms ('brain waves').
Electrodes placed in pairs on the scalp can pick up variations in electrical
potential that derive from this underlying cortical activity. EEG signals are
affected by the state of arousal of the cerebral cortex, and show characteristic
changes in different stages of sleep. EEG signals are also affected by stimulation
from the external environment, and brainwaves can become entrained to external
stimuli. Electroencephalography is used, among other things, in the diagnosis of
epilepsies and the diagnosis of brain death.
Recording the EEG
EEG recording is technically difficult, mainly because of the small size of the
voltage signals (typically 50 V peak-to-peak). The signals are small because the
recording electrodes are separated from the brain's surface by the scalp, the
skull and a layer of cerebrospinal fluid. A specially designed amplifier, such as
the Bio Amplifier built into the PowerLab, is essential. It is also important to use
electrodes made of the right material, and to connect them properly. Even with
these precautions, recordings may be spoiled by a range of unwanted interfering
influences, known as 'artifacts'.
In this laboratory you will record EEG activity with two electrodes: a frontal
electrode on the forehead, and an occipital electrode on the scalp at the back of
the head (Figure 1). A third (ground or earth) electrode is also attached, to
reduce electrical interference. In clinical EEG, it is usual to record many channels
of activity from multiple recording electrodes placed in an array over the head.
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Student Handout
Figure 1. Equipment setup (with PowerLab 15T).

Origins of the EEG signals
The EEG results from slow changes in the membrane potentials of cortical
neurons, especially the excitatory and inhibitory postsynaptic potentials (EPSPs
and IPSPs). Very little contribution normally comes from action potentials
propagated along nerve axons. As with the ECG, the EEG reflects the algebraic
sum of the electrical potential changes occurring from large populations of cells.
Therefore, large amplitude waves require the synchronous activity of a large
number of neurons. The rhythmic events that these waves reflect often arise in
the thalamus whose activity is in turn affected by a variety of inputs including
structures in the brainstem reticular formation.
Components of the EEG waveform
The EEG waveform contains component waves of different frequencies. These
can be extracted and provide information about different brain activities. The
LabTutor software is set up so that the raw EEG signal is displayed in channel 1.
Digital filtering allows this to be analyzed into the component frequencies of
interest that are displayed in other channels. Each these waves (or rhythms)
provides information about different brain states. These waves are:
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Student Handout
1. Alpha (8 to 13 Hz; average amplitudes 30 to 50 V)
Alpha rhythm is seen when the eyes are closed and the subject relaxed. It is
abolished by eye opening and by mental effort such as doing calculations or
concentrating on an idea. It is thus thought to indicate the degree of cortical
activation, the greater the activation, the lower the alpha activity. Alpha waves
are strongest over the occipital (back of the head) cortex and also over frontal
cortex.
2. Beta (13 to 30 Hz; <20 V)
In awake, alert individuals with their eyes open, the dominant rhythm is beta. It
may be absent or reduced in areas of cortical damage and can be accentuated
by sedative-hypnotic drugs such as benzodiazepines and barbiturates.
3. Theta (4 and 8 Hz; <30 V)
Theta rhythm is said not to be seen in awake adults but is perfectly normal in
awake children up to adolescence. It is normal during sleep at all ages. (Note
however, that some researchers separate this frequency band into two
components, low theta (4 - 5.45 Hz) activity that they correlate with decreased
arousal and increased drowsiness, and high theta (6 - 7.45 Hz) activity that it is
claimed is enhanced during tasks involving working memory.)
4. Delta (between 0.5 and 4 Hz; up to 100 - 200 V)
Delta rhythm is the dominant rhythm in sleep stages 3 and 4 but is not seen in
the conscious adult. It tends to have the highest amplitude of any of the
component EEG waves. Note that EEG artifacts caused by movements of jaw
and neck muscles can produce waves in the same frequency band.
4. Gamma (between 30 and 50 Hz)
Some people also recognize gamma waves but their existence and importance is
more controversial. It may be associated with higher mental activity, including
perception and consciousness and it disappears under general anesthesia. One
suggestion is that the gamma rhythm reflects the mental activity involved in
integrating various aspects of an object (color, shape, movement, etc) to form a
coherent picture. Interestingly, recent research has shown that gamma waves
are enhanced in Buddhist monks during meditation and are absent in
schizophrenics.
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Student Handout
It is not presently possible to relate the EEG waves to specific underlying
neuronal activities. In general, the more active the brain the higher the frequency
and the lower the amplitude of the EEG. Conversely, the more inactive the brain
the lower the frequency and the higher the amplitude of the signal.
The EEG during sleep
It is established that the EEG pattern provides an indicator of the sleep state.
Sleep consists of two very different alternating stages, non-REM and REM (rapid
eye movements) sleep. Non-REM sleep is often described in four stages that are
characterized by a progressive increase in sensory thresholds, an increase in
EEG wave amplitude, and a decrease in EEG wave frequency. Stage 1 is
marked by drowsiness and drifting in and out of consciousness, This is followed
by stages 2 and 3 and then 4. Sleepers then move back through the stages
except that rather than stage 1, REM sleep occurs. The whole cycle lasts
approximately 90 minutes so that, over the course of an 8 hour 'sleep', the cycle
is repeated 4 to 6 times. In the later cycles, the REM component is longer and
stages 3 and 4 become shorter.
Figure 2. Sleep cycles.

These stages can be correlated with EEG activity. Stage 1 is associated with
decreasing beta activity, alpha activity that becomes less obvious and the
emergence of theta activity. Stage 2 has irregular theta activity, short bursts of
waves of 12 - 14 Hz called sleep spindles, and sudden increases in wave
amplitude (K complexes).
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Student Handout
Figure 3. Sleep spindles.

Stages 1 and 2 are relatively "light" stages of sleep. In stages 3 and 4, delta
activity predominates with the distinction between the two being that in Stage 3
sleep there is delta activity for less that 50% of the time. In stages 3 and 4 we are
in deep sleep. In REM sleep, which can last from 20 to 60 minutes or more, the
EEG is similar to that in Stage 1. REM sleep is the stage most associated with
dreaming. Although the EEG shows significant activity during REM sleep, motor
activity is inhibited. Levels of brain serotonin and nor-epinephrine alter during
these sleep stages. In non-REM sleep stages 1 to 4, serotonin levels are
increased whereas during REM sleep, nor-epinephrine, corticosteroids and, in
males, testosterone is secreted. Non-REM sleep is characterized by decreases
in blood pressure, and heart and respiratory rates. In REM sleep, there is marked
variation in heart rate and blood pressure and irregular breathing.
In sleep studies, EOGs and EMGs are often recorded in addition to the EEG.
Non-REM sleep is characterized by rolling, uncoordinated and slow eye
movements and passively decreased muscle tone, whereas REM sleep has
rapid, coordinated eye movements (hence the name) and a little EMG activity
reflecting the active inhibition of muscle in this state.
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Student Handout
Figure 4. Sleep stages.

The EEG and changes in intracranial metabolism
Changes in the EEG can be detected in response to changes in the chemical
environment of the neurons. One easy way to demonstrate this in a student
laboratory is to observe the effects of hyperventilation. Hyperventilation lowers
blood PCO2. Since CO2 , being lipid soluble, readily crosses the blood-brain
barrier and cell membranes, this in turn results in decreased PCO2 (hypocapnia) in
the brain interstitial fluid and within the neurons and glial cells. Thus extracellular
and cellular pH is elevated - acute respiratory alkalosis. In addition, blood vessels
in the brain constrict with reduction in brain blood flow. The consequences are a
change in neuronal activity with slower rhythms and higher amplitudes (increased
delta and theta activities) as well as some decrease in alpha activity. There is still
debate about whether these EEG changes are a consequence of the metabolic
changes or of hemodynamic factors. One possibility is that they arise from
depressant effects of the hypocapnia on the brainstem reticular formation and
are analogous to the EEG changes seen in the transition from wakefulness to
sleep.
The EEG and the functions of the cerebral hemispheres
Efforts have also been made to use EEG recordings to dissect out the
contributions of the two hemispheres to brain function. It has been argued that
the left hemisphere is the 'logical' half of the brain concerned with reasoning,
problem solving and language while the right hemisphere is the more intuitive,
creative side concerned with images and spatial processing rather than with
language. Careful reading of the literature reveals this to be a major
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Student Handout
oversimplification of cortical organization. In reality, there is little published EEG
evidence to lend credence to this hypothesis.
The EEG and personality
Attempts have also been made to relate personality to EEG patterns, perhaps
the most famous example being Eysenck's Cortical Arousal Model of Introversion
and Extraversion. Eysenck argued that there is some 'optimal' level of electrical
activity in the cortex. If we fall below this we tend to be bored and fall asleep;
above this we are unable to deal with the activity and feel overwhelmed. In this
construct, extraverts need additional mental stimulation (people around them,
loud music, etc) to reach this optimal cortical activity whereas introverts avoid
such additional stimulation as their cortical activity is already in the optimal region.
There has been considerable debate about the extent to which EEG findings
support this hypothesis.
Further Reading
Kraemer et al., Nature, Vol. 434, Page 158 (2005).
What you will do in the laboratory

There are five exercises that you will complete during this Lab.
1. EEG artifacts. In this exercise, you will learn to recognize common artifacts
seen while recording an EEG.
2. Alpha & Beta Rhythm. Here you will learn how best to elicit alpha waves in
an EEG recording.
3. Effects of mental activity. In this part of the laboratory, you will do some
simple arithmetic and observe the effects on the EEG activity.
4. Effects of auditory stimulation. Here you will examine the effects on the
EEG of the volume and the type of music.
Page 7 of 7
2007 ADInstruments
Experiment 3:
- Do this maze thrice, timing yourself to see if you improve after each trial
16
17
HOMEWORK:
http://www.zefrank.com/memory/
Play three memory games and report your results in your lab notebook along with the results we
obtained in class.
18
4.
SENSORY PHYSIOLOGY
4. SENSORY PHYSIOLOGY
Objective:
1. The purpose of this lab is to learn about your OWN senses!
1. Vision
Near point
Visual acuity
Astigmatism
Color blindness
Peripheral vision/blind spot
2. Olfactory
Stimulus intensity
Adaptation
Detection, Recognition, and
Identification of odors
3. Sound
Localization
4. Gustatory
Localization of taste buds
5. Touch Perception
Two point test
Sensitivity
Neck, forearm, palm,
fingertip
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Sensory physiology involves processing information by sensory divisions of the Nervous System.
Stimulation (internal or external) acts on receptors, which is converted to an electrical potential.
If threshold is reached the signal moves afferently to the CNS where the signal is integrated either
consciously, or subconsciously, and then a response moves efferently back to the PNS.
Receptors:
Chemo-respond to chemical that bind the receptors i.e. oxygen
Mechano-respond to mechanical energy i.e. pressure, vibration
Thermo-responds to temperature
Photo-responds to light
Nociceptors-respond to noxious stimuli i.e. tissue damage from pain
Somatic Senses:
Touch-pressure: found in the superficial layers of the skin (also may be deeper). Some
are simple free nerve endings wrapped around hair cells. They are located all over the body, and
respond to high frequency vibration, which opens mechanically gated ion channels they rapidly
adapt to stimulation.
Pain: Are activated by noxious stimulation that has the potential to damage tissue.
They produce an adoptive, protective response to environmental stress. Protect the body from tear
and ware. The Nociceptive reflex gives protection from potential dangers i.e. winking.
Temperature: free nerve endings in the subcutaneous layers of the skin. Cold is sensitive
to temps 1 degree below body temp. Warm is stimulated from body temp(37 C) to 65 C; pain is
> 65. They are scattered across the body with #cold > #warm.
They will adapt (20-40 C).
Proprioreception: mediated by sensory receptors located in the muscles and joints of the
body; they make us aware of our body position in space, and the relative location of body parts
compared to other parts.
Special Senses:
Olfaction (Smell): Uses chemoreceptors (thousands) to distinguish between odors.
Smell is linked to memories and emotions
Gustatory (Taste): closely linked with olfaction, but only has 5 receptors types,
which are localized at different positions on the tongue.
Bitter associated with toxic components
Sour
Salty, sweet, umani are associated with nutrition
Vision: perceives light reflection from the environment, and translates the light into
mental images with the help of the eyes retina.
Photoreceptors light sensitive
Rods responsible for monochromatic nighttime vision
Cones responsible for light and color activity vision during the day
Problems:
Myopia nearsightedness due to elongation of the eyeball (concave); images are brought into
focus before the reach the retina
Hyperopic farsightedness due to a shortened eyeball (convex); images are brought into focus
behind the retina.
Astigmatism Visual defect created by an unusual curvature of the cornea or lenses
20
Hearing: Anatomy:
Outer ear serves as a function to collect sound waves and direct them inward.
Middle ear is the auditory vesicles with multiplies the vibrations (amplification), and allows for
protection (muscles pull bones).
Inner ear is composed of the cochlea with many hair cells and fluid, which allows for processing
of the fluid waves during vibration.
Equilibrium: is the state of balance that is mediated by the semi-circular canals in the inner ear,
and through vision. The canals are filled with endolymph, which is set into motion by gravity and
acceleration. The hair cells sense the movement and send signals to the brain.
If a Stimulus is Continued Sensory Receptors Adapt & Become Less Sensitive
If a stimulus is maintained at a constant intensity for a long time the nerve seems to lose
interest in it- the nerve has adapted and become less sensitive
This allows us to tune out background noise, to ignore the touch sensation from our
clothing , to lose awareness of the temperature of the room, etc..
Some nerves, such as those for pressure and touch, are fast-adapting; others, such as
those for muscle stretch and some types of pain, are slow-adapting- the sensation lasts a
long time
Example: tenperature receptors
o Two types: warm & cold receptors
o If one hand is placed in warm water and the other is placed in cold water, the
temperature receptors will adapt and become less sensitive
o After adaptation, if both hands are placed in lukewarm water, the hand originally
in warm water will feel cold, and the hand originally in cold water will feel warm
Skin Sensations are Usually Perceived at the Location of the Receptor
Somatic (body) senses are perceived to be coming from the location of the sensory
receptor
Sometimes the body is fooled: phantom limb pain- person feels a limb which is no longer
present
Skin sensations are quite complicated:
o Merkel cells and Ruffini endings respond to steady pressure
o Pacinian corpuscles and Meissner's corpuscles give the sense of vibration
o There are separate warm and cold receptors
o Receptors associated with skin hairs allow you to feel the displacement of hairs
o Several types of pain receptors respond to mechanical trauma or very high or low
temperatures
Uneven distribution of receptors: close together on finger tips & face; far apart on back,
legs, arms, belly
Mechanical Pain Receptors are Naked Nerve Endings
The impulses perceived as pain are generated by the simplest type of sensory receptor- a
naked nerve ending
Pain receptors are activated by strong stimuli that threaten tissue damage
21
They may be stimulated by chemicals released when tissues are damaged (i.e., histamine)
There are 2 Basic Types of Pain
There are 2 distinct types of pain, carried by 2 types of nerve fibers.

Slow, unmyelinated C fibers carry pain from deep within the tissues. The pain is felt as a
dull ache which is hard to localize
Fast, myelinated A delta fibers carry sharp, well-localized pain from the surface
http://faculty.washington.edu/chudler/twopt.html
Pre-Lab Questions:
From: http://www.queendom.com/tests/quiz/index.htm?idRegTest=917
1. Humans cant perceive color:
a. Underwater b. In outer space c. In bright moonlight d. when one eye is covered
2. What is Antons Syndrome?
a. A syndrome characterized by the ability to see shapes clearly but the inability to identify
them.
b. A syndrome characterized by the ability to see only in black and white.
c. A syndrome characterized by a lack of depth perception
d. A syndrome characterized by a persons complete blindness and a vehement conviction that
they see.
3. Which of the following creatures cannot move its eyes?
a. Rabbit b. owl c. chimpanzee d. starling
4. Which animal can see between its open jaws?
a. Rabbit b. owl c. chimpanzee d. starling
5. If a 2-person conversation measures 60 decibels and a vacuum cleaner measures 80, what is the
decibel level of normal breathing?
a. 0 b. 10 c. 25 d. 40
6. What is the decibel level of a jet plane at take-off?
a. 90 b. 140. c. 450 d. 1000
7. Of the following, which would be most difficult to vividly conjure up in the imagination (for
most, if not all people)?
a. Smell of coffee b. color of red c. feel of velvet d. taste of lemon
8. Which taste cannot be detected by the tip of your tonue?
a. Bitter b. sour c. salty d. sweet
9. Which of the following body parts is the MOST sensitive to touch?
a. Back b. stomach c. lips d. fingertips
22
Experiments
Go and try this in the lab before anything:
http://www.bbc.co.uk/science/humanbody/body/interactives/senseschallenge/
1. VISION
Retinoscopy
The eye doctor will often perform this test early in the eye exam in order to
obtain an approximation of your prescription from which to start.
In retinoscopy, the room lights will be dimmed and you will be given a
large target (usually the big "E" on the chart) to fixate on. As you stare at
the "E," the eye doctor will shine a light at your eye and flip lenses in a
machine in front of your eyes.
Based on the way the light reflects from your eye, the doctor is able to "ballpark" your
prescription sometimes right on the money! This test is especially useful for children
and non-verbal patients who are unable to accurately answer the doctor's questions.
From: http://illinoiseyecenter.com/
.
The Ishihara Color Test
Is a test for red-green color deficiencies. It was named after its designer, Dr. Shinobu
Ishihara, a professor at the University of Tokyo, who first published his tests in 1917. [1]
The test consists of a number of colored plates containing a circle of dots randomized in
color and size. Within the randomized pattern are dots which form a number visible to
those with normal color vision and invisible, or difficult to see, for those with a red-green
color vision defect. The full test consists of thirty-eight plates, but the existence of a
deficiency is usually clear after a few plates. Testing the first 24 plates gives a more
accurate diagnosis of the level of severity one's color vision defect may be.
23
Experiment:
- Chart the distribution of the Ishihara test based on gender.
Question:
- Do males have the same color sensitivity as females?
What is astigmatism?
From: http://www.psych.ucalgary.ca/PACE/VA-Lab/AVDEWebsite/astigmatism.html
The cornea is responsible for about 2/3 of the eyes refractive power needed to focus on
the retina; the lens provides the other 1/3. If the surface of either of these optical
components is not smoothly spherical, (i.e., less curved across some orientations than
others) some orientations will be better focused than others. This visual defect, normally
due to asymmetries in the curvature of the cornea is termed astigmatism. Clinicians
distinguish between two general types of astigmatism: with-the-rule and against-the-rule.
In with-the-rule astigmatism, the eye has more refractive power along the vertical axis
and the patient has difficulty resolving targets with horizontal lines (e.g., letters such as E
or F). A patient with against-the-rule astigmatism has the opposite problem; they have
difficulty focusing vertically oriented targets.
If you would like to see if you might have astigmatism, look directly at the center of the
chart below, using the eye you want to test (close the other eye). Without shifting your
gaze, note whether the lines along some orientations look lighter or more blurry than
others. If they do, you may have astigmatism and may want to consult your eye-care
practitioner (i.e., optometrist or ophthalmologist).
24
2. OLFACTORY
In this section you will smell a set of different odors and you will be required to identify them.
3. SOUND (From: http://www.cigna.com/healthinfo/tv8475.html

Tuning fork tests
A tuning fork is a metal, two-pronged device that produces a tone when it vibrates. The health
professional strikes the tuning fork to make it vibrate and produce a tone. These tests assess how
well sound moves through your ear. Sometimes the tuning fork will be placed on your head or
behind your ear. Depending on how you hear the sound, your health professional can tell if there
is a problem with the nerves themselves or with sound getting to nerves.
Purpose: a vibrating tuning fork held next to the ear or placed against the skull will
stimulate the inner ear to vibrate, and can help determine if there is hearing loss.
(http://www.rwjhamilton.org)
Two types of hearing tests with tuning forks are typically conducted. In the Rinne test,
the vibrating tuning fork is held against the skull, usually on the bone behind the ear
(mastoid process) to cause vibrations through the bones of the skull and inner ear. It is
25
also held next to, but not touching, the ear, to cause vibrations in the air next to the ear.
The patient is asked to determine which sound is louder, the sound heard through the
bone or through the air. A second hearing test using a tuning fork is the Weber test. For
this test, the stem or handle of the vibrating tuning fork is placed at various points along
the midline of the skull and face. The patient is then asked to identify which ear hears the
sound created by the vibrations. Tuning forks of different sizes produce different
frequencies of vibrations and can be used to establish the range of hearing for an
individual patient.
FIGURE 4. Weber test. Holding a 512-Hz or 1,024Hz tuning fork on the middle of the patient's forehead,
the physician asks, "Where do you hear this loudest-left, right or in the middle?" The sound localizes
toward the side with a conductive loss (toward the
worse-hearing ear) or away from the side with a
sensorineural loss (toward the better-hearing ear). The
physician can clarify this test by performing the test on
himself or herself, plugging one ear with a finger to
simulate a conductive loss. The Weber test is only
useful if there is an asymmetric hearing loss. If hearing
is symmetric, the patient perceives the sound in the
middle of the forehead.
FIGURE 5. Rinne test. Holding a

512-Hz or 1,024-Hz vibrating tuning
fork against the mastoid process, the
physician asks the patient to indicate
when the sound can no longer be
heard. At this point, the physician
places the tuning fork in front of the
auditory meatus to determine whether
the sound can be heard again. Normal
hearing patients and patients with
sensorineural hearing loss hear the
sound longer through air than bone.
The result is reported as "AC > BC"
(air conduction greater than bone
conduction). In a conductive hearing
loss, bone conduction becomes equal
to or greater than air conduction. This
result is reported as an "abnormal
Rinne" or "reversed Rinne."
From: www.aafp.org/afp/20000501/2749.html
4. GUSTATORY
bitter - Bitter tastes (like the taste of tonic water) are mostly sensed towards the back and
rear sides of the tongue.
salty and sweet - Salty tastes and sweet tastes (like sugar) are mostly tasted at the tip of
the tongue.
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sour - Sour tastes (like lemon juice) are mostly tasted at the sides of the tongue, at the
middle and towards the front.
5. TOUCH PERCEPTION
From: http://www.usd.edu/coglab/2point.html
Touch acuity is conventionally measured using the two-point threshold test. The
basic question is this: How far apart do two separate points need to be before they
are perceived as two points rather than one? In this experiment we will test the
sensitivity of five separate areas of the skin: the pad of the middle finger, the
dorsal (or backside) of the middle finger, the back of the hand, the forearm, and
upper arm. Begin the experiment by forming a 2 person team. Next, decide who
will do the testing and who will be the participant. The person chosen to be the
experimenter will begin by calibrating the test apparatus (an adjustable 2-point caliper) to a interpoint gap size of 1 mm (using a ruler).
Start with the fingertip and then continue through the five testing areas using a gap size of 1mm.
After testing each area record whether the participant perceives one or two points on the skin
surface. Once you have tested all five areas at 1mm of separation (and record the responses)
proceed to test all five areas in the same sequence at the following increments: 2mm, 3mm, 4mm,
5mm, 10mm, 15mm, 20mm, 25mm, and 30mm. Be sure to record the amount of separation and
whether the participant can perceive two separate points. Once the participant has perceived two
points on two consecutive trials feel free to skip that testing area, and use the 1st two-point
increment as the threshold value. For example, if on the back of the hand the participant feels two
points at 10mm and 15mm, use 10mm as the threshold. Proceed through the remaining
increments until the participant can feel two separate points on each of the five testing areas.
1mm 2mm 3mm 4mm 5mm 10mm 15mm 20mm 25mm 30mm
27
Pad of Middle
Finger
Back of
Middle Finger
Back of Hand
Forearm
Upper Arm
Two-touch point Report

1. What is the independent variable?
2. What is the dependent variable?
3. What was the psychophysical method used in this experiment?
4. Plot your threshold as a function of the tested area.
5. What is the relationship between the two-point threshold and the tested area? Why is
this so?
(From http://www.usd.edu/psyc301/2point.htm)
Temperature test:
1) place one hand in warm water (35oC) and the other in cold water (4oC).
2) Leave your hands in the water until you do not feel any more the temperatures of the
water bath.
3) Remove your hands fast and deep them into a room temperature bath (23oC).
4) Record your sensation.
28
PATELLAR REFLEX
A spinal reflex is one in which the decision to react is made at the level of the spinal cord,
allowing extremely rapid reaction without awaiting the participation of the brain. Protective
reactions and postural adjustments are typical examples of this kind of spinal reflex.
Typically it will involve a sequence of neurons consisting of a sensory neuron, an internuncial or
association neuron, and a motor neuron for a bisynaptic reflex arc. Monosynaptic arcs consist of
only a sensory and a morot neuron. We will explore the best know of spinal reflexes, a stretch
reflex called the patellar reflex (a monosynaptic reflex).
1) Muscle spindles (transducers in quadriceps) are stretched (golgi tendon organs may detect
increased tension, usually only when active contraction occurs)
2) sensory impulses are carried on dendrites up along a spinal nerve to the unipolar sensory
neuron (ganglion cell) in the dorsal root ganglia.
3) IF BISYNAPTIC: the ganglion cell relays the impulse out along its axon into posterior gray
horn of spinal cord, where it synapses with an association or internuncial neuron.
4) The internuncial neuron sends an impulse along its axon to a motor neuron in the anterior
gray horn.
5) The motor neuron sends an impulse along its axon out through the ventral root, through the
spinal nerve to quadriceps femoris. At the motor endplate, acetylcholine is released, causing
29
contraction of the muscle. The leg kicks...
PRODUCING THE PATELLAR REFLEX

1) Construct a data table to record the patellar reflex of the right versus the left leg for you and
your bench partner.
2) Have your partner sit on edge of table or with legs crossed so that leg swings freely.
3) Locate the tibial tuberosity and the lower edge of patella.
4) With a percussion hammer, strike with the pointed end in the center of the soft space between
these two hard landmarks.
5) Experiment with striking in various locations to see where the most pronounced reaction is
elicited. Repeat for the other leg.
6) Describe the reflexive reactions of the R versus the L leg of your benchmates, record in the
data table. Compare yours with your benchmates.
Post-Lab Questions
1. In light of your discoveries during class, what do your think is your keenest sense and
why?
2. What is your weakest sense and why?
30
5.
MUSCLE PHYSIOLOGY I
5. MUSCLE PHYSIOLOGY I
Objective:
1. Learn the molecular aspects of muscle contraction.
2. Learn about muscle fatigue.
I. There are 3 Major Muscle Types

A. Smooth Muscle
Non-striated muscle that lines the blood vessels, and organs. Is made up of smooth spindle
fibers with only 1 nucleus. Has involuntary contraction, which are slower & prolonged due
to no t-tubules.
= better for things like digestion
B. Cardiac Muscle
Striated muscle fibers with one central nucleus and a higher number of mitochondria for the
large amount of O2 supply required. This muscle is NOT under voluntary control. Cells are
joined by tight junctions and separated by thick sarcolemma called inter-collated discs
C. Skeletal muscles
Striated muscles have multiple nuclei due to cell fusion during development. Inside each cell
cylindrical cells there are large numbers of myofibrils, composed of Sarcomeres units
(contractile unit). Inside each sarcomere there are two main type of
fibril/proteins/myofilaments:
a. thin filaments: actin
b. thick filaments: Myosin
II. Muscle contraction
1. The brain sends an action potential down the axon of a motor neuron. At the nerve
end (synapse) the cell releases the neurotransmitters (acetylcholine) into the
neuromuscular junction.
2. ACh binds to the nicotinic receptor on the muscle cell membrane, allowing Ca2+ to
enter the cells.
3. The Ca2+ enters the muscle cell activating troponin and tropomysin; causing them to
change conformation, and uncovering the A:M binding site;
4. The muscle is depolarized and Sarcoplasmic Reticulum releases more Ca2+ into the
muscle.
5. In order to reach relaxation, the Ca2+ has to be removed from the cell.
6. Contractions (sliding of acting over myosin) require energy: from the hydrolysis of
ATP. When quick energy stores are empty, the body uses creatine-phosphate to
steal Phosphate, add it to ADP and thus make one extra ATP.
31
III. Summation
The body recruits different muscle fibers to keep the muscle contraction for long periods of time.
Summation occurs when more than 1 stimulus is applied @ increasing frequencies. The result is
that it increases the strength of the muscle but the fibers don't have time to relax.
IV. Tetanus
Is the maintenance of sustained muscle contraction.
It means that there is contraction without ANY fiber relaxation, it has recruited all fibers and will
last for a finite amount of time.
See: http://www.unmc.edu/Physiology/Mann/mann14.html
And: http://csm.jmu.edu/biology/danie2jc/muscles/muscles.htm
Weight lifting: isometric contractions

Cardiac output and blood pressure increase, and arterioles in the exercising muscles
undergo vasodilation. However, once the contracting muscles exceed 10-15% of their maximal
force, the blood flow to the muscle is greatly reduced because the muscles are physically
compressing the blood vessels that run through them; the arteriolar vasodilation is completely
overcome by the physical compression of the blood vessels.
Therefore, isometric contractions may be maintained
only briefly before fatigue sets in. In addition, because of
blood vessels compression, total peripheral resistance may go
up considerably, contributing to a large increase in mean
arterial blood pressure.
Maximal oxygen consumption (VO2max)
After VO2max is reached, work can be sustained only very
briefly by anaerobic metabolism in the exercising muscle.
Theoretically, VO2max can be limited by:
1. the cardiac output.
2. the respiratory system ability to deliver oxygen to the
blood.
3. the exercising muscle ability to use oxygen.
4.
32
In normal people, except highly trained athletes, cardiac output is the factor that determines
VO2max. With increasing work load, heart rate increases progressively until it reaches a
maximum. Stroke volume increases less and tends to level off when 75% of VO2 max has been
reached.
KEY TERMS
anabolic - in reference to muscle, a net increase in muscle protein
catabolic - in reference to muscle, a net decrease in muscle protein
concentric - shortening of a muscle during contraction
eccentric - lengthening of a muscle during contraction
hyperplasia - increase in cell number
hypertrophy - increase in cell size
isometric - no change in muscle length during a contraction
mitochondria - is an organelle ("little organ") found within cells and is involved in generating
ATP via aerobic processes
muscle fiber - also known as a myofiber; is the multinucleated cell of skeletal muscle
myoblast - an immature muscle cell containing a single nucleus
myogenesis - the development of new muscle tissue, esp. its embryonic development
Pre-lab Questions:
1.
What muscle is the only muscle in your body attached at one end?
2.
How many muscles does the human body have?
3.
How many muscles does the tongue have?
4.
What is the strongest muscle in the human body?
5.
Over the course of a lifetime, what muscle works the hardest?
6.
Discuss fresh muscle compared with preserved muscle and what you think could
improve the overall results of this experiment.
http://www.brookscole.com/chemistry_d/templates/student_resources/shared_resources/a
nimations/muscles/muscles.html
Webpage with excellent info on exercise:
http://home.hia.no/~stephens/exphys.htm
33
Experiments
Do in Class:
Investigation: Muscle Contraction

The Muscle Contraction Investigation is scheduled directly after the benchmark
lesson on cellular respiration. The purpose of this lab is to: 1) Allow students to see
muscle contraction occur in the presence of ATP; and 2) Initiate student exploration into
other factors that must be present for contraction. Though not directly part of this
project, discussion about the other factors necessary for contraction, like KCl and MgCl2,
will serve as a springboard into a more in-depth discussion of muscle contraction.
Learning objectives:
A. Each student will make predictions as to the substances that are necessary for muscle
contraction.
B. Each student will test muscle reaction to various substances and observe muscle
contraction in the presence of the necessary substances.
C. Each student will determine which substances are necessary for muscle contraction
and formulate hypothesis to explain why such substances are necessary.
Materials needed:
A. Lab Notebook
B. Vial of solution A - .25% & ATP solution in distilled water
C. Vial of solution B - .25% ATP solution in water + .05 M KCl +
.001 M MgCl2 in distilled water
D. Vial of solution C - .05 M KCl + .001 M MgCl2 in distilled water
E. tube of psoas muscle in glycerol
F. microscope slides
* The muscle tissue sample has been tied to a wooden rod, stored in glycerin, and kept in
the freezer. The muscle bundle was tied to the wooden rod before being cut from the
main muscle in the rabbit to prevent contraction. It is kept in glycerol to prevent freezing
of the muscle myofibrils. The low temperature is required to prevent destruction of the
34
enzymes present in the tissue sample.
Student Procedures
C. In groups of 3, acquire one small 2cm length of psoas muscle.
D. Place the bundle in a small drop of glycerol on a microscope slide.
E. Tease the bundle of muscle fibers into individual muscle fibers.
F. Align 3 individual fibers on each of three different microscope slides and place one
fiber on a forth slide.
G. Observe the single fiber under high power under a compound microscope. Draw a
diagram of the muscle fiber.
H. Measure the length of each fiber in mm. Record measurements.
I. Add several drops of solution A to each of the three fibers on one of the microscope
slides.
J. After 30-45 seconds, measure each of the three fibers. Record your measurements.
K. Was the length of the fiber the only dimension that changed?
L. Observe one of the fibers under a compound microscope and compare with the
original relaxed fiber you observed?
Record your observations in your notebook.
M. Repeat steps with solution B and then with solution C with new sets of fibers.
Post-Lab Questions
1. Was your original hypothesis correct? Give a reason for why or why not.
2. Based on your data, determine what substances are necessary for muscle contraction.
3. Why are these substances necessary? You may wish to check with different references to
help answer this last question.
35
6.
MUSCLE PHYSIOLOGY II
6. MUSCLE PHYSIOLOGY II
Objective:
1. Learn about summation and tetanus contraction.
2. Learn about muscle strength.
Pre-Lab questions:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
How many muscles does it take to smile?

How many muscles does it take to frown?
How many pounds of pressure can your jaw muscles exert when chewing?
How much (%) of the average human body is muscle?
What is the longest muscle in the body?
How many muscles does it take to lift your eyebrows?
See: http://csm.jmu.edu/biology/danie2jc/muscles/muscles.htm
Experiment 1:
ADI Muscle contraction Experiments
Experiment 1. Effect of Stimulus Strength: Threshold stimulus, and maximal response (Spatial
Summation):
Experiment 2. Effect of Stimulus Frequency (Temporal Summation)
Experiment 2:
Use PowerLab experiment to measure muscle contraction strength.
36
Experiment 3:
From: http://www.exrx.net/WeightExercises/Biceps/DBCurl.html
And: http://exercise.about.com/od/exerciseworkouts/ss/howtosquat.htm
Dumbbell Curl
Preparation: Position two dumbbells to sides, palms facing in, arms straight.
Execution: With elbows to the sides, raise one dumbbell and rotate forearm until forearm is
vertical and palm faces shoulder. Lower to original position and repeat with opposite arm.
Continue to alternate between sides.
Comments: Biceps may be exercised alternating (as described), simultaneous, or in a
simultaneous-alternating fashion. When elbow is fully flexed, elbow should only travel forward
slightly allowing forearm to be no more than vertical to allow for a relative release of tension in
muscles between repetitions. Also see mechanical analysis of arm curl.
Dumbbell Single Leg Calf Raise
Instructions
Preparation
Grasp dumbbell in one hand to side. Position toes and balls of feet on calf block with arches and
heels extending off. Place hand on support for balance. Lift other leg to rear by bending knee.
Execution
Raise heels by extending ankles as high as possible. Lower heels by bending ankles until calves
are stretched. Repeat. Continue with opposite leg.
Comments
Keep knees straight throughout exercise or bend knees slightly only during stretch. Quadriceps
serve as a Synergists muscle if knees are bent slightly during stretch. Use a lighter load if you
need to assist with hands used for support.
The Wall Sit

The wall sit is a bit different from typical squats since you're holding a static position for a certain
period of time, rather than working through an entire range of motion. This is a great exercise you
can do anywhere without any equipment to help you build endurance in the lower body. Here's
how to do it:
1. Stand in front of a wall (about 2 feet in front of it) and lean against it.
2. Slide down until your knees are at about 90-degree angles and hold, keeping the abs
contracted, for 20-60 seconds.
3. Come back to start and repeat, holding the squat at different angles to work the lower body in
different ways.
4. To add intensity, hold weights or squeeze a ball between the knees.
37
Laboratory Handout
Electromyography (EMG)
Introduction
In this laboratory, you will explore the electrical activity of skeletal muscle by
recording an electromyogram (EMG) from a volunteer. You will examine the EMG
of both voluntary and evoked muscle action, and use this technique to measure
nerve conduction velocity.
Background
Skeletal muscles do the majority of the work for locomotion and support of the
animal skeleton. Each muscle is made up of individual muscle fibers organized in
fascicles (Figure 1).
Figure 1. Skeletal muscle structure.

Each individual fiber is innervated by a branch of a motor axon. Under normal
circumstances, a neuronal action potential activates all of the muscle fibers
innervated by the motor neuron and its axonal branches. The motor neuron,
together with all of the individual muscle fibers that it innervates, is termed a
motor unit (Figure 2).
This activation process involves the initiation of an action potential (either
voluntarily, or as a result of electrical stimulation of a peripheral nerve), conduction
of the action potential along the nerve fiber, release of neurotransmitter at the
neuromuscular junction and depolarization of the muscle membrane with resultant
contraction of the muscle fibers.
2005 ADInstruments
Page 1 of 5
Laboratory Handout
Figure 2. The components of a motor unit.
Electromyography is a technique that measures the electrical activity of the

muscles and the nerves controlling the muscles. The data recorded is an
Electromyogram (also known as an EMG or Myogram). There are two methods
of recording: needle electrodes inserted through the skin into the muscle, or
electrodes placed on the skin surface. The size and shape of the waveform
measured provide information about the ability of the muscle to respond when the
nerves are stimulated. In the clinical setting, EMG is most often used when people
have symptoms of weakness, and examination shows impaired muscle strength. It
can help to differentiate muscle weakness caused by neurological disorders from
other conditions.
The EMG provides a depiction of the timing and pattern of muscle activity during
complex movements. The raw surface EMG signal reflects the electrical activity of
the muscle fibers active at that time. Motor units fire asynchronously and it is
sometimes possible, with exceedingly weak contractions, to detect the
contributions of individual motor units to the EMG signal. As the strength of the
muscular contraction increases, however, the density of action potentials
Page 2 of 5
Laboratory Handout
increases and the raw signal at any time may represent the electrical activity of
perhaps thousands of individual fibers.
In the first exercise, you will record EMG activity during voluntary contractions of
the biceps and triceps muscles of the arm (Figure 3).
Figure 3. Skeletal muscle structure.

The raw EMG signal during voluntary contractions may be processed in various
ways to indicate the intensity of EMG activity. In the method used here, the
negative-going portions of the EMG are inverted, and then the whole signal is
integrated in such a way as to smooth out individual spikes, and make the time
course of changing activity much clearer.
In this part of the exercise you will examine coactivation: a phenomenon in which
contraction of a muscle leads to more minor activity in the antagonist muscle. The
physiological significance of this is not entirely clear, but it has been suggested
that it helps to stabilize the joint.
You will also record evoked EMG signals produced by electrical stimulation of a
motor nerve supplying a muscle. The abductor pollicis brevis muscle is a member
of the thenar muscle group on the palmar surface of the hand (Figure 4).
Page 3 of 5
Laboratory Handout
Figure 4. Some muscles of the forearm and hand.

The motor nerve to the abductor pollicis brevis muscle (the median nerve) is easy
to stimulate at the wrist and elbow. In this exercise, flat metal disc electrodes are
attached to your skin. Brief electrical pulses are administered through the skin to
the nerve, and the time it takes for the muscle to contract in response to the
electrical pulse is recorded.
The speed of the response is dependent on the conduction velocity. In general,
the range of normal conduction velocities will be approximately 50 to 60 meters
per second. However, the normal conduction velocity may vary from one
individual to another and from one nerve to another.
Nerve and muscle disorders cause the muscles to react in abnormal ways.
Measuring the electrical activity in muscles and nerves can help detect the
presence, location and extent of diseases that damage muscle tissue (such as
muscular dystrophy) or nerves (such as amyotrophic lateral sclerosis: Lou
Gehrig's disease). In the case of nerve injury, the actual site of nerve damage can
often be located. In a clinical setting, EMG and nerve conduction studies are
usually done together.
When external nerve stimulation is applied, the volunteer will feel a brief 'pinch', a
tingling sensation and a twitching of the muscle. It may feel similar to the static
discharge felt when rubbing one's feet on the carpet and then touching a metal
object. In our exercises, each electrical pulse is very brief (less than a millisecond).
The energy of electrical pulses is not high enough to cause an injury or damage.
There are no risks associated with these small currents. Nothing is inserted into
the skin, so there is no risk of infection.
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Laboratory Handout
What you will do in the Laboratory
You will perform four exercises:
1. Voluntary change in contractile force. You will record EMG during voluntary
muscle contractions, and investigate how contractile force changes with
increasing demand.
2. Alternating activity and coactivation. Here you will examine the activity of
antagonist muscles and the phenomenon of coactivation.
3. Evoked EMG. In this exercise, you will record EMG responses evoked by
stimulating the median nerve at the wrist.
4. Nerve conduction velocity. In this exercise, you will measure nerve
conduction velocity from the difference in latencies between responses evoked
by nerve stimulation at the wrist and the elbow.
Page 5 of 5
Post-Lab questions:
Study the graphs representing, twitch, wave summation, Incomplete tetanus, & complete
tetanus
38
7.
BLOOD
7. BLOOD
Objective:
1. The purpose of this lab is to learn about blood clotting and about different
blood types.
I. Functions of Blood
Blood functions as a transporter. It brings nutrients and oxygen to the cell and removes
waste/CO2 from interstitial fluid around the cell.
II. Blood Composition
A. Plasma: Organic Molecules i.e.Plasma Proteins (Albumin, Globulin, Fibrinogen), 7% Water92%, Ions, Vitamins, Gases.
B. Cellular Materials: Red Blood Cells (RBC), White Blood Cells and Platelets.
II. Cell Types
A. Erythrocytes (RBCs) transport O2 and CO2 with lungs and tissues; do not have a nucleus
or membrane bound organelles, are shaped as a biconcave disc, are filled with enzymes and
hemoglobin and live approximately 120 days.
B. Leukocytes (WBCs) are grouped based on function:
1. Immunocytes are responsible for immune responses directed against invaders
Lymphocytes (produce antibodies)- 25%
2. Phagocytes engulf and ingest foreign particles
Monocytes (become macrophages)- 2 to 4%
Neutrophils- 65%
3. Granulocytes contain cytoplasmic inclusions
Basophils- less than 1%
Eosionophils- 4 to 5 %
(to some extent Neutrophils)
C. Thrombocytes (Platelets)
Have a 10 day life span. They are present always in the blood, and upon activation
(damage to the circulatory walls), they are responsible for the clotting of blood.
Hemoglobin is an oxygen carrying pigment of RBCs; It is a large complex molecule that can be
oxygenated or deoxygenated; It is composed of 4 globin protein chains, and has an iron core. The
molecule can hold 4-O2 molecules, attachment of the last 3 facilitated by the attachment of the
first.
III. Diseases Associated with Red Blood Cells
A. Anemia is caused when either the blood hemoglobin content is low, and not enough O2
gets transported, or there is a low RBC count, or there is abnormal shapes and structures
of the two.
B. Iron deficient anemia: Hemoglobin is not made properly due to low iron
C. Sickle Cell Anemia: abnormal Hgb disrupts the shape of the RBC, causing a clogging of
the arteries during blood flow
D. Hematopoiesis
Erythroblastosis fetalis
39
Hematocrit is the percent of the total blood volume that is occupied by RBC, and is used in
disease diagnosis. Normal is 42% RBC, with 58% platelets.
IV. Blood Typing
1. Blood can be used as an identifier in paternity, and as a sign for a threatening disease
(heart attack).
2. The antigens (proteins on the outside of the cell) present are genetically determined;
they are responsible for triggering immune responses by reacting with antibodies.
RBC antigens: A, B, and O (none)
Blood Type A has the A antigen and is tested for using anti-B antibodies
B
B
anti-A
AB
A&B
anti-A or anti-B
O does not have an antigen
both A & B antibodies
V. Genetics
A. Our chromosomes carry our DNA as genes that have been expressed; the gene carries the
info needed to produce the required protein.
B. We get a pair of genes (alleles) for blood type, allowing for many possible combinations:
1. Homozygous is when both chromosomes have the same allele
2. Heterozygous is when you get two different alleles, and if both alleles are equally
expressed, there is co-dominance, and you have an AB blood type.
C. Your genotype is the genetic composition
D Your phenotype is the outward appearance
PHENOTYPE GENOTYPE/Ag
A
B
AB
O
AA, AO
BB, BO
AB
OO
Ab
A
B
AB
-
DONATE
A, AB
B, AB
AB
any/universal
RECEIVE
A, O
B, O
AB, A, BO
O
AB is the universal recipient, and O is the universal donor

VI. Rh factor
A. Presence of Rh makes you Rh+, and the absence makes you RhB. It is a dominant trait, so if homo recessive you will not have the antigen on
your RBC.
C. It is a problem in pregnancy with a mom and a + dad, because you may
have a + baby; during the second pregnancy the moms body will have
created antibodies against the antigen from the first baby, and it will destroy
the fetus.
Pre-lab questions:
1. What is in a speck of blood?
2. Why are red blood cells shaped like breath-mint discs with a dent in the middle? Why not
spheres? Or cubes?
3. What is the study of blood called?
40
4. Is blood thicker than water?

5. What happens when blood does not flow well?
6. How do we know that blood moves?
7. How much blood is in your body right now?
8. What body parts make blood?
9. What causes a bruise?
10. Who can donate blood?
11. What is hemophillia?
12. Why do vampire bats feed at night?
13. What is a blood sausage?
Experiment 1:
Paternity Test.
Experiment 2:
Interactive game:
http://nobelprize.org/educational_games/medicine/landsteiner/
41
8.
ELECTROCARDIOGRAM
8. ELECTROCARDIOGRAM
Objective:
1. The purpose of this lab is to learn about your heart cycle.
2. Learn about your cardiac capacity and changes during physical activity.
The electrocardiogram is a measure of the electrical pattern of impulses produced in the heart
resulting in a rhythmic pattern of contraction of the heart known as the cardiac cycle. Can be
used clinically as a diagnostic tool to help reveal heart abnormalities.
1. Cardiac Muscle (Myocardium)
The heart is a muscular pump that propels blood through the pulmonary and systemic
circulations. The cardiac muscle or myocardium is composed of striated uninucleate or
binucleate fibers. Myocardial fibers are electrically connected to one another via specialized gap
junctions known as intercalated disks. These connections allow electrical stimuli produced in one
region of the heart to spread throughout the tissue.
Myogenicity Term describing the fact that the heart can beat on its own without innervation
from the CNS. The electrochemical events that cause the myocardial fibers to contract arise
within the heart itself.
Atria and Ventricles The heart is a four-chambered organ comprised of a right and left atria
and a right and left ventricle. The atria function in receiving blood from the pulmonary and
systemic circulation while the ventricles are thick walled (muscular) chambers that function in
pumping the blood out of the heart.
Septum Connective tissue found between the atria and ventricles. Divides the heart into four
chambers and provides electrical insulation.
2. Control of Cardiac Cycle
The cardiac cycle is composed of a contraction period known as systole and a relaxation period
known as diastole. During the cycle, blood received in the atria is pushed into the ventricles due
to the downward contraction of the myocardial fibers of the atria. Blood within the ventricles is
pumped out of the heart due to the upward contraction of the ventricular walls. This arrangement
results in a directionality of contraction whereby both atria contract prior to ventricular
contraction. Therefor blood entering the atria is pumped into the ventricles then pumped out of
the heart.
Sinoatrial node (SA) Group of cells located in the upper right atria, regulate cardiac cycle by
initiating depolarization waves at a rate of 100/min. The SAN is also referred to as the
pacemaker or pattern generator because it controls the waves generated that eventually spread
though out the myocardium resulting in contraction.
Atrioventricular node (AV) Group of specialized cells located at the base of the intra-atrial
septum. Help delay the signal to ensure atria contract prior to ventricles.
42
Bundle of His Fibers that carry the depolarizing signal from the AVN through the interventricular septum towards the apex (base) of the heart.
Purkinje Fibers Specialized fibers that stem from the apex and branch upward along the
ventricular wall. Function in carrying the depolarizing signal upward resulting in an upward
contraction of the ventricles which pushes the blood out into the systemic and pulmonary
circulation.
3. Electrocardiogram
(From: http://anatimation.com/cardiac-cycle/cardiac-cycle-events-of-the-cardiac-cycle.html)
The electrocardiogram (ECG) is an indirect measure of the electrical activity of the heart. The
activity can be measured by placing leads on the surface of the skin. The ECG is made up of five
points P, Q, R, S and T. The points are grouped together to represent important electrical events
in the heart. A normal healthy hearts ecg is represented by 3 distinct waves:
The P wave,
The QRS complex and
The T wave.
The P wave represents atrial depolarization followed by atrial contraction. The QRS complex
represents ventricular depolarization followed by ventricular ejection. The T wave represents
ventricular repolarization. Other than the three mentioned above there are other significant pieces
to
the
ecg:
The PR segment is the AV nodal delay. The ST segment is the time it takes for the ventricles to
contract and empty. The TP interval is the time during which the ventricles are relaxing and
filling.
P-wave: atria depolarization
QRS complex: depolarization and contraction of ventricles
Q-wave
R-wave
S-wave
T-wave: repolarization of the ventricles
4. Neuronal and Endocrine Control of the Cardiac Cycle
Both the CIC and CAC (see below) are located within the medulla of the brain stem. These two
centers help regulate heart rate, resulting in a normal heart rate of 70-75 beats/min. Specialized
chemorecptors that detect [CO2] in the blood help activate these centers.
43
Cardioinhibitory Center (CIC) - Parasympathetic division (neurotransmitter: Acetylcholine).

Via the vagus nerve the CIC slows the SAN to approx. 70-75 depolarizations/min. (As opposed
to the SANs own rate of 100 depolarizations/min.)
Cardioaccelerator Center (CAC) Sympathetic division (neurotransmitter: Norepinephrine).
Release of norepinephrine increases heart rate during periods of strenuous activity.
Epinephrine Hormone also known as adrenaline. Produced and released into the blood from the
adrenal medulla during the fight or flight response. Binds to adrenergic receptors with an effect
similar to norepinephrine in that it stimulates the SAN and increases heart rate. Additionally
since it is released into the circulatory system it has a longer lasting effect.
The major factors limiting the rise in stroke volume:

1. the very rapid heart rate, which decreases diastolic filling time.
2. inability of peripheral factors favoring venous return (respiratory pump, skeletal muscle
pump, venous vasoconstriction, arteriolar vasodilatation) to increase ventricular filling
further during the very short time available.
At rest, a trained individual has an increased stroke volume and decreased heart rate with no
change in cardiac output. At VO2max, cardiac output increases mostly due to increase in stroke
volume; maximal heart rate is not altered by exercise.
Increase in stroke volume is due to:
1. effects of training on the heart: possibly greater ventricular contractility and thicker
myocardium.
2. peripheral effects: increased blood volume, increased number of blood vessels in skeletal
muscles. Training also increases the concentrations of oxidative enzymes and
mitochondria in the exercised muscle. These changes increase the speed and efficiency of
metabolic reactions in the muscles and permit larger increases-200 to 300%- in exercise
endurance, but they do not increase VO2max because they were not limiting it in the
untrained individual.
Note
44
A sudden and exhausting exercise can sometimes trigger heart attack. In individuals who perform
regular physical activity the risk is significantly reduced. In general, the more a person exercises;
the better is the protective effect. The protective effect of exercise against heart attacks operates
via a number of mechanisms:
1. Decreases heart rate and blood pressure, two major determinants of myocardial oxygen
demand.
2. Increases diameter of coronary arteries.
3. Decreases hypertension and diabetes; two major risk factors for atherosclerosis.
4. Decreases total plasma cholesterol concentration with simultaneous increase in the
plasma concentration of cholesterol-carrying lipoprotein (HDL-good cholesterol).
5. Decreases tendency of blood to clot and improves the ability of the body to dissolve
blood clots.
Disorders
1. Myocardial ischemia
2. Hypertrophy
3. Bundle-branch block
4. V-fib
5. ventricular contractions
6. Superventricular tachycardia
7. Premature ventricular contractions
For better understanding go to: http://www.hhmi.org/biointeractive/ecg/ecg.html
And: http://pennhealth.com/health_info/animationplayer/ecg_tool.html
Pre-Lab Questions
1. Name five places that you can feel your pulse.
2. What is a good score for blood pressure?
3. What is the first Korotkoff sound to be heard?
4. What is the second Korotkoff sound to be heard?
5. Which animal would have a lower blood pressure; those that live in water or those that live on
land? Why?
6. What is the term for the highest pressure in the circulatory system that reflects the pressures
created by contraction of the ventricles?
7. The lowest pressure in the circulatory system, associated with relaxation of the ventricles is
called?
8. Define pulse.
9. How much faster does the pulse travel than the blood itself?
10. What do you think is the appropriate blood pressure at birth, toddler-age and a teen?
11. If you have hypertension, what are four things you could do to help?
45
Experiments
In this lab you will test how exercise affects heart rate.
1.
2.
3.
4.
Take ECG of labmate BEFORE exercising.

Then, this student should go UP-AND_DOWN the stairwell THREE TIMES.
Return for another ECG.
Determine how much heart rate changed after exercising.
ECG
Before exercise
After exercise
After 3 minutes
Trained student
Poorly trained student
HOMEWORK:
http://home.hia.no/~stephens/hrchngs.htm
http://home.hia.no/~stephens/exphys.htm
46
Laboratory Handout
ECG and Heart Sounds
Introduction
The beating of the heart is associated with both electrical activity and sound. The
pattern of electrical activity recorded at the body surface is called the
electrocardiogram or ECG. The aim of this laboratory is for you to record and
analyze an ECG from a volunteer, and to examine the relationship between the
ECG and the characteristic sounds of the heart.
Background
The heart is a dual pump that circulates blood around the body and through the
lungs. Blood enters the atrial chambers of the heart at a low pressure and leaves
the ventricles at a higher pressure. The high arterial pressure provides the
energy to force blood through the circulatory system. Figure 1 shows a schematic
of the organization of the human heart and the circulatory system.
Figure 1. A schematic diagram of the human heart and circulatory system.

Blood returning from the body arrives at the right side of the heart and is pumped
through the lungs. Oxygen is picked up and carbon dioxide is released. This
oxygenated blood then arrives at the left side of the heart, from where it is
pumped back to the body.
2005 ADInstruments
Page 1 of 7
Laboratory Handout
The electrical activity of the heart
Cardiac contractions are not dependent upon a nerve supply. However,
innervation by the parasympathetic (vagus) and sympathetic nerves does modify
the basic cardiac rhythm. Thus the central nervous system can affect this rhythm.
The best known example of this is so-called sinus arrhythmia where respiratory
activity affects the heart rate.
A group of specialized muscle cells, the sinoatrial, or sinuatrial (SA) node acts as
the pacemaker for the heart (Figure 2). These cells rhythmically produce action
potentials that spread through the muscle fibers of the atria. The resulting
contraction pushes blood into the ventricles. The only electrical connection
between the atria and the ventricles is via the atrioventricular (AV) node. The
action potential spreads slowly through the AV node, thus allowing atrial
contraction to contribute to ventricular filling, and then rapidly through the AV
bundle and Purkinje fibers to excite both ventricles.
Figure 2. Components of the human heart involved in conduction.

The cardiac cycle involves a sequential contraction of the atria and the ventricles.
The combined electrical activity of the different myocardial cells produces
electrical currents that spread through the body fluids. These currents are large
enough to be detected by recording electrodes placed on the skin (Figure 3).
Page 2 of 7
Laboratory Handout
Figure 3. Standard method for connecting the electrodes to a volunteer.

The regular pattern of peaks during one cardiac cycle is shown in Figure 4.
Figure 4. One cardiac cycle showing the P wave, QRS complex and T wave.
The action potentials recorded from atrial and ventricular fibers are different from
those recorded from nerves and skeletal muscle. The cardiac action potential is
composed of three phases: a rapid depolarization, a plateau depolarization
(which is very obvious in ventricular fibers) and a repolarization back to resting
membrane potential (Figure 5).
Page 3 of 7
Laboratory Handout
Figure 5. A typical ventricular muscle action potential.

The components of the ECG can be correlated with the electrical activity of the
atrial and ventricular muscle:
The P-wave is produced by atrial depolarization.
The QRS complex is produced by ventricular depolarization; atrial
repolarization also occurs during this time, but its contribution is
insignificant.
The T-wave is produced by ventricular repolarization.
Heart valves and heart sounds

Each side of the heart is provided with two valves, which convert the rhythmic
contractions into a unidirectional pumping. The valves close automatically
whenever there is a pressure difference across the valve that would cause
backflow of blood. Closure gives rise to audible vibrations (heart sounds).
Atrioventricular (AV) valves between the atrium and ventricle on each side of the
heart prevent backflow from ventricle to atrium. Semilunar valves are located
between the ventricle and the artery on each side of the heart, and prevent
backflow of blood from the aorta and pulmonary artery into the respective
ventricle.
The closure of these valves is responsible for the characteristic sound produced
by the heart, usually referred to as a lub-dup sound. The lower-pitched lub
sound occurs during the early phase of ventricular contraction. This is produced
by closing of the atrioventricular (mitral and tricuspid) valves. These valves
prevent blood from flowing back into the atria. When the ventricles relax, the
blood pressure drops below that in the artery, and the semilunar valves (aortic
and pulmonary) close, producing the higher-pitched dup sound. Malfunctions of
these valves often produce an audible murmur, which can be detected with a
stethoscope.
Page 4 of 7
Laboratory Handout
The cardiac cycle
The sequence of events in the heart during one cardiac cycle is summarized in
Figure 6. During ventricular diastole blood is returning to the heart.
Deoxygenated blood from the periphery enters the right atrium and flows into the
right ventricle through its open AV valve. Oxygenated blood from the lungs enters
the left atrium and flows into the left ventricle through its open AV valve. Filling of
the ventricles is completed when the atria contract (atrial systole). In the resting
state, atrial systole accounts for some 20% of atrial filling. Atrial contraction is
followed by contraction of the ventricles (ventricular systole). Initially, as the
ventricles begin to contract the pressure in them rises and exceeds that in the
atria. This closes the AV valves. But, until the pressure in the left ventricle
exceeds that in the aorta (and in the right ventricle exceeds that in the pulmonary
artery), the volume of the ventricles can not change. This is the so-called
isovolumic phase of ventricular contraction. Finally, when the pressure in the left
ventricle exceeds that in the aorta (and the pressure in the right ventricle
exceeds that in the pulmonary artery), the aortic and pulmonary valves open and
blood is ejected into the aorta and pulmonary arteries. As the ventricular muscle
relaxes, pressures in the ventricles fall below those in the aorta and pulmonary
artery, and the aortic and pulmonary valves close. Ventricular pressure continues
to fall and once it has fallen below that in the atria, the AV valves open and
ventricular filling begins again.
Figure 6. The cardiac cycle.
Page 5 of 7
Laboratory Handout
Changes in a variety of parameters during one cardiac cycle are susefully
summarized in a figure introduced by Wiggers. A modified form of this is shown
in Figure 7. The importance of this representation is that it allows you to see the
temporal relationships between the different parameters.
Figure 7. A Wiggers' diagram.
Page 6 of 7
Laboratory Handout
1. ECG in a resting volunteer. You will record the ECG, analyze the signal and
observe the effects of slight movement on the signal.
2. ECG recorded from several other volunteers. You will identify and discuss
similarities and differences in the ECGs of the different participants.
3. ECG and heart sounds. You will use a stethoscope to listen to the heart and
an event marker to determine the relationship between what you are hearing
and the ECG being recorded at the same time.
4. ECG and phonocardiography. You will also record the heart sounds
(phonocardiogram) together with the ECG.
Page 7 of 7
9.
BLOOD PRESSURE
9. BLOOD PRESSURE
Objective:
1. The purpose of this lab is to learn about your blood pressure.
2. Learn about blood pressure changes due to physical activity. .
I.
Cardiovascular System
A. Function of the heart
B. Direction of blood flow
C. Function of the arteries
D. Direction of flow in the arteries
E. Function of the circulatory system
1. Delivers nutrients
2. Removes metabolic wastes
3. Gas exchange
4. Maintenance of homeostatic temperature
F. Heart sounds
1. Lub: Ventricle contractions cause the atrioventricals to close
2. Dub: blood from aorta and pulmonary arteries causes the semilunar valves
to close
G. Stroke Volume
H. Cardiac output: the amount of blood pumped by the heart per minute
I. Systemic circulation
J. Pulmonary circulation
II.
Blood Pressure
A. Systolic Pressure: results from mechanical contraction; when the first sounds are heard
B. Diastolic Pressure: relaxation of the ventricles; when the sounds disappear
C. Peripheral resistance: the resistence to flow in the small vessels
BP is raised with constriction, and lowered with dilation
D. Blood velocity
E. Vasodilation
F. Vasoconstriction
III.
Regulation
A. Medulla Oblongata
B. Baroreceptors in vessels respond to pressure, and stretch
Blood pressure is the pressure exerted by the blood on the walls of blood vessel. This pressure will
change if there is a change in blood volume, the cardiac output changes, resistance in the arteries,
distribution of blood within the cardiovascular system changes, a change in posture and regulation by the
sympathetic and parasympathetic changes blood pressure. The ways that each of these factors effect blood
pressure are:
1. A change in blood volume2. A change in Cardiac output3. Change in Resistance-
47
4. Distribution of the blood changes5. Posture changes6. Regulation by the sympathetic and parasympathetic system-
You will be able to measure blood pressure by using a medical instrument called a
sphygmomanometer, which is attached to a stethoscope. With this machine you will be able to determine
what the systolic (when the vessels are contracted) over diastolic (when the vessels are relaxed) is. The way
that this instrument works is the cuff wraps around the right arm and is inflated in till the pressure exerted
is more then the systolic pressure in the artery. This results in the blood circulation through that artery to be
cut off. As the cuff is deflated the pressure exerted on the arm will lower in till it equals the systolic
pressure of the artery. At this time blood flow will begin through the vessel, this is when you will hear the
first Korotkoff sound. You will hear these sounds in till the cuff deflates to a pressure that is equal to the
diastolic pressure in the artery. The pressure that you hear the first sound at is the systolic pressure and the
pressure that you hear the last sound at is your diastolic.
For better understanding go to: http://132.241.10.14/bp/bp.swf

Purpose: The purpose of this experiment was to study the blood pressure of various people at different
body positions.
Pre-Lab Questions
1. Name five places that you can feel your pulse.
2. What is a good score for blood pressure?
3. What is the first Korotkoff sound to be heard?
4. What is the second Korotkoff sound to be heard?
5. Which animal would have a lower blood pressure; those that live in water or those that live on land?
Why?
6. What is the term for the highest pressure in the circulatory system that reflects the pressures created by
contraction of the ventricles?
7. The lowest pressure in the circulatory system, associated with relaxation of the ventricles is called?
8. Define pulse.
9. How much faster does the pulse travel than the blood itself?
10. What do you think is the appropriate blood pressure at birth, toddler-age and a teen?
11. If you have hypertension, what are four things you could do to help?
Experiment
Methods:
1.
2.
3.
4.
Obtain a sphygmomanometer
Have the patient sit down
Wrap the cuff around the right arm
Pump the cuff with air in till the pressure squeezes the arm enough to overpower the systolic
pressure in the arteries. Dont pump the pressure past 140.
48
5. Allow the cuff to deflate over a period of time, this will cause the pressure exerted on the arm
to drop.
6. As the pressure drops listen for the Korotkoff sounds using a stethoscope. The first sound you
hear is the systolic sound and the second sound heard is the diastolic sound.
7. Record where you heard the first Korotkoff sound and the last Korotkoff sound.
8. Repeat this process 3-7 while the patient is reclining, immediately after standing, and after
standing three minutes.
49
Laboratory Handout
Blood Pressure
Introduction
In this laboratory, you will become familiar with auscultation (listening to the
sounds of the body) and the measurement of blood pressure. The exercises
involve measuring your blood pressures using a stethoscope, blood pressure cuff
and sphygmomanometer. You will also assess changes in peripheral circulation
and the effects of cuff location.
Background
The pressure in the arteries varies during the cardiac cycle. The ventricles
contract to push blood into the arterial system and then relax to fill with blood
before pumping once more. This intermittent ejection of blood into the arteries is
balanced by a constant loss of blood from the arterial system through the
capillaries. When the heart pushes blood into the arteries there is a sudden
increase in pressure, which slowly declines until the heart contracts again. Blood
pressure is at its highest immediately after the ventricle contracts (systolic
pressure) and at its lowest immediately prior to the pumping of blood into the
arteries (diastolic pressure).
Systolic and diastolic pressures can be measured by inserting a small catheter
into an artery and attaching the catheter to a pressure gauge. Such a direct
measurement may be accurate, but is invasive and often inconvenient and
impractical. This was, in essence, the method by which blood pressure was first
measured by the Rev. Stephen Hales in 1714 on a horse (Figure 1). Simpler
estimates of blood pressure can be made with acceptable accuracy using
noninvasive, indirect methods.
Traditionally, systemic arterial blood pressure is estimated using a stethoscope
and a blood pressure cuff connected to a mercury column or other
sphygmomanometer (Figure 2). The cuff is placed on the upper arm and inflated
to stop arterial blood flow to the arm from the brachial artery; the high pressure in
the cuff causes the artery to collapse. The pressure in the cuff is then released
slowly. When the systolic pressure in the artery exceeds the cuff pressure, blood
slowly flows to the arm through the partially collapsed artery. Because the flow is
through a partially occluded vessel, the flow instead of being laminar is turbulent.
And therefore this flow can be heard through the stethoscope. These sharp,
tapping sounds are called Kortokoff sounds. When Kortokoff sounds are first
heard, the cuff pressure approximates systolic pressure. As cuff pressure is
reduced further, the sounds heard through the stethoscope increase in intensity
and then suddenly become muffled. The cuff pressure at the point of sound
muffling approximates diastolic blood pressure.
Page 1 of 3
Laboratory Handout
Blood Pressure
Figure 1. The first direct measurement of arterial blood pressure.

Eventually, as the cuff pressure is reduced even more, the sounds disappear
completely, and normal flow through the artery is re-established. Since the
disappearance of sound is easier to detect than muffling, and since the two occur
within a few millimeters of mercury pressure, the disappearance of sound is
commonly used to determine diastolic pressure. Note that, in some normal
healthy people, the sound can still be heard at pressures appreciably below the
true diastolic pressure. In these people, it is not possible to define their diastolic
pressure accurately.
An alternative method makes use of a simple finger pulse transducer connected
to the computer. The cuff is inflated to a pressure that obliterates the finger pulse.
As the cuff pressure is released, the finger pulse returns and the pressure at
which it reappears is a measure of the arterial systolic pressure.
Page 2 of 3
Laboratory Handout
Blood Pressure
The effects of position on the measured arterial blood pressure

It is conventional to reference all arterial blood pressure measurements to the
position of the heart. One of the things that will be explored in this laboratory is the
effect that position has on the magnitude of the pressure. At this stage, can you
think of any factors that would change the pressure if the measurements were
performed at levels different from the heart?
Figure 2. Indirect measurement of arterial blood pressure

During todays class period you will complete four exercises:
1. Measurement of blood pressure by auscultation. You will learn how to
measure the blood pressure using a sphygmomanometer cuff and a stethoscope,
and appreciate the range of pressure that can be seen in normal people.
2. Measurement of blood pressure with a microphone. In this part of the
laboratory, you will record cuff pressure and the Korotkoff sounds.
3. Measurement of systolic pressure from the finger pulse. Here, you will see
if you can use pulse measurement to replace the stethoscope.
4. Measurement of systolic pressure in the forearm. Here you will examine
the effects of arm position on the systolic pressure determined from finger pulse
recordings.
Page 3 of 3
NAME:_________________
LAB REPORT
Sitting
Reclining
Immediately standing
after reclining
After standing three

minutes
Sitting
Reclining
after reclining

minutes
Sitting
Reclining
after reclining

minutes
Sitting
Reclining
after reclining

minutes
After one minute
After 3 minutes
Maria Smith
Blood pressure
(systolic/ diastolic)
Pulse (beats per
minute)
Susie Cute
Blood pressure
Pulse (beats per
minute)
Jane Doe
Blood pressure
Pulse (beats per
minute)
Miss America
Blood pressure
Pulse (beats per
minute)
Before
Immediately
Trained student
After smoking/coffee
2 min after
3 min after
4 min after
Blood pressure
Pulse
50
10.
RESPIRATION
10. RESPIRATION PHYSIOLOGY

Objective:
1. The purpose of this lab is to learn about your respiratory capacities.
From: http://www.medicine.mcgill.ca/physio/vlab/resp
Lung volumes and capacities are anatomic measurements that vary with age, weight,
height and sex of an individual. When affected by disease or trauma, the lung volumes and
capacities are altered to a certain degree, depending upon the severity of the disorder. Pulmonary
tests can show the effects of disease on function, but they cannot be used to give a diagnosis.
However these tests do give valuable quantitative data, allowing the progress of a disease to be
followed, or the response to a treatment examined.
This exercise demonstrates techniques for the measurement and evaluation of:
A. Vital capacity of the lung and its subdivisions
B. Dynamic lung function tests
Lung volumes that depend upon the rate at which air flows out of the lungs are termed
dynamic lung volumes. There are various dynamic tests; in this lab we will perform the Forced
Vital Capacity test, and the Maximum Voluntary Ventilation test. The Forced Vital Capacity
51
(FVC) is the volume of gas that can be exhaled as forcefully and rapidly as possible after a
maximal inspiration. Normally FVC = VC, however in certain pulmonary diseases (characterized
by increased airway resistance), FVC is reduced.
From the FVC test, we can also
determine the Forced Expiratory Volume
in 1 sec (FEV1), which is the maximum
volume of air that can be exhaled in a 1 sec
time period. Normally the percentage of
the FVC that can be exhaled during 1 sec
is around 80% (i.e. FEV1/FVC=80%).
Maximum
Voluntary
Ventilation
(MVV) is the largest volume of air that
can be breathed in and out of the lungs in 1
minute. It will be reduced in pulmonary
diseases due to increases in airway
resistance or changes in compliance.
From: http://www.medicine.mcgill.ca
About Pulmonary Function Tests

From: http://www.nationalasthma.org.au/html/management/spiro_guide/sp_gd003.asp
Spirometry provides an objective assessment of airflow obstruction and is
important in staging asthma severity. It should be done on initial diagnosis of asthma,
after treatment is started and symptoms have stabilized, and every 1 to 2 years afterward.
Spirometry is used to measure the rate of airflow during maximal expiratory effort after
maximal inhalation. It can be useful in differentiating between obstructive and restrictive
lung disorders. In asthma (an obstructive lung disorder) the forced expiratory volume in 1
second (FEV1) is usually decreased, the forced vital capacity (FVC) is usually normal
and the ratio FEV1/FVC is decreased. In restrictive disorders the FEV1 and FVC are both
decreased, leaving a normal FEV1/FVC.
Spirometry measurements are usually done before and after administration of a
beta2 agonist. Reversibility with the use of a bronchodilator is defined as an increase in
FEV1 of 12% or 200 ml. Patients with severe asthma may need a short course of oral
steroid therapy before they demonstrate reversibility.
Common Terms in Spirometry

Below is an example of a volume-time curve. It shows the amount of air expired from the
lungs as a function of time.
52
Below is a short explanation of the terms used in spirometry.

FVC (Forced Vital Capacity) -- This is the total volume of air expired after a full inspiration.
Patients with obstructive lung disease usually have a normal or only slightly decreased vital
capacity. Patients with restrictive lung disease have a decreased vital capacity.
FEV1 (Forced Expiratory Volume in 1 Second) -- This is the volume of air expired in the first
second during maximal expiratory effort. The FEV1 is reduced in both obstructive and restrictive
lung disease. The FEV1 is reduced in obstructive lung disease because of increased airway
resistance. It is reduced in restrictive lung disease because of the low vital capacity.
FEV1/FVC -- This is the percentage of the vital capacity which is expired in the first second of
maximal expiration. In healthy patients the FEV1/FVC is usually around 70%. In patients with
obstructive lung disease FEV1/FVC decreases and can be as low as 20-30% in severe obstructive
airway disease. Restrictive disorders have a near normal FEV1/FVC.
FEF25-75% (Forced Midexpiratory Flow Rate) -- This is the average rate of airflow during the
midportion of the forced vital capacity. This is reduced in both obstructive and restrictive
disorders.
DLCO (Diffusing Capacity of the Lung for Carbon Monoxide) -- Carbon monoxide can be
used to measure the diffusing capacity of the lung. The diffusing capacity of the lung is decreased
in parenchymal lung disease and COPD (especially emphysema) but is normal in asthma.
Pre-lab Questions:
From: www.enchantedlearning.com/subjects/anatomy/lungs/label/index.shtml
1. What is a specialist of the respiratory system called?

2. An outward breath is called expiration, what is an inward breath called?
3. Which of these is not a section of the pharynx?
a. Laryngopharynx b. oropharnx c. bronchopharynx d. nasopharynx
4. What is the medical term for Adams Apple?
53
a.
Epiglottis b. trachea c. glottis d. thyroid cartilage
5. What is the name for the membrane surrounding the lungs?

a. Apex b. bronchi c. pleura d. lobes
6. What age group is the most vulnerable to respiratory syncytial virus?
a. Infants b. seniors c. adults d. adolescents
7. What is an examination of the larynx, trachea and esophagus.
a. Bronchoscopy b. laryngoscopy c. tracheostomy d. spirometry
8. Which of these is not an asthma preparation?
a. Ventolin b. seldane c. singulair d. proventil
9. Which of these is the smallest part of the bronchial tree?
a. Pleura b. trachea c. bronchus d. bronchioles
10. What part of the body is also known as the thoracic cavity?
54
Experiments
1) http://www.medicine.mcgill.ca/physio/vlab/exercise/protocol_new.htm
2) Turn on respirometer and fill out the Quick Patient Information. Such as
Male/Female, daily exercise routine, smoker, etc.
-
Next select 1 Spirometry, select 1 again Expiratory Relaxed Vital Capacity. When
the machine reads Blow Now, take a deep breath and exhale at a slow consistent rate
into the mouth piece.
Select 2 when Done. Forced Vital Capacity Test will begin on the next screen. You will
want to take a deep breath and then forcibly blow into the mouth piece. This will need to
be repeated at least 3 times until the screen reads Good Blow.
Now we can view our results from the report menu.
The final test from the Spirometry menu is Inspiratory Relaxed Vital Capacity, select 2.
After exhaling completely, breathe into the mouthpiece at a slow and steady rate, when
finished select Done.
Forced Vital Capacity will pop up again, and once more you will complete at least 3
forced exhales in a row until the screen reads Good Blow.
- View results.
FVC = Forced Vital Capacity

FEV = Forced Expiratory Volume
FEV/FVC = ratio of percentage of total volume (FVC) in a given amount of time
(derived from FEV)
IC = Inspiratory Capacity
Students will perform this before and after exercising (going up and down three flights
three times). Afterwards each patient will perform these tests again to compare before and after
results. Try to make homogeneous groups: i.e. women that do or dont do exercise, that smoke or
not, etc. Same for men.
Notice any trends and decide if breathing improved or not.
Find out what should be your respiratory capacity at:

http://www.micromedical.co.uk/services/predict/default.asp
55
Laboratory Handout
Respiratory Air Flow and Volume
Introduction
In this laboratory, you will be introduced to spirometry as a technique for
recording respiratory variables and you will analyze a recording to derive
respiratory parameters. You will examine lung volumes and capacities, as well
as the basic tests of pulmonary function and simulate an airway restriction.
Background
Gas exchange between air and blood occurs in the alveolar air sacs. The
efficiency of gas exchange is dependent on ventilation; cyclical breathing
movements alternately inflate and deflate the alveolar air sacs (see Figure 1).
Inspiration provides the alveoli with some fresh atmospheric air and expiration
removes some of the stale air, which has reduced oxygen and increased carbon
dioxide concentrations.
Figure 1. A schematic diagram of the human respiratory system.

Spirometry is becoming more and more important, as respiratory diseases are
increasing word wide. Spirometry is the method of choice for a fast and reliable
screening of patients suspected of having Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary
Disease (COPD). COPD is the 12th leading cause of death worldwide and the 5th
leading cause in Western countries. Studies suggest COPD could climb to be
the 3rd leading killer by 2020. Most COPD cases are completely avoidable; 8590% of cases are caused by tobacco smoking.
Page 1 of 5
Laboratory Handout
Many important aspects of lung function can be determined by measuring airflow
and the corresponding changes in lung volume. In the past, this was commonly
done by breathing into a bell spirometer, in which the level of a floating bell tank
gave a measure of changes in lung volume. Flow, F, was then calculated from
the slope (rate of change) of the volume, V:
F =
dV
dt
Equation 1
More conveniently, airflow can be measured directly with a pneumotachometer

(from Greek roots meaning breath speed measuring device). The PowerLab
pneumotachometer arrangement is shown in Figure 2.
Figure 2. The PowerLab pneumotachometer.

Several types of flow measuring devices are available and each type has
advantages and disadvantages. The flow head you will use today is a Lilly type
that measures the difference in pressure either side of a mesh membrane with
known resistance. This resistance gives rise to a small pressure difference
proportional to flow rate. Two small plastic tubes transmit this pressure
difference to the Spirometer Pod, where a transducer converts the pressure
signal into a changing voltage that is recorded by the PowerLab and displayed in
LabTutor. The volume, V, is then calculated as the integral of flow:
V=
F dt
Page 2 of 5
Equation 2
Laboratory Handout
This integration represents a summation over time; the volume traces that you
will see in LabTutor during the experiment are obtained by adding successive
sampled values of the flow signal and scaling the sum appropriately. The
integral is initialized to zero every time a recording is started.
A complication in the volume measurement is caused by the difference in air
temperature between the Spirometer Pod (at ambient temperature) and the air
exhaled from the lungs (at body temperature). The volume of gas expands with
warming, therefore the air volume expired from the lungs will be slightly greater
than that inspired. Thus a volume trace, as calculated by integration of flow,
drifts in the expiratory direction. To reduce the drift, the flow has to be integrated
separately during inspiration and expiration, with the inspiratory volume being
corrected by a factor related to the BTPS factor (body temperature, atmospheric
pressure, saturated with water vapor). The LabTutor software makes this
correction.
Spirometry allows many components of pulmonary function (see Figure 3 below)
to be visualized, measured and calculated. Respiration consists of repeated
cycles of inspiration followed by expiration. During the respiratory cycle, a
specific volume of air is drawn into and then expired from the lungs; this volume
is the Tidal Volume (VT). In normal ventilation, the breathing frequency () is
approximately 15 respiratory cycles per minute. This value varies with the level of
activity. The product of and VT is the Expired Minute Volume ( V E ), the amount
of air exhaled in one minute of breathing. This parameter also changes
according to the level of activity. Note that the volume of air remaining in the
lungs after a full expiration, residual volume (RV), cannot be measured by
spirometry as a volunteer is unable to exhale any further.
Page 3 of 5
Laboratory Handout
Figure 3. Lung volumes and capacities.

Terms that you should be familiar with before coming to class.
Term
Respiratory Rate
Expired Minute Volume
Abbreviation / Symbol
RR
Units
= RR x V
V
E
T
breaths / min (BPM)

L/min
VT
IRV
ERV
RV (predicted)
L
L
L
L
IC = VT + IRV
EC = VT + ERV
VC = IRV + ERV + VT
FRC = ERV + RV
TLC = VC + RV
L
L
L
L
L
PIF
PEF
FVC
FEV1
FEV1/FVC x 100
L/min
L/min
L
L
Lung Volumes
Tidal Volume
Inspiratory Reserve Volume
Expiratory Reserve Volume
Residual Volume
Lung Capacities
Inspiratory Capacity
Expiratory Capacity
Vital Capacity
Functional Residual Capacity
Total Lung Capacity
Pulmonary function tests

Peak Inspiratory Flow
Peak Expiratory Flow
Forced Vital Capacity
Forced Expired Volume in one second
% FVC expired in one second
Page 4 of 5
Laboratory Handout
There are five exercises that you will complete during this Lab.
1. Becoming familiar with the equipment. In this exercise, you will learn the
principles of spirometry, and how integration of the flow signal gives a volume.
2. Lung volumes and capacities. Here you will examine the respiratory cycle
and measure changes in flow and volume.
3. Pulmonary function tests. Here you will measure parameters of forced
expiration that are used in evaluating pulmonary function.
4. Simulating an airway restriction. In this exercise, you will simulate an
airway restriction.
5. Variability amongst group members. In this exercise, you will compare the
parameters of forced expiration measured in different students.
Page 5 of 5
Susie Cute
Before Exercise
After exercise
After three minutes
Before Exercise
After exercise
After three minutes
Before Exercise
After exercise
After three minutes
Immediately
After one minute
FEV1/FVC
FVC
Athlete
FEV1/FVC
FVC
Video-game addict
FEV1/FVC
FVC
Before
After 3 minutes
Trained student
After smoking/coffee
2 min after
3 min after
4 min after
FVC
Post-Lab Questions:
1. Would you expect someone who regularly exercises to have improved breathing after
exercising compared to those who do not exercise regularly?
2. Explain why breathing improved with exercise?
3. Why did the person who exercises not improve?
56
11.
DIGESTION
11. DIGESTION
Objective:
1. The purpose of this lab is to learn about digestive enzymes and their optimal
conditions.
I. Gastrointestinal system
A. Oral cavity
B. Esophagus is lined with stratified squamous epithelium, and uses stratified and
smooth muscles for contractions.
C. Stomach made of two glands
1. Gastric Gland are the cells that line the folds of the mucosa
a.) goblet cells: secrete mucus
b.) Parietal cells to secrete H-Cl
c.) chief cells secrete pepsinogen
2. Pyloric gland
a.) enterochromaffin-like cells secrete histamine
b.) G cells secrete gastrin
c.) D cells secrete somastatin
D. Small Intestine
1. divided into three regions
a.) Duodenum
b.) Jejunum
d.) Ileum
2. Contains microvilli, villi, and plicae circulares to increase the surface area of the
intestines, which maximizes the rate of digestive product absorption
3. Digestive enzymes for food hydrolysis are fixed to the cell membrane
4. Epithelium secretes many digestive enzymes
a.) secretin: stimulates water and bicarbonate secretion in pancreatic juice, and
potentiates actions of CCK on the pancreas
b.) CCK (cholecystokinin): Stimulates contraction of the gallbladder, secretion of
pancreatic juice enzymes, inhibits gastric motility and secretion, maintains the
structure of exocrine pancreas
c.) Gastric inhibitory peptide: inhibits gastric motility and secretion, and stimulates
secretion of insulin from pancreatic inlets
E. Large Intestine (colon) receives waste products from the small intestines
F. Liver
Secretes bile to emulsify fats, sends it to the gallbladder, where it is stored and
concentrated, it also has phagocytic cells which modify the blood
G. Pancreas
Is a double gland: endocrine and exocrine gland: tissues secrete pancreatic juices to be
carried to the duodenum
Islands of endocrine cells AKA Islets of Langerhans:
57
a.) alpha cells secrete glucagon

b.) beta cells secrete insulin
II. Digestion
A. Carbohydrates
Carbohydrate digestion begins in the mouth, with the mixing of saliva, containing salivary
amylase, to hydrolyze the long chains into shorter polysaccharide chains, and then into
maltose a glucose disaccharide
B. Protein
Protein digestion takes place in the stomach. First they are coagulated due to the high acidity,
allowing pepsin to begin digestion. Digestion is completed in the small intestines by
proteolytic enzymes, which hydrolyze proteins into amino acids.
C. Fat
The major digestion of fats occurs in the small intestines with the help of pancreatic and
intestinal lipase, and bile. It is the bile salts that emulsifies the large fat drops into little fat
droplets. This allows them to be broken down into monoglycerides and fatty acids, which
form micelle and are absorbed into the intestinal epithelium.
III. Digestive enzymes
Amylase
Pepsin
Trypsin
Chymotrypsin
Lipase
V. Hormones
Gastrin: is the major physiological regulator of gastric acid secretion.
http://www.vivo.colostate.edu/hbooks/pathphys/endocrine/gi/gastrin.html
Ghrelin: increases appetite:
http://www.vivo.colostate.edu/hbooks/pathphys/endocrine/gi/ghrelin.html
CCK: involved in appetite decrease.
Leptin: regulates body weight, metabolism and reproductive function. But obese
people tend to have high levels of leptin.

http://www.vivo.colostate.edu/hbooks/pathphys/endocrine/bodyweight/leptin.html
VI. Neurotransmitters
Serotonin is released during digestion that is partly why you feel sleepy after a big meal.
Pre-Lab Questions
From: www.funtrivia.com
1. What is the study of the gastrointestinal system?
2. What is the GI tract also known as?
3. How many pairs of salivary glands are there?
4. What is the beginning of the large intestine called?
5. What is the portion of the digestive tract between the stomach and large intestine?
6. What age group is the most likely to develop pyloric stenosis?
58
7. What is the medical term for vomiting?

8. What is the removal of part or all of the stomach?
9. Are the teeth a part of the gastrointestinal system?
10. Which cavity starts the GI system?
11. Wavelike motions that propel food through the GI system are called what?
12. Whe entering the stomach, what part does the food pass by first?
13. What nutrient does amylase work on?
14. Which organ is mainly used for storage?
15. Which section of the large intestine is least likely to develop cancer?
16. Name one of the five gases that account for 99% of intestinal gas?
17. After the watery saliva dissolves the food, the food is then stuck together with mucoid made
by the salivary glands. What is the ball of food called?
18. Which of the palates prevent food from entering the nasal cavity?
19. The tongue has skeletal muscles that are labeled extrinsic and intrinsic. How does the
extrinsic muscle help the tongue during digestion?
20. The tongue has four taste zones. Where is the bitter zone located?
21. True or False: the lifespan of a taste bud is one year?
22. Which of the following is broken down in the mouth?
a. Protein b. starch c. fats
59
Experiments
Each group will need approx 16 test tubes.
Starch/Amylase
1. Label four clean test tubes 1-4. (label an additonal four tubes as 1a, 2a, 3a, and 4a for later)
2. Obtain 5 ml of amylase solution by spitting into a clean test tube.
3. Add 3.0 ml of distilled water to tube 1.
4. Add 3.0 ml of amylase to tubes 2 and 3. Add one drop of hydrochloric acid to tube 3.
5. Boil the remaining amylase solution in a Pyrex test tube, the add 3.0 ml of this boiled
amylase to tube 4.
6. Add 5.0 ml of cooked 1% starch solution to each tube (1-4).
7. Allow the tubes to incubate for at least 1 hr. in a 37C water bath.
8. Divide the contents of each sample in half by pouring into four new test tubes (1a-4a).
9. Test one set of solutions for starch by adding a few drops of Lugols soln. (Positive =
purple/black color)
10. Test the other set of solutions for reducing sugars in the following way:
(a) Add 5.0 ml of Benedicts reagent to each of the four test tubes and immerse
them in a rapidly boiling water bath for 2 minutes.
(b) remove the tubes from the boiling water with a test-tube clamp and rate the
amount of reducing sugar present according to the scale on your lab report.
Protein/pepsin
1. Label five test tubes 1-5
2. Using a razor blade cut 5 very thin slices of egg white (aprox. 2 cm2) and place one in each
test tube (1-5)
3. Add one drop of distilled water to tube 1. Add one drop of concentrated HCl to tubes 2-4,
add one drop of concentrated (10 N) NaOH to tube 5.
4. Add 5.0 ml of pepsin solution to tubes 1, 2, 3, and 5. Add 5.0 ml distilled water to tube 4.
5. Place tubes 1, 2, 4 and 5 in a 37C water bath. Place tube 3 in the freezer.
6. After 1 hr. remove the tubes from the water bath (allow tube #3 to thaw) and record the
appearance of each egg white in your lab report.
Fat/lipase
1. Obtain 3 test tubes and label them 1-3
2. Add the following to the indicated test tubes.
1- 3.0 ml cream + 5.0 ml DI H2O + few grains of bile salts.
2- 3.0 ml cream + 5.0 ml pancreatin solution.
3- 3.0 ml cream + 5.0 ml pancreatin solution + few grains of bile salts.
3. Using pH paper, check the pH of each tube.
4. Incubate the tubes in a 37C water bath for 1 hr. then check the pH of each tube and 5
record your results in your lab report.
60
Name__________________
Digestion
Starch/Amylase
Contents before incubation
1. Starch + distilled water
2. Starch + amylase
3. Starch + amylase + HCl
4. Starch + boiled saliva
Starch after incubation
Maltose after incubation
Use the following scale to rate the amount of reducing sugars present after the addition of Lugols
(iodine) and Benedicts reagent
Solution color
Blue-Black
Green
Yellow
Orange
Red
rating
+
++
+++
++++
(unhydrolyzed polysaccharides i.e. starch)
(hydrolyzed reducing sugars; maltose, glucose, etc.)
Protein/pepsin
Incubation conditions
1. Protein + pepsin @ 37C
2. Protein + pepsin + acid @ 37C
3. Protein + pepsin + acid @ 0C
4. Protein + acid @ 37C
5. Protein + pepsin + NaOH @ 37C
Fat/lipase
Incubation conditions
1. Cream + bile salts
2. Cream + lipase
3. Cream + bile salts + lipase
Appearance of Egg white after incubation
Initial pH (time 0)
Final pH (time 1 hr.)
61
1. Which tubes contained the most starch following incubation, which tubes contained the most
hydrolyzed sugars? Based on these observations, which conditions favor the chemical
breakdown of polysaccharides?
2. What effect does cooking have on enzyme activity? Explain why this effect is
produced.
3. Briefly explain how temperature plays a role in digestion (hint: why is the water bath set at
37C).
4. What role does the stomach play in digestion i.e. what is its function?
5. Explain why fat digestion effects the pH of the solution. What is the function of bile salts in
fat digestion?
6. How does the pancreas help neutralize the acidic chyme produced by the stomach?
62
12. REGULATION OF METABOLISM
Experiments
Here you will do the experiments described in PowerLab Tutor for regulation of
Metabolism and fitness.
63
12.
REGULATION OF METABOLISM
Student Handout
Aerobic Fitness Testing
Introduction
In this laboratory, you will become familiar with measuring maximal rate of oxygen
consumption. The exercise involves measuring a participants heart rate (bpm),
respiratory rate (bpm), and the fraction CO2 and O2 expired. You will also assess
changes in work rate intensity to the physiological measure of the participant.
Background
A commonly used method for determining aerobic fitness is the VO2 max test. This
measures an individual's capacity to utilize oxygen. A high VO2 max indicates than an
individual is better equipped to meet the oxygen demands of the body during exercise. In
this laboratory, two individuals will perform the VO2 max test. This test involves
incrementally increasing exercise intensity (work rate) until the participants reach
volitional exhaustion, or they reach their age predicted maximum heart rate.
Aerobic performance relates to cardiac function, although VO2 max can be specific to the
mode of exercise through differences in the skeletal muscles involved. For example, an
individual can obtain different VO2 max results in swimming and running, because of the
different muscles used. VO2 max is determined through the functional capacity and
integration of systems that supply, transport, deliver and use oxygen. These systems
include:
Pulmonary ventilation
Hemoglobin
Blood volume and cardiac output
Aerobic metabolism
VO2 max can be defined in absolute (L/min) or relative (mL/kg/min) terms. Absolute
VO2 max refers to the amount of oxygen used by the entire body and is important to nonweight bearing sports i.e. cycling and rowing. Relative VO2 max allows comparisons
between people by taking into account body weight (kg). It is important in weight-bearing
sports i.e. running and soccer. Training causes physiological adaptations in the body,
leading to improved exercise performance and aerobic power through:
Enhancement of oxygen transport and use at a local level (within the trained
muscles)
Greater ability to generate adenosine tri-phosphate (ATP) aerobically
Higher regional blood flow (from better distribution of cardiac output or increased
microcirculation, or a combination of both).
Page 1 of 5
2007 ADInstruments
Student Handout
The Energy Systems
The body utilizes energy from both aerobic and anaerobic systems. Three
overlapping systems supply the energy required for the body to perform daily
activities and additional work:
ATP-Phosphocreatine "Phosphagen" (Anaerobic)

Anaerobic Glycolytic (This is actually the first stage of Aerobic metabolism,
however it does not involve O2)
Aerobic Metabolism (glycolytic and lipolytic)
Figure 1. The relative utilization of energy-transfer systems for different

durations of exercise.
The crossover between these three energy systems allows a continual source of energy.
The energy derived from these systems differs in rate and capacity, as shown in Table 1.
Table 1. The maximum energy-transfer rate and the amount of stored
energy typically available for each energy system.
System
Phosphagen (ATP-PCr)
Anaerobic Glycolysis
Aerobic (if from glycogen only)
Page 2 of 5
Maximal Power
(moles of ATP per minute)
3.6
1.6
1
2007 ADInstruments
Maximal Capacity
(moles of ATP available)
0.7
1.2
90
Student Handout
The human body has energy in many forms:
Adenosine Tri-phosphate (ATP)

Creatine Phosphate, Phosphocreatine
Glucose (preferred energy source of the central nervous system)
Glycogen
Fatty Acids (triglycerides)
Amino Acids (protein)
Gas Exchange in the Lungs

Gas exchange between air and blood occurs in the alveolar air sacs of the lungs. The
efficiency of gas exchange is dependent on ventilation; cyclical breathing movements
that alternately inflate and deflate the alveolar air sacs. Inspiration draws air into the
alveoli, where the oxygen is transferred to the blood and exchanged with carbon dioxide.
Expiration removes the stale air, which contains increased carbon dioxide and reduced
oxygen concentrations.
Metabolism and Energy Storage

As energy yielding molecules (carbohydrate and fats) are metabolized to generate ATP,
oxygen consumption increases. Using spirometry and gas analysis techniques, the rate
of oxygen (O2) consumption and carbon dioxide production (CO2) can be measured. The
ratio between the VCO2 and the VO2 is called the respiratory exchange ratio (RER).
Values less-than 1.0 indicate aerobic metabolism (CO2 production equal to or less than
O2 consumption), whereas values greater-than 1.0 indicate that anaerobic metabolism is
involved. Because the oxygen to carbon dioxide ratio is different for carbohydrate and
lipid metabolism, the RER provides an indication of the predominant substrate being
metabolized at a particular time during exercise.
Location of the Energy Systems

Cytosol: The phosphagen system and anaerobic glycolysis are located in the cytosol.
The fuels used are creatine phosphate, for the phosphagen system, along with glucose
and glycogen for anaerobic glycolysis. Mitochondria: The final stage of aerobic
catabolism of carbohydrate, lipid and protein takes place in the mitochondria.
Factors influencing VO2max

Aerobic Training affects the utilization of oxygen throughout the human body.
Many of the physiological and metabolic adaptations that occur due to aerobic
training are independent of age, ethnic group and gender.
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Changes that may occur with Aerobic Training
Adaptations
Metabolic
Cardiovascular
Pulmonary
Other
Increase
Oxidative enzymes
Oxidative capacity
Mitochondria size
Mitochondria number
Individual muscle fiber - aerobic
power
Hypertrophy slow twitch)
Heart Volume
Heart Mass
Size and thickness of left
ventricular cavity
Plasma volume
Stroke volume
End-diastolic volume
O2 transport/delivery
Circulatory reserve
VO2 max
Cardiac Output
O2 extraction
Improved O2 usage in the muscle
Cross-sectional area of arteries,
veins, capillaries
Ventilation (maximal exercise)
Tidal Volume
Respiratory rate
Time to fatigue
Ventilatory muscles endurance
Fat free mass
Ability to off-load heat in warm
environments
Psychological state (?) improved
Decrease
Heart Rate
Requirements of Blood flow
Diastolic Blood Pressure
Systolic Blood Pressure
O2 cost of breathing
Body Mass
Body Fat
Other VO2 max Tests

There are other tests used to estimate VO2 max such as the Beep test, the Balke
15 minute Run, the Cooper 12 minute run and the Rockport test. Outside of the
laboratory setting, some of these may be more feasible and appropriate due to time and
resource constraints.
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Student Handout

There are 3 exercises that you will complete during this Lab.
1. VO2max test. Two volunteers from your laboratory group will perform a continuous
exercise bout of increasing intensity every minute until exhaustion.
2. Heart rate, respiratory rate, volume of air expired, fraction CO2 and O2. These
variables will be measured every minute of the experiment, before the next intensity.
3. Ventilatory responses and RER. Using the measured variables in the experiment,
you will determine these, and compare the changes seen at different exercise
intensities within the same individual and between individuals.
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Student Handout
Cardiorespiratory Effects of Exercise
Introduction
In this laboratory, you will become familiar with auscultation (listening to the
sounds of the body) and the measurement of blood pressure. You will also
assess changes in physiological measures such as heart rate and respiratory
rate from a volunteer during light and heavy exercise and describe changes in
ECG intervals with heart rate changes.
Background
The cardiorespiratory system is directly responsible for distributing blood around
the human body. The lungs and the heart work together, to re-oxygenate blood
by pumping blood from the venous system into the pulmonary circulation. Here,
carbon dioxide diffuses out of the blood and oxygen diffuses into it. It is then
transferred into the systemic system through the heart. For this to occur, the
heart and lungs make complex adjusts using internal and external cues. During
exercise, the adjustments made by the cardiorespiratory system become much
more pronounced.
Blood Pressure
Arterial blood pressure is determined by the balance between the cardiac output
and the peripheral resistance. Arterioles are the major contributor to the
peripheral resistance. In simplistic terms, the systolic pressure reflects the
cardiac output while the diastolic pressure is determined by the peripheral
resistance. During mild to moderate exercise, the increase in cardiac output is
greater than overall vasodilation, and both systolic and diastolic blood pressure
tend to increase. In moderate to severe exercise, vasodilation in the exercising
muscle, together with some vasodilation in the skin to enhance heat loss, results
in an increase in systolic pressure accompanied by a decrease in diastolic
pressure. Thus the pulse pressure (the difference between the systolic and
diastolic pressures) widens.
Figure 1. The formula to work out the mean arterial blood pressure at rest.
Determining (Figure 1) the mean arterial blood pressure (MABP) of an individual
during rest gives an insight to the mean pressure in the arteries at a given time.
Figure 2 shows the cardiac cycle, and the actual events occurring that give rise to
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Student Handout
systolic and diastolic pressures. Systolic pressure refers to the contraction of the
heart's chambers; pushing blood out into the arteries this is also known as a
heart beat. Diastolic pressure is measured when the heart is relaxed and the
compartments are being filled with blood between heart beats. The amount of
time spent in diastole is far greater than systole. During exercise the 'filling' time
of the hearts chambers is reduced, as heart rate increases, to increase the
cardiac output. The calculation of mean arterial blood pressure becomes less
accurate during exercise, as changes in heart rate are not accounted for in the
formula.
Figure 2. The cardiac cycle.
Control of the arterial system

The arterial system functions as a pressure reservoir. Blood enters via the heart
and exits to the venous system through the capillaries. Signals from the
autonomic nervous system control the tone of smooth muscle sphincters around
the arterioles. In this way, the autonomic nervous system controls the distribution
of blood to the various organs in the body. The distribution of blood that flows to a
particular organ is influenced by local conditions. If cells require more arterial
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Student Handout
blood-due to, say, a decline in pH or oxygen levels, or an increase in carbon
dioxide levels-smooth muscle sphincters open to permit blood to enter the
particular capillary beds.
The distribution of blood to an organ when a person is at rest may be very
different from that seen during exercise. For example, the blood flow to the gut
and kidneys, which together normally account for about 50% of the resting blood
flow, decreases appreciably during exercise, whereas blood flow to the
exercising skeletal muscles increases dramatically. The distribution of blood is
controlled through blood pressure changes that arise from increases in cardiac
output.
Figure 3. Changes in organ blood flow between rest and exercise.
Cardiac Output
The volume of blood ejected into circulation each minute by the heart, the cardiac
output (CO), is the product of the heart rate (beats/min) (HR) and the stroke
Page 3 of 9
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Student Handout
volume (liters/beat) (SV), that is, the volume of blood ejected during each beat. In
humans, CO = HR x SV = 70 x 0.07 ~ 5.0 liters/min.
The mammalian nervous system controls heart rate via the autonomic nerves.
Stimulation of sympathetic nerves increases the heart rate, while stimulation of
the parasympathetic nerve supplying the heart, the vagus nerve, decreases the
rate. At rest, the vagal effect predominates (vagal tone), and the heart beats
more slowly than it would in the absence of any autonomic activity. During
exercise, vagal activity diminishes and sympathetic activity increases. This,
together with increased levels of circulating epinephrine, results in increased
heart rate.
Stroke volume at rest is appreciably higher, and heart rate lower, in very fit
individuals. It is influenced by a variety of factors including the volume of blood
returning to the heart (venous return), sympathetic nerve activity and levels of
circulating epinephrine. Initially, during exercise, these factors all increase, and
stroke volume is thus increased. However, the increase in heart rate also
decreases ventricular filling time and thus limits the capacity for increased stroke
volume. Although initially stroke volume may increase up to 1.5 fold, once the
level of exercise exceeds about 50% of the individual's capacity, there is little if
any further increase in stroke volume. Only increasing heart rate can then
increase cardiac output further.
Electrical activity of the heart during exercise

An increase in heart rate corresponds to a shortening of the cardiac cycle (RR
interval decreases). Most of this shortening occurs in the TP interval. The QT
interval also shortens, but only slightly. The regular pattern of peaks during one
cardiac cycle is shown in Figure 4.
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13.
RENAL PHYSIOLOGY
13. RENAL PHYSIOLOGY

Objective:
1. The purpose of this lab is to learn about your own renal physiology.
4. Learn about effects of food or drinks on urine contents.
I.
Anatomy of the kidneys

A. Renal vein and artery support the kidney's blood flow
B. Renal pelvis collects urine from the collecting ducts
C. Renal cortex (proximal and distal tubules)
D. Renal Medulla (Loop of Henle and collecting duct)
E. Nephrons (1 million per kidney): removes fluid using colloidal and hydrostatic
pressures
II.
Functions of the kidneys

A. responsible for eliminating the waste products od metabolism
B. responsible for retaining molecules essential for normal body function
C. Maintaining a constant internal environment
electrolytes, fluid, and acid-base balances
III.
Hormones
A. Anti-diuretic hormone (ADH) is released by the post. pituitary
1. release is stimulated by the hypothalamus (osmoreceptors), which are stimulated
by an increase in osmotic pressure during periods of dehydration
2. Release promotes the re-absorption of water from the renal tubules resulting in
water retention and concentrated urea.
3. release is blocks by alcohol, and you get dehydrated
B. Aldosterone is secreted by the cortex of the adrenal gland
1. Release is stimulated by a rise in blood K, and a drop in blood Na
2. Promotes the re-absorption of Na into the blood in exchange for K
C. Renin is an enzyme that helps form angiotensin
1. this hormone increases the blood pressure (by vasoconstriction)
2. it stimulates the secretion of aldosterone
D. Erythropoietin
For better understanding go to::

http://www.sumanasinc.com/webcontent/animations/content/kidney.html
Pre-Lab Questions
1. Which of the following is not a part of the kidney?
a. Glomerulus b. the trigone c. Bowmans Capasule d. Loop of Henle
2. Which of the following can cause kidney failure?
a. Bells Palsy b. nystagmus c. Diabetes Mellitys d. Choleithiasis
3. Which of the following values is used to monitory kidney function?
a.White blood cell count b. HgbA1c c. ELISA d. 24 hr creatinine clearance
4. Where is a transplanted kidney placed in the recipients body?
a. The right or left lower abdomen b. under the diaphragm c. under the liver d. the
upper back on the right side
64
5. Which of the following specialties deals with kidney diseases?

a. Endocrinologist b. Neurologist c. Nephrologist d. Hematologist
6. How many phases are there in the formation of urine?
a. 6 b. 3 c. 2 d. 4
7. What is the tubular structure that filters the urine in the kidney?
a. Calyx b. internal urethral sphincter c. nephron d. cortex
8. What age group is the most likely to develop vesicourethral reflux?
a. Adolescents b. infants and children c. seniors d. middle age adults
9. What is the medical term for a kidney stone?
a. Nephrolith b. uremia c. nephron d. cystitis
10. What is a blood test done to measure the urea, which indicates normal or abnormal kidney
function?
a. IVP b. GFR c. BUN d. ESWL
65
NAME:_________________
LAB REPORT
1. Each student will drink Pint of water at the beginning of class.
2. Students that will go to the restroom with their urinalysis stick and hold the strip under the flow
of the urine. Take their reading from the indicators and measure their urine contents.
3. The TA should make a chart to show how long it takes for the students to urinate again after
drinking the pint of water.
4. Some students can see if soda drinks will make a difference (i.e. will be more diuretic than
plain water).
Urinalysis
Student
Glucose Level
Protein conc.
Ketones
Blood
White Blood Cells
pH
Color
66
QUESTIONS:
1. Was there a sample that showed levels higher or lower than expected?
2. What was the longest time recorded before going to the bathroom?
3. What was the shortest time? If it was very short, what could be the reason for this quick
delivery?
4. Was there a gender difference?
5. Did drinking soda made a difference?
67
14.
REPRODUCTION
14. REPRODUCTION
Objective:
1. The purpose of this lab is to learn about the female reproductive cycle.
SEE: www.FertilityMonitor.com
http://www.my-fertility-monitor.com/info_pages.php/pages_id/5?osCsid
Signs of Ovulation
What Are the Signs of Ovulation?

Common Question!
Your most fertile time of the month starts one to two days before you ovulate and lasts
for three days after you ovulate. The process of ovulation is when your body releases
egg(s) from your ovary and begins it's journey through your fallopian tubes. If the egg is
fertilized and implants, you are then pregnant.
Understanding the signs of ovulation will help you raise your chances at conceiving each
month.
So What Are the Signs?
~ Breast tenderness
~ Abdominal cramps or twinges
~ Increased vaginal discharge:
Soon after your menstrual cycle, you might notice a sticky or "tacky" vaginal secretion.
Immediately prior to ovulation, most women usually detect increased vaginal secretions
that are wet and slippery (similar to the consistency of raw egg white). Generally, your
body produces the greatest amount of this type of vaginal discharge is on the day of
ovulation.
Immediately following the day of ovulation, your vaginal discharge gradually becomes
thicker in consistency, and less is secreted.
~ Change in position and firmness of the cervix (ask your doctor how to detect
cervix changes)
68
When your cervical position rises within your body, the opening gets larger and feels soft
to the touch, this is an indication of being at your most fertile time. This page will give
you information on the different positions, the changes of the opening as well as the feel
of your cervix during your monthly cycle.
~ Cervix is Low, Hard & Closed
After your menstrual period you will begin to start checking your cervical position. At
this time the position of your cervix will be low within your body and easily reached with
your fingertips. The opening to your cervix will be closed - feeling like a small slit or a
tiny hole. The feel of your cervix will be rather hard to the touch. It will feel almost like
touching the tip of your nose. During this phase (the first phase within your cycle) you
are considered infertile.
~ Cervix is High, Soft & Open
Right before ovulation occurs the amount of estrogen increases within your body. This
causes your cervix to rise. When checking your cervical position, you will notice that it
will move from the lowest point to mid and then extremely high. At the highest point it
may be difficult to reach your cervix with your fingertips. The opening of your cervix
increases making the slit or tiny hole much larger. The feel of your cervix is much softer
now almost like touching your bottom lip. This is an indication of your peak or most
fertile time. The cervix will remain high until you ovulate - after which estrogen subsides
and the hormone progesterone is released causing your cervix to return to its low. closed
and hard position.
From: http://my-fertility-monitor.com/info_pages.php/pages_id/5?osCsid=\\\\\\
Can you feel ovulation happen?

The most obvious outward sign of approaching ovulation is increasingly wet and slippery
cervical fluid. In fact, it can be so abundant that you may notice a string of cervical
fluid literally hang down when you use the toilet (yikes!). If you notice this, you should
assume that ovulation is about to happen within a day or two. This is what is referred to
as a primary fertility sign. Some women are lucky enough to notice other signs on a
regular basis, all of which are useful in helping them to further understand their cycles.
These signs are referred to as secondary fertility signs, because they do not necessarily
occur in all women or in
every cycle in individual women. An example of a secondary fertility sign is the sharp
pain that women often feel right around ovulation, which is called mittelschmerz, or
literally,
middle pain. It is most likely caused by the egg bursting through the ovarian wall.
Why dont I ever have any dry days after my period ends?
Women who tend to ovulate fairly early, and therefore have shorter cycles, often start
69
producing estrogen right after their periods end, so they begin producing cervical fluid
early in the cycle. So noticing cervical fluid immediately after your period ends usually
signals that youll have an early ovulation with a short cycle.
From: http://www.cyclesavvy.com/index.html
For better understanding go to:
http://www.sumanasinc.com/webcontent/animations/content/ovarianuterine.html
70
Student Handout
Figure 4. A Wiggers' diagram showing the cardiac cycle and the events that are
measured.
The components of the ECG can be correlated with the electrical activity of the
atrial and ventricular muscle:
the P-wave is produced by atrial depolarization

the QRS complex is produced by ventricular depolarization; atrial
repolarization also occurs during this time, but its contribution is
insignificant
the T-wave is produced by ventricular repolarization.
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Gas exchange between air and blood occurs in the alveolar air sacs. The
efficiency of gas exchange is dependent on ventilation; cyclical breathing
movements alternately inflate and deflate the alveolar air sacs (see Figure 5).
Inspiration provides the alveoli with some fresh atmospheric air and expiration
removes some of the stale air, which has reduced oxygen and increased carbon
dioxide concentrations.
Figure 5. A schematic diagram of the human respiratory system.
Lung volumes and capacities.

Respiration consists of repeated cycles of inspiration followed by expiration.
During the respiratory cycle, a specific volume of air is drawn into and then
expired from the lungs; this volume is the Tidal Volume (VT). In normal
ventilation, the rate of breathing (breaths/minute or BPM) is approximately 15
respiratory cycles per minute. This value varies with the level of activity. The
product of BPM and VT is the Expired Minute Volume, the amount of air exhaled
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in one minute of breathing. This parameter also changes according to the level of
activity.
Figure 6: Lung volumes and capacities
Respiration during exercise

Both oxygen consumption and carbon dioxide production increase during
exercise. Despite this, arterial gas composition remains remarkably constant.
Exactly how this is achieved is still to be fully understood. Both tidal volume and
respiratory rate increase, and a variety of factors are thought to contribute to this
including increased central nervous drive, changes in arterial blood pH and
possibly potassium concentration, and possibly alterations in the sensitivity of the
carotid bodies to oxygen and carbon dioxide.
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Student Handout
Figure 7. Physiological changes that occur during exercise (adaptation of

Bray et al.)
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Student Handout
There are 2 exercises that you will complete during this Lab.
1. Comparing Physiological Measures. You will measure volume of expired
air, respiratory rate, heart rate and blood pressure and compare their changes
in 4 different conditions; resting, light exercise, heavy exercise and recovery.
2. Analyze changes in ECG. You will record ECG throughout the entire
protocol and look its relationship with heart rate. Using the ECG trace, you
will become familiar with the intervals that make up the cardiac cycle, and use
the ECG trace to show the changes which occur.
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15.
PEER EVALUATION
15.
PEER EVALUATION
Speaker_______________________________________________Date___________________
Topic________________________________________________________________________
1. Clarity: I understood............a) all
b) most
c) some d) very little
e) none
Comments_____________________________________________________________________
2. Organization: The seminar seemed.....................................
a) well organized throughout.
b) generally well organized.
c) occasionally organized.
d) lacked organization.
Comments_____________________________________________________________________
3. Mannerisms: Did anything distract you from the presentation? Explain.
a) vocalizations__________________________________________
b) gestures____________________________________________
c) visual aid problems_____________________________________
d) other______________________________________________
4. Visual aids: Rank the visual aids (excellent, good, fair, poor, awful). Explain.
a) clarity___________________________________________________
b) appropriateness____________________________________________
c) technical presentation______________________________________
5. Final Evaluation: Overall, I felt the seminar was...........................................
a) excellent
b) good
c) fair d) poor e) awful
Comments___________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________
Final Grade: Out of 100%, assign a grade you think this presentation is worthy of.
Remember, if you give everyone 100%, I will only use my grade when figuring out the final
score.
71

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HUMAN PHYSIOLOGY

1. MEASURING YOUR REACTION TIME...

1. MEASURING YOUR REACTION TIME

10. Now switch positions and repeat.

2. What is your average reaction time?

2. HOW TO MEASURE YOUR VERTICAL LEAP.

1. List the main factors affecting reaction time.

2. List professions that would increase a persons reaction time.

3. On average, which sex has larger calf circumference, by how much?

2. DIFFUSION, OSMOSIS AND SOLUBILITY

II. Membrane Permeability

III. Transport across the cell membrane

2. A solution is hypertonic to a second solution if the solute concentration is higher in the

For animation go to:

DEMO before students start experiments:

What does the tubing represent?

What type of transport was occurring in the experiment?

Why can starch not pass through the lipid bilayer?

Cognition vs. Memory

Figure 1. Equipment setup (with PowerLab 15T).

Figure 2. Sleep cycles.

Figure 3. Sleep spindles.

Figure 4. Sleep stages.

Kraemer et al., Nature, Vol. 434, Page 158 (2005).

What you will do in the laboratory

If a Stimulus is Continued Sensory Receptors Adapt & Become Less Sensitive

Skin Sensations are Usually Perceived at the Location of the Receptor

Mechanical Pain Receptors are Naked Nerve Endings

There are 2 Basic Types of Pain

There are 2 distinct types of pain, carried by 2 types of nerve fibers.

3. SOUND (From: http://www.cigna.com/healthinfo/tv8475.html

FIGURE 5. Rinne test. Holding a

Two-touch point Report

contraction of the muscle. The leg kicks...

PRODUCING THE PATELLAR REFLEX

2. What is your weakest sense and why?

I. There are 3 Major Muscle Types

Weight lifting: isometric contractions

Investigation: Muscle Contraction

enzymes present in the tissue sample.

How many muscles does it take to smile?

Experiment 2. Effect of Stimulus Frequency (Temporal Summation)

Use PowerLab experiment to measure muscle contraction strength.

The Wall Sit

Figure 1. Skeletal muscle structure.

Figure 2. The components of a motor unit.

Electromyography is a technique that measures the electrical activity of the

Figure 3. Skeletal muscle structure.

Figure 4. Some muscles of the forearm and hand.

AB is the universal recipient, and O is the universal donor

4. Is blood thicker than water?

The QRS complex and

Cardioinhibitory Center (CIC) - Parasympathetic division (neurotransmitter: Acetylcholine).

The major factors limiting the rise in stroke volume:

Take ECG of labmate BEFORE exercising.

Figure 1. A schematic diagram of the human heart and circulatory system.

Figure 2. Components of the human heart involved in conduction.

Figure 3. Standard method for connecting the electrodes to a volunteer.

Figure 5. A typical ventricular muscle action potential.

Heart valves and heart sounds

Figure 6. The cardiac cycle.

Figure 7. A Wiggers' diagram.

For better understanding go to: http://132.241.10.14/bp/bp.swf

Figure 1. The first direct measurement of arterial blood pressure.