Fluid Mechanics

Contents

11 Fluid Particle and Continuous Medium Hypothesis

12 Density , Specific Volume and Relative Density of a
Fluid
13 Compressibility and Expansion of a Fluid
14 Fluid Viscosity
15 Forces acting on a Fluid
Exercises of Chapter 1

1-1 Fluid Particle and Continuous

Medium Hypothesis
The physical properties of a fluid are determined by the internal equilibrium and
motion of material, so we should first know the concepts and mainly the physical
properties of a fluid before discussing the laws of fluid motion.

1-1 Fluid Particle and Continuous Medium Hypothesis

1. The physical properties of fluid
fluid

liquid

gas

Fluid and solid are different phases of material. They all have the following basic
attributes of material :
1.Compose of a great deal of molecules.

2.Molecules do random movements continuously .

3.The molecule force exists among molecules.

But these three basic properties of materials expressing in gas, liquid and solid
have difference in quantity and quality. In the same volume the number of gas
molecules is less than that of liquid molecules and the number of liquid molecules is
less than that of solid molecules, so the distance between gas molecules is longer and
the gravitation is less than that of others, and liquid take the second place.

The macroscopical appearance caused by these microcosmic differences are

The solid has definite volume and shape.
The liquid has definite volume but have indefinite shape.
The gas has neither definite volume nor definite shape.

From mechanics properties points of view, solid can resist pressure, pull and
shear force, so it only occurs lesser distortion and stops deforming in a certain
degree under the action of external force.

Liquid cant keep a definite shape because the gravitation between the molecules is
small, so it can only resist pressure but cant resist pull and shear force. Liquid will
deform continuously and flow when it is acted by a shear force.
These are the remarkable differences between solid and fluid.

2. The concepts of fluid particle

From microstructure point of view, there are big gaps between fluid molecules and
which are not continuous . But to fluid mechanics which look at general behaviors of fluid
there is no need to discuss molecular microstructure.

Definition

fluid parcel a physical body in the fluid whose macroscopical scale is very small
but microcosmic scale is big enough and has its volume and mass.
fluid particlethe least unit in fluid whose linear scale can be ignored.

3. Continuous medium hypothesis

Euler put forward the hypothesis of continuous medium mechanical model in 1753.
a. Leave out of account the gaps of molecules, fluid is considered to be compose of
micro groups which have no gaps each other and distribute continuously throughout the
whole space where the liquid lies in .
b. All the physical variables such as density, speed, pressure, shear stress and
temperature which represent liquid properties are single values and continuous
differentiable functions when fluid flows continuously. So the scalar quantity fields and
vector fields ( flow fields) of all kinds of physical variables come into being functions of
space location.

In this way ,we can use continuous function and field theory to study the problems
about fluid movement and balance successfully.

1-2 Density, Specific Volume and Relative

Density of Fluid
Density ,specific volume and relative density are basic concepts representing fluid
mass properties and they are not only different but also related to each other.

1Density ,specific volume

In Figure 1-1take a fluid micro group A in fluid randomly whose volume isV, mass
is m , When the micro unit is infinitesimal and close to point p (x , y , z ) to become a
particle, the definition of

The density of a fluid on one point is:

m dm
lim

V 0 V
dV

11

the specific volume of a fluid at one point is :

V
dV

V 0 m
dm

lim

z
V V m
m
P( x, y, z )
A

o
x

Figure 11 fluid micro group

12

depends on the temperature and pressure at different point . If fluid is

Both
and
uniform, then

Fluid density is

m
kg / m 3
V

13

Fluid specific volume is

V 3
m / kg
m

14

From(13and1 4we can obtain

Definition

uniform fluidthe mass distribution in space is even, but

and
can still change with the temperature and pressure.

15

2. Relative density
Definition

Relative density the ratio of the mass of a liquid to distilled water with the same
volume at 4o C :

m
w
d

mw w
In this formula :

d relative density of a fluid;

w the corresponding physical variable of
distilled water at

4C

16

1-3 Compressibility and Expansion of a Fluid

The relative density ,density and specific volume of a fluid can change with
temperature and pressure ,as gaps exist between the molecules inside a fluid . The
distances between molecules minish and volume is compressed when pressure
augments. The distances between molecules enlarge and volume expands when the
temperature goes up. All fluids have the properties of compressibility and expansion .
p

V
T

1 Compressibility

p dp

dV
V dV
T

Figure 12 the volume compression of

a fluid under the condition of constant temperature

definition
compressibilityat constant temperature the property that the volume of a fluid
contracts under pressure is called compressibility, as shown in Figure 1-2 .

The degree of compressibility is expressed by volume compression coefficient p the

formula is

1 dV
p
V dp
In this formula :

V original volume, m 3 ;
dV change

of

3
m
;
volume,

17

dp changed quantity of pressurePa;

p compression coefficient of volumePa -1;

dV / dp rate of change of volume when the pressure
changes,m 3Pa -1.

the physical meaning of p :

the relative rate of change of a fluid volume as increasing each unit pressure under
constant temperature.
The reciprocal of fluid compression coefficient is called fluid elastic modulus, which
is represented by E .

V
T

p dp

dV
V dV
T

Figure 12 the volume compression of

a fluid under the condition of constant temperature

Temperature is constant

The compression ratio of a gas under the condition of constant temperature can
obtain from gaseousness equation ( let T=C).

mRgT
1 d mRgT
1
1
p
(
)
( 2 )
V dp p
V
p
p

18

 p / Pa 1

p is inversely proportional to P
as shown in Figure 1-3 :

T C
in the bound of gaseousness equation :

p p difficult to compress

Figure 13 the curve of

compression ratio of a gas

p p easy to compress
P

dV

2Expansion
definition

V
T

V dV
T dT

Figure 14 the volume dilatation of a fluid under

constant pressure

The property that the temperature of fluid rises and the volume augments under
constant pressure is called expansion, as shown in Figure 14.

p / Pa

the degree of dilatability is represented by volume expansion coefficient t .

1 dV
t
V dT

(19

In this formula

dT the changed quantity of temperature, K

t the dilatation coefficien t of volumeK 1 ;

dV
the rate of change of volume when
dT
temperature changing m 3 / K .

The physical meaning of t :

The relative rate of change of a fluid volume as increasing each unit temperature
under constant pressure.

the gas dilatation coefficien t can be obtained from gaseousness

equation ( let p c)
mR g 1
110
1 dV
d mR g T
t

V dT VdT p
Vp
T
t is inversely proportional to T as shown in Figure 1 4&5 .

dV
V dV
T dT

V
T

Figure 14 the volume dilatation of a fluid

under constant pressure

Pressure is constant

T t

In the applicable range of gaseousness equation:

t / K 1
PC

T/K

Figure 15 the expansion coefficient of gas

The compression coefficient of water

Table 11

pressureat
p 109 (m2 / )

5
10
0.538 0.536

20
0.531

40
0.528

80
0.515

The expansion coefficient of water

Table 12

temperature
t 104 (1/ oC )

( oC)

110 1020 4050 60~70 90~100

0.14
0.15
0.42
0.55
0.72

Example 11 Calculate the relative rate of change of water density when the water
pressure was increased from 5at to 10at under normal temperature.

Solution:
this problem is the application of compression coefficient equation of a liquid
under normal temperature.
Solution 1

1 d
p
dp
then
d
p dp 0.538 109 (10 5) 9.81104 0.0264%

Solution 2

to integrate the formula of

p dp

ln ln0 p ( p2 p1 )

then
exp[ p ( p2 p1 )]
0
exp[0.538 10 9 (10 5) 98100]
1.000264
and

0
0.0002640.0264
0

so the relative rate of change of the density of water is 0.0264%

3. Incompressible fluid
definition
The fluid whose compression coefficient and expansion coefficient are zero is called
incompressible fluid .

The volume of this kind of fluid doesnt minish while being pressed and doesnt
expand while being heated so V and are all constant. It is much easier to study
the laws of balance and motion of this kind of fluid.

1-4 Viscosity of a Fluid

Viscosity is the capability of a fluid to resist deformation and is a inherent attribute of
a fluid.
definition
The property that the shear stress comes into a fluid when fluid flows is called the
viscosity of a fluid .
1. Newtonian law of internal friction
Because of the gravitation between the molecules of fluid and the momentum transfer
brought from heat motion of molecules the viscosity of fluid occurs and the internal friction
takes place also.
In 1686 Newton brought forward the law of internal friction

experimental approach

As shown in Figure 16. Suppose that there are two big enough
parallel flat plates and the symbol h which represents the distance
between them is very small. The space inside two plates is full of generic
homogeneous fluid. The lower board is fixed and the upper one moves
along a line as a properly constant speed under the shear force F. The
area A is so big that the influence of the borders of plates can be neglected.

u0
dy

u0

u du
u

x
Figure 16
velocity distribution

u0

26

definition

Look at an infinitely thin fluid layer , velocity of flow is u where the coordinate is y,
velocity of flow is
where the coordinate is y dy it is obvious that the
velocity gradient is du
dy

u du

in the thin layer which thickness is dy . Newton considered that the value of
internal friction T inside a fluidthat is to say the value of shear force F ) has relations
with the properties of fluid ,
du
moreover it is directly proportional to velocity gradient dy and contact area
Abut have nothing to do with the pressure on the contact surface. The law is

T A

du
dy

1-11

27

The fluid following the internal friction law is called Newtonian fluid ,or else is called
non-Newtonian fluid.

In the formula111 is a coefficient which has relation to the kinds of fluid

and temperature . It is called kinetic viscosity coefficient and its unit is Pa . s

In the formula111the symbol is used to make

T and positive . It is to say that when du 0 choose the positive sign and when
du
dy
0 choose the minus sign.

dy

The physical meaning

The shear stress is directly proportional to velocity gradient.

2. Velocity gradient
Choose a micro rectangular unit surface in the moving fluid, deformed as a parallel
quadrangle after dt , as shown in Figure 17.

y
u0

u0

(u du)dt
dudt
d

dy

u du
u
u0

Figure 16
velocity distribution

udt
x

0
Figure 17
velocity gradient

29

du du dt tg (d ) d

dy dy dt
dt
dt
so

du
d


dy
dt

113

114

Then
a. the velocity gradient is equal to the velocity of shear distortion of a fluid parcel.
b. the shear stress is directly proportional to the velocity of shear distortion in a
fluid.

3. Kinematic viscosity coefficient

Definition

When looking at fluid motion we often use the ratio of

called kinematic viscosity coefficient. It is represented by
v

to density

v/
where the units of

v are

which is

115

m 2 /. s

the physical meaning of

It is the shear stress under unit velocity gradient. We can judge the magnitude of
viscosity of the same kind of fluid from
.

the physical meaning of

v:

It is the ratio of kinetic viscosity to density. If the fluid density has big change we
cant judge the magnitude of viscosity according to

but according to v

Change of kinematic viscous with temperature

0.01775
=
1 + 0.0337 + 0.000221 2

Where t temperature (),

2
kinematic viscous ( /)

Values of kinematic viscous under

different temperatures
Temperature ( /)
()

Temperature ( /)
()

Temperature ( /)
()

0.01775

16

0.01118

35

0.00752

0.01674

18

0.01062

40

0.00659

0.01568

20

0.01010

45

0.00603

0.01473

22

0.01989

50

0.00556

0.01387

24

0.00919

55

0.00515

10

0.01310

26

0.00877

60

0.00478

12

0.01239

28

0.00839

14

0.01176

30

0.00803

4. Relations between viscosity and temperature

The fluid viscosity is directly proportional to pressure but its change is very little and can
be neglected normally .
The fluid viscosity is influenced strongly by temperature. The gas viscosity is caused
mainly by the momentum transfer which come from the thermal movement of
molecules . So when the temperature goes up the thermal movement of molecules
becomes stronger and viscosity augments. The liquid viscosity is caused mainly by the

attractive forces between molecules. So when the temperature goes up the

momentum of molecules increases and attractive forces decrease and viscosity decrease.

5. Property of surface tension

Definition:
Because of the attractive forces between molecules ,the tiny tension at the free
surface of fluid is said to be surface tension.

Capillarityput a thin glass tube with two open ends up straightly into a liquid. The liquid
in the tube will rise or fall under the action of surface tension which is said to be capillarity.
Because the weight of the liquid column equals to the vertical component of the
accessional press of the surface tension, then

so

d 2 h d cos
4
4 cos
h
d

In the formula

h
d

the rise of liquid sufacem;

the diameter of glass tubem;
specific weight of liquid / m 3;
coefficient of surface tension / m;
contact angle .

water

Figure 18

hydrargyrum

capillarity

Obtain from experiment: the contact angle of water and glass is

3o ~ 9 o , 0.0728N/m when temperature is 20 o C ; the contact angle of
hydrargyrum and glass is

139o ~ 140o , 0.51N/m

Example 12 At the same temperature > . Try to demonstrate that at 20 o Cfor

water and gas which one is easy to flow.use data to explain

solutionwhen the temperature is 20 o C the following data are

physical properties tables of water and air.

water 998.2kg/m3

checked from the

, air1.205kg/m3

water1.002 103 Pa s , air1.81105 Pa s

water1.003 106 m 2 /s , air15.0 106 m3 / s
water 1.002 103

55.34 times
5
air
1.8110
water 998.2

828.39
times
air
1.205
air
15.0 10-6

14.96 times
-6
water 1.003 10
37

conclusion At the same temperature g

. Air is hard to flow compared with

water.

The example shows that it cant judge the fluidness of a fluid directly from
from

at the same temperature . Because the

but

excludes the influence of fluid

density and only keeps the movement property parameters .That is why we need to
introduce

in fluid mechanics.

38

6. Concept of ideal fluid

Definition
Suppose that the viscosity of a fluid doesnt exist , that is to say v

0.The fluid is

said to be ideal fluid or inviscid fluid.

In fact all fluids have viscosity. The aim to put forward the concept of ideal fluid is
to look at the fluid movement laws and simplify the theoretical equations greatly.

1-5 Forces on a Fluid

Each fluid particle is exerted by all kinds of forces no matter it is in moving or balance.
According to the behaviors of the forces there are two types of forces : body force and
surface force. As shown in Figure 18. Choose a random fluid parcel which volume is
.

FR

FI

Fm
A

Figure 18 body force and

surface force

1. Body force
Definition
The force which is directly proportional to the mass of a fluid parcel and exerts on
the mass center is called body force.

Body force

gravitation
Linear motion inertia force
centrifugal inertia force
--- ---

W m g

F m a

FR m r 2

Definition :
The body force exerting on unit mass fluid is called unit body force, and is
expressed as follows:

f m f xi f y j f z k

In the formula

Fm dFm
f m lim

m0 m
dm

116

mthe mass of the fluid parcel

Fm body force exerting on the parcel

dFm dm f m dm ( f x i f y j f z k )

117

f x f yf zare projections of unit body force on the x, y, z coordinates.

2. Surface force
definition
The force that is directly proportional to surface area of a fluid and distributes on
the fluid surface is called surface force.

Classified according to the direction of the force

a. The press force along the inner normal of surface

b. The friction along tangent orientation of surface

As shown in Figure18 ,choose

a small area Aon the fluidparcelsuppose the tiny
press force exerting on A is Fand the tiny shear force is T

Then the pressure stress of every point is

F
p lim
A0 A

So the surface press is

Shear stress of every point is

So the surface shear force is

F p A

118

119

T
lim
A0 A

120

T A

121

Exercises of Chapter 1

11 The original state of air is p0 101.3kPa and t 0 15 C . After adiabatic

compression in the cylinder the volume of the air reduces to a half. What are the
temperature and pressure of the end state ?
o

Solution:
Since

pV k Const

Where k=1.4

V
k
) p0 ( 0 ) k 101.3 21.4 267.3 kPa
0
V
V

T T0 ( ) k 1 T0 ( 0 ) k 1 (273 15) 20.4 380k 107 o C

0
V
p p0 (

12 In heating system there is a dilatation water tank. The whole volume of the water in
o

the system is 8m.3 The largest temperature rise is 50 C and the dilatation coefficient
is 0.005 , what is the smallest cubage of the water bank?
t

solutionthe exercise is the question to calculate the net increment of water volume in
the system. we can solve it in formula (19.

dialation water bank

1 dV
V dT
dV tVdT

t
then

0.005 8 50 2m 3

radiator
boiler

so the smallest cubage of the dilatation water bank is 2 m 3 . But in engineering

design we should pay attention to keep surplus to ensure the safety of the system.

2
13 The bottom surface of a wood block is 14 45cmthickness
is 1cm and the mass
is 5kg. It slides down along a lubricated incline at a speed ofV 1m/s. The thickness of
lubricant is 1 mm what is the kinetic viscosity coefficient ?

13
12

5kg

solutionThis is a simple and familiar example that Newtonian internal friction law is

applied to engineering. There are two emphasesthe one is to simplify the

velocity gradient in the lubricant to be linearly distributedthe other is to establish the
balance equation of force correctly. Since it slides at uniform
component of gravity is equal to the resistance of viscosity.

velocity , the

Balance equation: T mg sin , velocity gradient

du V

dy

du
substituting into111 A
mg sin
dy
mg sin
Then
V
A

Substituting known data into itHence 0.1047Pa s

CautionWhen solvingthe same unit system must adopted for all physical quantitiesin
order to avoid conversion

mistakes.

14 A cone rotates around its vertical

gap between two cones is

center axis at uniform velocity. The

1mm .It filled with lubricant

which 0.1Pa s. In Figure 1-2, R 0.3m ,

H 0.5m , 16 1/s . Find

the torque need to maintain the rotation.

SolutionThis problem belongs to the application of Newtonian

internal
friction law. The key point is that the action radius, contact
area and rotation velocity change with h, for which we
should find a way to calculate.

dh

Exercise Figure12

49

In the Figure, rotating torque expression of a fluid parcel

du
dM dA r
dA r
dy
(1) Calculation of the cones radius r
r h tan
(2) The expression of dA which is corresponding to dh

(3)Because

dh
dh
dA 2r
2h tan
cos
cos
is very small, We can think that velocity gradient is linear.

du u r

h tan

dy
Substituting all above equations into dM,

.
dM

1
2 tan
h 3 dh
cos
3

4seek for the general moment

tan 3
dM 2 cos

tan
4
3
h dh
H
2 cos

substituting the known data into itthe result is

M 39.6 (N m)
( in it

R
tan
, hence 31 o )
H