MedievalIndianCulture

Friday,July42014,4:12PM
The13th&14thCenturies
Persian/ArabicLiterature
1. Poetry was a popular form. Amir Khusrau and Amir Hassan were great poets. They also wrote
qawwalisandcreatedanewIndianstyleofpoetryandistheoriginatorofHindustanimusic.
2. Historywritingwasanotherpopulartrend.Barni,Afif,Sirajetc.
3. Bookswewritten,speciallydictionaries,withpaintedillustrations.
PersianvsArabicHistoriography
2.analyticaltype.keepinmindthathistoriographyisthestudyofhowhistoryiswritten.itisthestudyofallaspects
ofwritinghistory.goingbythisdefinition.....volumewisearabichistoryworksarelessvoluminous,

persianmore.reason,persianhadbeenthecourtlanguageofmedievalrulers.whateverwas
writteninarabicwasbytravelersbeforedelhisultanate,byreligiousscholars,arabimmigrants
toindia.(listherefamousexamples )perspectivesarabichistorianswerenotsympathetictohindu
traditionsandculture.mostoftheworkswrittenbyreligiousscholars,immigrantscarrythat
tingeoffanaticismandsuperioritycomplexwithrespecttoindiaingeneralandhindusin
particular.persianmoresympatheticastheywerewrittenbythosewhosettledhereandnon
religioushistorians.contentandstylenodifferencesthatiknowof.standardmuslimstyle
historicalwritingwithplentyofallusionstoreligiousterms.veryfewwereobjective.mostof
themwerewrittentopraisetheirpatrons.eulogiesandexaggerations.politicalhistory,cultural
history,economichistory,militaryhistoryetcwerethegenres.
methodsofstudybothreliedongeneralobservations,litterarysourceswrittenbeforethemintheirlanguages.very
less or no importance was given to numismatics, inscriptions, archaeological sources, nonarabic and nonpersian
literature.

AlUtbi'sKitabiYamini
1. He himself was Secretary to the Sultan Mahmud. He thus played an important role in the
governmentatGazni,andnodoubthadfirsthandknowledgeofmanyoftheeventshedescribed,
atleastthosethattookplaceinthecapital.Hisworkcoverstheentirereignofthefirstsultanof
GazniNasiruddinSubuktgin,andofhissonMahmuduptotheyear410H.(1020CE).Asthe
founderoftheGhaznivitedynasty,Subuktiginplayedanextremelyimportantroleinthehistoryof
IndiaandCentralAsia.
2. DespitehisproximitytoSultanMahmud,AlUtbiseemstohavelittleornodirectknowledgeof
India. He seems to have little knowledge of Indian topography and his statements regarding
localitiesandplacenamesareunreliable.NoIndianwordsappearinhistextasidefromRai.
3. HisnumerousincursionsintoIndiawerelargelyraidsdesignedtocapturespoilinmaterialwealth,
slavesandlivestock.HeisportrayedasazealousMuslimeagertodestroy"idoltemples",butthis
wasprobablyjustificationforpillage,sincetheseactivitiescontravenedtheearlierArabpolicyof
grantingHindusandBuddhistsprotecteddhimmistatus.
MinhajusSiraj'sTabakatiNasiri
(a)Motivationbehindwriting

1. Minhajservedinveryhighpostsinhiscareer.Hewasveryclosetothesultans.Thushisinterests
werecompletelyalignedwiththeinterestsofthesultanatei.e.topreserveandestablishstrongly
theTurkishrule.
2. Another motivation definitely would be to please the sultan and he worked under many sultans.
Butthiswasaminormotivationonlyashedidn'tdependonwritingtoearnhislivelihood.
3. ByglorifyingthewesternconnectionsofIslamhesoughttoinspirethemuslimsaswellwhichwas
neededastheywerefacinganumberofchallengesinthatage.
(b)Importance
1. Duetohisproximitytothesultansthevalueofhisworkgoesupbecauseitreflectsthethoughtsof
a person whose interests were completely aligned with that of the Turkish rule and who was
activelyhelpingthesultansinpreservingandestablishingtherule.
2. The sultanate was in a nascent and insecure stage then. The sultan was trying to establish his
legitimacyandauthorityandforthishehadevensoughtinvestiturefromtheCaliph.Inhiswork
MinhajtriestoestablishthehistoricallinksoftheSultanatewithWesternAsianIslamandcovers
thisinhisinitialchaptersitself.
3. ByglorifyingthewesternconnectionsofIslamhesoughttoinspirethemuslimsaswellwhichwas
neededastheywerefacinganumberofchallengesinthatage.
4. HisinterestswereinthepreservationandpropagationofTurkishruleandhiswritingsreflectthe
insecurityoftheage.Hedidn'tcarewhowasthesultansolongastherulewaspreserved.Thushe
praisedeachandeverysultanveryhighlydespitethefactthathemayhaveviolentlyreplacedthe
previoussultan.Forthesamereasonhekeepsabalancebetweenallsultans.
5. Wherehedepartsfromtheotherwritersofhisagewashecoverednotjustthehistoryofhissultan
butalsotheentirehistoryofIslam.
6. Becausehewaswritingahistoryofalongperioditwasnecessaryforhimtodrawupontheworks
ofotherscholars.Whereverhefinds2conflictingopinionshementionsbothwithsourcesalong
with the one he accepts and the reasons for doing so. For his own period he relies on his own
experiencesorthoseofwitnesses.
7. He gives an indiscriminate religious tone to his work. He almost absent minded uses terms like
Islamicarmies and devil's armies to describe warsevenif they were between twomuslimrulers
only.Bydoingthishemerelyshowedwherehissympathylay.Thistellsusabouttheeducational
systemofthedaybecausehewasaproductofaneducationalsystemwhichwashighlyreligious
andusedonlyreligiousterms.
8. HisbiasagainstHinduscanbeseenonlywhenhedescribestheconflicts.Otherwiseheignoresit
whentheyposenothreattothesultanate.Thisclearlyreflectstheattitudeofthesultanaterulersas
well who used religion to achieve their goals in the conflict situations only and otherwise were
indifferent in all practical purposes. In many instances Minhaj goes ignores the uncomfortable
religiousaspectsofaproblemaswellifitrancountertohisobjectives.Thisattitudewasreflected
inthesultansaswell.
(c)Limitations
1. Heremainedconfinedtotherulingandeliteclassonly.Butthistellsusaboutthenatureofstate
systeminthosedays.
(d)ComparisonwithBarani
1. Minhajcomesacrossasascholarwholivedinaturbulentphaseonewheretherulers'concern
was the preservation of their rule and for which they had to make many compromises and even
shiftgoalpostsi.e.bepractical.Wecannotexpecthimtobedrivenbyanyparticularideologyor

politicalleaning.Institutionswerefluidandsituationwasdynamicandonehadtobeverycareful.
By Barani's time the institutions had stabilized, self preservation was no longer the overriding
objectiveandonecouldsticktoanideology.Tensionswereemergingbetweentheseinstitutions
andthisisreflectedinBarani'swritingsaswell.
2. Minhaj writes in detail about different amirs in different areas and thus many of the events are
repeated.Baraniontheotherhandfocusesontheeventsofonlyoneareaandwritesperiodwise.
ThusthereisnorepetitioninBarani.
3. Minhaj mostly chronologically lists various events and doesn't analyzes the trends, elements of
continuity/discontinuityandthereasonsthereof.Baranitriestoanalyzesomeaspectortheother
attheendofeachchapterforinstancehoweachsultanviewedpunishmentas.
4. Minhaj doesn't tell us about the problems faced by the sultans. Barani tells us how Balban
strengthened his position, how sultanate changed under Khaljis, how mongol threat changed the
natureofsultanateunderAlauddin.
ZiauddinBarani(TarikhiFiruzshahi&FatwaiJahandari)
(a)Motivationsbehindwriting
1. Barani himself writes that he hoped that his work will help others learn from past mistakes. He
claimshewasrepentfulfornotcriticizingMbTwhenitmattered.Bythiswork,hehoped,people
willlearnandnotcommitthesamemistakes.
2. ButinrealityhehadfallenoutoffavorofthenewsultanFiruzandwasevenimprisoned.Firuz
hadoutlookwhichrancontrarytoMbTinmanywaysandhenceBaraniwaswritingtopleasehim
andearnfavor.
(b)Importance
1. Hisworkdoesn'tjustreflecthisownthinkingbuttellsusabouttheviewsoftheeducationalsystem
andtheparticularsectionofmaulvis.ThesemaulvisreliedonextremistformofIslamtopreserve
theirexistenceinpolity.Theyexpectedthesultantoconsultthemonevenpoliticalmattersandthis
kepttheirimportanceintact.ButunderMbTthedominanceofmaulvishadreduceddrasticallyas
hehadtomakemanycompromisestopropagateandstrengthenhisruleinIndiawhichincluded
appointment of even Hindus to high offices and not consulting the maulvis in political matters.
Theywerethusfearfuloflosingpowerinthepoliticsoftheage.Thisisreflectedinthework.
2. ThusheprescribesthatthesultanmusttakestepstopropagateIslam,punishnonmuslims,impose
shariatandgivemoreauthoritytomenof(muslim)religion.
3. Byhistimethesenseofinsecurityinthesultanatewasoverandthesultanswerewellestablished.
Therewasnoneedtodrawlegitimacyformthewesternconnectionsanymore(infactdelhiwas
the sole surviving muslim sultanate). Sultanate had no connections left with the west. So Barani
makesnoattempttodraworiginfromwestandmerelycarriesforwardfromMinhaj.Hefocuses
onlyonIndia.
4. Barani'sworkandviewsexpressedreflecttheinsecurityofhisclassinthatage.BeingaTurkora
high born was no longer considered enough to qualify for a high post! This class was facing
competitionfromtheeducatedIndians.Onehadtohavequalitiesalsotosucceed.Baraniandhis
classobviouslyresenteditandinhisworkhecriticizesthelowborn,prescribestheyshouldn'tbe
given educationneither employed in state service. Inan ideal muslimworldall higherbornwill
haveassuredhereditaryhighoffices.
5. Baranirepresentedaclassofnobleswhodependedonlandandthesurplusextractedfortheirwell
being.Thushewasalsoverycriticalofmerchantsandtradersandprescribedthatthestateshould
ensuretheydon'taccumulatewealth.
6. He obviously hated Hindus because of both his education and the fact that many of them were
employed in higher posts and were richer than him (who was languishing in jail). So he is very

criticalofhighlyplacedhindusandignoresthepoorhindusasheignorespoormuslims.
7. Baranitriestoanalyzesomeaspectortheotherattheendofeachchapterforinstancehoweach
sultan viewed punishment as. He tells us how Balban strengthened his position, how sultanate
changedunderKhaljis,howmongolthreatchangedthenatureofsultanateunderAlauddin.
(c)Limitations
1. HisworkFatwaiJahandariisnotahistoricalworkatall.Baranihaspresentedhisownviewsin
form of Mahmud Gazni's lessons to his sons. Moreover the historical events presented (from
Gazni's tongue) are of doubtful historic nature. The book is just a reflection of Barani's own
thoughtsonhowthingsshouldbe.
2. Baranitriestomentionmanysourcesbutfailstobringthemoutclearly.Moreoverifanyfactwas
convenientforhimandsupportedhisviewshewouldclaimithadcomefromagodfearingmuslim
andhecouldthustakeitonitsfacevalue.
3. In TarikhiFiruzshahi he rarely mentions any chronology and wherever he does that it is of
doubtfulnature.Perhapsitwasduetothefacthewaswritingfromjailandthushadtorelymostly
onhismemory.
4. Hisbookisabundleofexaggerationsandhecontaminatesmanycharacters.
ShamsiSirajAfif:TarikhiFiruzshahi
(a)Motivationsbehindwriting
1. HewasclearlynottryingtopleaseFiruzbecauseFiruzhaddiedbythetime.Hewaswritingina
timewhensultanatehaddisintegrated,anarchyprevailedalloverandTimurhadplunderedDelhi.
Sohewastryingtorecollecttheoldgloriousdays.Hemissesthepastinlightofhispresentand
thatiswhyhetriestopaintaprosperousandpeacefulpictureofolddays.
(b)Importance
1. Hiswritingreflectstheanarchiststateofaffairsofhistimeandhowhetriedtojustifyeachand
everyactofFiruzinordertoportrayapastthatwasgloriousandsorelymissed.
2. InhisattempttoportrayFiruz'sreignasoneoftotalpeaceandprosperityandunderagreatking,
hetellsunintentionallyusaboutFiruz'sweaknesses.Onhisparthemerelyfocusesonpositivesand
presentstheweaknessesasiftheyappearhisstrength.Hedidn'ttrytohidefactsbecausehadthis
beenthecasehewouldhavenotevenmentionedtheweaknesses.Examplesarethefamousbribe
caseandthemilitarydefeats.
3. Hedidn'tcomefromaverywelltodofamilylikeBarani.Soheisfreefromhisbiases.Hedidn't
haveanystrongideologicalleaningsMoreoverhewritesinaverysimplelanguage.
4. He is also free from the antihindu biases of Barani and Minhaj (probably because he was free
fromtheextremistatmosphereinhisupbringinglikethemandalsobecausethemuslimsoftheage
didn'tfaceanythreatfromhindustheywereravagedbymongols).ThoughhepraisesFiruz'sact
ofburningabrahmanandimposingjiziyabutthatisapartofhisgeneralattempttoportrayFiruz
asagreatkingandhisreignasagoldenage.
5. Comingfromacommonerbackgroundwefindhemovesbeyondthesultanandhisdurbarinhis
workandtalksabouttheproblemsfacedbythecommoners.
IbnBatuta'sRehela
1. It is not a reliable source at all. It is interesting only because it throws some light on the socio
politicaleventsoftheage.ButthewriteriscompletelybiasedagainstMbT.
2. Moreover his description of places and things doesn't have any depth and he simply briefly

describesthinswithoutdoinganyresearch.
AmirKhusrau
1. Amir Khusrau took the literature from elites to the commoners. He wrote numerous popular
puzzlesinaformwhichisenjoyabletocommonpeople.Thiswasperhapsbecausehewasvery
closetosufisandhenceinfluencedbythemandalsocontributedtotheircause.Thushiswritings
areareflectionofsufimovement.
2. Hewasapoetandnotahistorian.Whateverhistoryhewrotewaseitheroninstanceofthesultans
(who even told him the topics on which to write about) or to please them. Even while writing
historyhisfocuswasonthepoeticaspectandnothistoricaltruth.
3. His first work was KiranusSaden (1289) which was written to please Bugra Khan and his son
KakuiBad. In this he tells us about delhi, its buildings, durbar, social life of amirs etc. and his
hatredtowardsmongols.Naturallyhisfocuswasonthepoeticaspect.
4. His second work was MiftahulFutuh (1291) in which he praised Jalaluddin and his military
campaignsagainstMalikChajju,againstRanthamboreetc.
5. KhwajainulFutuhorTarikhiAlahiwaswritteninahighlyornatestyleanddescribedthefirst15
yearsofhisreign.Althoughitisagainmoreofapoeticworkitshistoricalsignificancecomesfrom
thefactthatitistheonlycontemporarysourcewehave.Thisbookdescribesmilitarycampaignsof
Alauddin and Malik Kafur and presents a beautiful description of the physical and cultural
geographyofIndia.
6. HisnextworkisAshikawhichtalksofAlauddin'ssonKhijrKhan'sdesireforprincessofGujarat
Devalrani.GedescribesthecampaignslaunchedtogetherandalsothegeographyofIndia.
7. InhisworkSipiharhepraisesMubarakKhalji.
8. His strong point is that he has given a lot of dates and in general he is more trustworthy than
Barani. His writings also highlights the social conditions prevailing in the age something most
historians of the age couldn't do. He tells us about the people, their dances, songs, settlements,
professionsetc.
AlBerouni'sKitabulHind
(a)Motivationbehindwriting
1. SomescholarsbelievethathesympathizedwithIndiansbecauseMahmudhadplunderedhisnative
placetoolikeIndia.HencehewassosympathetictoIndiancause.
2. Inrealityhewasmotivatedbypurescientificandintellectualcuriosity.Hewantedtounderstand
Indianphilosophical,religiousandscientificthought.Heanalyzedeverythingthatcameacrosshim
inacriticalandscientificmannerandpresentedhisanalysisinanunbiasedmanner.
(b)Importance
1. In his quest he found that most of the information he came across about India is based on
secondary sources only. He realized that second hand information is invariably corrupted as it
passesfrompeopletopeople.Hencehewasdriventofindtheoriginalsourcesandhencehebegan
tolearnSanskritandcollectancientIndiantexts.HereferredtoworksofVarahmihira,Aryabhatta,
Brahmagupta,PatanjaliaswellasBhagwadGita,VishnuPurana,VaayuPurana.
2. For this he also consulted many brahmans of the age whenever he needed some help in proper
interpretation.
3. Hehadacompletelyscientificoutlookandanunbiasedopinion.Soreligiousconventionscouldn't
corrupthim.
4. Whereverhefeelshisunderstandingandknowledgeislackingheacceptsitwithouthesitation.He
mentions it clearly wherever he had to rely on sources without testing for their authenticity or

secondarysources.
5. He describes Indian society, culture, festivals, dress, food, entertainment, scientific thought,
philosophical thought etc. in great detail. He describes the weights and measures used in India,
distances, geographical features, alphabet etc. prevailing in India. Not only does he merely
describethembutalsocriticallyanalyzesthem.Hetalksofthelegalsystemasmentionedinthe
scriptures and highlights how the prevailing system differed from it. Weavers were low even
amongtheoutcasteswholivedonlyoutsidethevillagesandtowns.HetellsusthatBuddhismwas
nottobeseenanywhereandhehadonlyheardaboutit.HetellsusabouttheinfluenceofBhakti
byrecognizingafirmmonotheisminNIndia.
6. He expresses regret that Indians had abandoned the scientific outlook of their ancestors and had
relapsedintostagnationinmindandinthought.Insteadofkeepingtheirmindsopenandlearning
fromothersastheirancestorsdidtheynowreliedonlyontraditions.
(c)Limitations
1. His work is mostly limited to the intellectual class of the age which was obvious given his
methodology.Heholdsignorantpeopleinverylowesteem.
HindiLiterature
1. Parochial/feudaloutlook:AfterthefalloftheGuptaempirethepoliticallandscapehadbecome
increasingly fragmented and the land based feudal system which developed encouraged a local
parochialoutlook.Wecanseethisclearlyintheliteratureoftheage.
2. Stagnation in the society: The society had shut its mind towards embracing new ideas and
encouragingoriginalthinking.Wefindasimilartrendintheliteratureasitbecamevoidoffresh
outlookandcontinuedonestablishedthemesonly.
3. Phases of hindi literature: (a) ancient phase (adi kaal): reflects the feudal order of the day, (b)
bhaktiphase(bhaktikaal):reflectstheimpactofbhaktimovementsoftheday,(c)reetikaal:after
thebhaktiphasewhenthezamindariandjagirdarisystemsreturnedwithnewvigoralongwiththe
presenceofromanticism.
Phase1:Ancientphase/AdiKaal/VeerGathaPhase(814centAD)
(a)RasoLiterature
1. It was called veer gatha phase earlier because the first literature found comprised almost
exclusivelyofthewritingsofthecourtpoetsglorifyingthebraveryoftheirrulingmastersinorder
topraisethem.Theyoftenwerefullofexaggerations.ExamplesarePrithvirajRaso,ParmalRaso
(Alha and Udal), Beesaldev Raso (love affair of Ajmer ruler Beesaldev and Malwa princess
Rajmati). In addition to glorifying their bravery the poets also glorified their love affairs with
beautifulprincessesoftheage.
2. Reflectionoffeudalisticorderandparochialoutlook:Theliteraturewasfullofpraiseforthelocal
rulersandhowtheyfoughtotherlocalrulers.Theyleftnowordsunwritteninthepraiseoftheir
local lords and ridiculing the other chiefs. Their aim was not to present historical facts but to
glorify their masters. By glorifying wars and feuds they played an important role in promoting
regionalrivalryanddisturbednationalunity.
3. Reflection of cherished ideals in the society: Bravery and love. Fighting wars was noble. These
warswerefoughtsolelyforpersonalreasonsoftherulersbeitvengeanceortogetaprincessor
simply to display one's bravery and never for the interests of the state. They consider a brave
warriortobethemostnobleperson.
4. Reflectionofpoorstatusofwomeninthesociety:Thewaytheyfocussolelyonthebeautyofthe
princesswhileglorifyingtheloveaffairsoftheirmasterstellsusthatwomenweretreatedmerely

as an object of consumption. Women were expected to perform jauhar and sati. They had no
existenceoftheirown.
5. Reflectionoflackoflawandorderandpeaceinthesociety:Theyglorifywarsontheotherchiefs.
They glorify violence and mention the insecurity of common people specially if they had any
valuables.
6. Reflection of the state system: The rulers had no concern whatsoever with the welfare of their
subjects. They merely collected taxes and fought wars and were concerned with their own glory
andwelfareonly.
7. Reflection of growth of regional dialects: Many of these works use a mixed form of regional
Rajasthanidialectsastyleoftencalledpinglestyle.
(b)SiddhLiterature
1. Itreflectsthecontemporaryreligiousandculturallifeverywell.Itwaswrittenforthepropagation
ofVajrayanbuddhistsectineasternIndiainthelocallanguages.Thisliteraturetellsusaboutthe
changeswhichhadoccurredinthebuddhistreligionovertheages.
2. Theycriticizecomplexrituals,traditionalism,extremismandadvocateasimplelife.Theyshowa
dominanceofmysticideasintheirthoughts.Atthesametimetheyalsoadvocatecontinuationof
grihastalife.
(c)JainLiterature
1. ItflourishedinwesternIndiaintheformofpoeticliteratureinlocallanguages.Forthepoeticform
itisalsocalledRaasliterature.Itcomprisesofthepoemswhichweresunginthejaintemplesby
theworshippers.
2. They told us about the contemporary feuds etc. but their main aim remained to emphasize the
principlesofnonviolenceenshrinedintheJainreligion.ChandanBalaRaasisafamouswork.
(d)NathLiterature
1. ItemergedineasternIndiaasareactiontoSiddhliterature.WhiletheSiddhliteraturebelievedin
continuation of normal married life the Nath sect opposed consummation. It was advocated by
GorakhnathandMatsyendranath.
2. Theybelievedinausteritiesandselfcontrol.Theyidealizedamanwhodoesn'tgetdeviatedfrom
hispathdespitebeingsurroundedbyalltemptations.Ithaselementsofmysticisminit.
(e)MaterialLiterature(LaukikLiterature)
1. Romantic literature: Its main works are Jaichandra Prakash, Jai Mayank Chandrika and Vasant
Vilas.Theirmainemphasiswasonexpressingthefeelingsofheart,descriptionofwomenetc.
2. Literature for commoners: Amir Khusrau took the literature from elites to the commoners. He
wrotenumerouspopularpuzzlesinaformwhichisenjoyabletocommonpeople.
Phase2:BhaktiPhase(1416centAD)
1. Different provincial rulers began to patronize music. Due to the fusion of IndoIslamic music,
khyalstyleemerged.Textswerewrittenonthismusicwhichformedapartofthebhaktiliterature.
2. This period was a period of growing regionalism and declining central authority. This was
reflectedintherapidgrowthofregionallanguagesaswellwhichbecamefullydevelopedinthis
period. Similarly new styles of literature emerged in different parts and attained maturity. This
trendisreflectedinthebhaktiperiodliterature.
3. Bhakti movement sought to involve more people with it and to awaken them. This led to the

developmentofliteratureforpeopleinsteadoftheliteraturefortheelitesasinthepreviousraso
literature.
4. Bhakti and sufi movement led to spread of communal harmony. This effort can be seen in the
literatureaswell.
5. Bhaktimovementdrewfromthebasictenantsofupanishadsandvedasbutwasprogressiveinits
outlookandhumanistincharacter.Thiscanbedirectlyseeninitsliteratureaswell.
6. The nirgun literature can be divided into two one emphasizing knowledge (like kabir, nanak,
dudu dayal) emphasized on the greatness of the teacher. It was more radical, egalitarian,
assimilatory,vocalintheircriticismoftraditionalritualsandclosertothemasses.Theothertype
of nirgun literature emphasized on love (sufis, chandayan, mrigavati, padmavat) which preached
monotheismandtriedtobringhindusandmuslimscloser.ItwasromanticinnaturewithGodas
theloveobject.TheybelievedbylovingGodwecaneliminatealldifferences.TheyportrayGod
asawomanandsoulasaman.
7. ThesagunliteraturecanbedividedintotwoonedevotedtoRama(tulsidas,ramanand)andother
devotedtoKrishna(mira,surdas).Theyuseahighlypoeticliteraturewhichcouldbesunginthe
temples.
Phase3:TraditionalPhase/RitiPhase(Mughals)
1. UndertheMughalswesawtheemergenceofatrulycompositerulingclasswhichincludedHindus
as well. We can see the impact in the literature of the time as it came closer to the Islamic
literature.Wecanseethedescriptionsofthedresses,attitudeandpractices,subjectsetc.allina
waywhichindicatedthatbothcommunitieshadcomeclosertoeachother.Thustheprotagonists
of hindi literature now freely wore dresses made of fine silk and muslin, used arabic perfumes,
engagedinentertainmentlikethemughalrulers,theirdurbars,variouspracticesbecamemorelike
mughals.EventhereligioussubjectslikeKrishnaandRadhaareportrayedinanintenselyromantic
andplayfulmannerandwearingmuslimcostumes.Thereisacleardeparturefromthetraditional
focusonspiritualismanddevotiontowardsworldlypleasures.Thereisincreasedfocusonwealth,
wineandwomen.
2. UnderAkbarwefindmanymuslimwriterslikeRahim,RaskhancomposinginHindiwhilemany
Hindi works being translated into Persian. A new upanishad called Allahoupanishad was even
composed.Weseethatthewriterswhotriedtopreachcommunalismcouldnotfindanypopularity
inthisage.
3. Withrespecttowomen,theliteratureclearlyshowsthemasanobjectoftobeenjoyedasagainst
their depiction as goddesses, mothers etc. earlier. Even characters like Sita and Radha were no
longer objects of worship but the focus was on their body and makeup and they were treated as
objectsofconsummation.
4. Thus we can see a clear decline of bhakti spirit in the literature of this age and instead being
replacedbyconsumptionwhichwasalsothesocialundercurrentastherulingclass(whowerethe
audienceofsuchliterature)believedinconsumptiononly.Thusthisliteraturecanalsobecalledas
classliterature.Inoppositiontothistherewasaminorstrandofmassliteraturespeciallycoming
fromsufisaintsoftheagelikeMiraetc.whichopposedworldlyconsumption.Wecanalsoseea
strandofliteratureemphasizingonmoralsintheformofdohasofRahimetc.
5. Justliketherulingclasswasseparatefromandunmindfuloftheproblemsofthemassestheclass
literaturealsoignoresthemassesandfocusesonlyonthelifestyleoftherulers.Wecanalsoseea
clear movement towards attributing divine association to the emperors and kings as was
emphasizedbytheMughals.
SanskritLiterature
Kalhana'sRajtarangini
(a)WhywassuchaworkwrittenonlyinKashmir?

1. Some scholars believe that Kashmir because of being cutoff from rest of India and its distinct
geographicalsetupwasabletomaintainaseparateculturalidentity.Thusregionalloyaltywasvery
stronginKashmir.MoreoverithadconstantinteractionwiththeBuddhistsinTibetandChinaas
wellaswithCentralAsia.Suchplaceshadastrongtraditionofhistoriographyandhencethework
waswritteninKashmir.
2. ButitmustberecognizedthatinthatperiodentireIndiawasfragmentedintonumerouslocalities
and under feudal system. Regional outlook was strong everywhere. Such attempts to write on
regional histories came up everywhere but what make Kalhana's work unique was its sense of
history.
3. Kalhana was different from other raso writers in the sense that he probably didn't have the
patronageofanyruler.Thatswhyhisworkcouldriseabovethepettynatureofhiscontemporaries.
(b)Motivationsforwriting
1. He writes in the kavya style in order to make it interesting to the reader. Though he ensures
creativity in his writing yet he never loses sight of his main goal vis to write historical truths as
seenbyhim.Thushemaintainedhisobjectivityinmostmatters.
2. Hewaswritinginaveryturbulentperiod.Harsha'sreignhadendedandtherewerelotsofwarsand
struggles around. He wanted to write impartially so as to present facts before people and make
themlearnfromtheirmistakes.
(c)Importance
1. Hementionshissourcesindetail.Hementionsthe11scholarswhogavehimthefamilytreeof
Kashmirrulers.Hementionsthelegends,myths,folkloreetc.whereverhehadtorelyonit.Buthis
strongestpointishereliesoninscriptionsinthetemples,landgrantinscriptionsetc.andmentions
themclearly.
2. Hisworkisdividedinto8parts.First3coverhistoryofmorethan3000yearswhichmainlyrely
on Puranas and legends. His real historiography begins from 4th part and in 4 6 he covers the
KarkotaandUtpalrulers.Forthesepartshereliesoninscriptionsaswellasbuddhisttexts.In7
and8thparthecoverstheLoharadynasty.
3. Inthebeginninghecomesacrossasamerepresenterofvariousfolklore.Therewasnoattemptof
anyanalysis.Butaswecomeclosertohisperiodwecanclearlyseethecriticalanalysisdoneby
him. This expresses his views clearly on matters as well as contemporary realities. For instance
KashmirwentthroughaveryturbulentphasepostHarsha.Localfeudalelementshadbecomevery
strongandtherewasanarchy.Sohesaysthatakingshouldbestrongsothathecancontrolthe
affairsofthekingdomefficiently.Heshouldmakesurethatnooneineventheremotestvillagehas
sufficientwealthleftwithhimsothathecouldeventhinkofposingachallengetotheking.He
writes that the feudal elements derive their strength from the vast amount of land they hold. He
criticizeskayasthasandbureaucratsandaccusesthemofharboringtreacherousintentionsagainst
the kings. He never paints anybody in full white or black and impartially tells us about his
strengthsaswellasweaknesses.
4. Ittellsusaboutotherrealitiesofthesociallifeaswell.Hementionsveryproudlythathebelonged
toabrahmanfamily.Thesocietyhadrichwhofedonfriedmeatanddrankperfumedcoolwine.
While the poor had to live on wild vegetables. It says Harsha introduced a general dress in
Kashmiroflongcoats.Hegivesusawholelotofotherinformationlikegeography,familytreesof
importantpeople,economicactivitieslikecoinmouldingetc.
5. ItcontainsastrikingdescriptionoftheengineeringworkssupervisedaministerofAvantivarman.
Landslidesandsoildegradationledtoagreatamountofrubbleandstonebeingdepositedinthe
Jhelumriverwhichimpededtheflowofwater.Thiswascleared,embankmentswereconstructed
topreventthelandslides,damswerebuiltandlakesweredrained.Theministerevenmanagedto

divertthecourseoftheJhelumandtheIndusriversslightlywhichledtoreclamationoflandfor
cultivation. This has been supported by archaeological evidences and subsequent economic
prosperityofKashmiranditledtowithdrawalofKashmirfromtheplainspoliticssincetheneedto
movetherewaslessened.
(d)Limitations
1. Hisanalysisisnotentirelyfreefromhisbiases.Thuswhilehecriticizesbureaucracy(becauseit
wasmadeofmostlykayasthas)andsaysthebureaucracyhadcorruptedthekingsandpersuaded
themtofollowantipeoplepolicies,hesaysthatthekingshouldconsultbrahmansinstead.This
perhapsreflectshispersonalgrudge.
Architecture
Features
1. BeforetheadventofTurks,Rajputarchitecturebelongedtothetrabeatestyleandhadflatroofs,
falsearchesandstone/mudbased.ButTurksbroughtwiththemtheIslamicstylevistruearches,
domesandusedlimemortarandbrickbased.
2. Turkish architecture was technologically superior as it used true arches, domes, lime mortar,
headersandstretchersbrickoutlay,wasmassive.
3. Italsoleftenoughspaceforthecirculationofair.
Howthearchitecturereflectscontemporarysociopoliticoeconomicrealities?
1. Urbanization: Turks were urban dwellers. Their monuments are in urban areas and promote
urbanism.
2. Concentrationofwealth:Theturkishrulersextractedalltheagriculturesurplusintheirhands.This
surplushadtobeputtouseandithappenedintheformofgrandmonuments.
3. Reflects the distance between the rulers and the ruled, the despotism of the sultans: Each
monument reflects the tastes of the sultan as because of their scale each sultan tried to build
accordingtohislikestoexpandhisglory.AlauddinbuiltAlaiDarwazawhichwasmajesticin
scale.Thisreflectsthedespotismofthesultanandhisabilitytoextractsurplusfromthepeasants.
4. Communalcomposition: Most of the monuments were Islamic which showed the distribution of
power in the urban society. Islam doesn't permit images of birds and animals so floral designs,
geometricdesignsandcalligraphycameup.
5. Theycanbedividedinto3phases(a)DuringandimmediatelyafterTurkishconquestwhenmany
hindutemplesweredestroyedandnewislamicmonumentsweresoughttobecreatedintheirplace
quickly.(b)ExchangeofskillsandtraditionsbetweenIndianandIslamicarchitectureformsbutat
the same time also shows lack of mastery of Indian craftsmen over the new Islamic form, (c)
evolutionofaspecialIndoIslamicform.
6. DuringandimmediatelyafterTurkishconquest:Turkishrulershadnotyetestablishedthemselves.
Theyneededtocreateanaweamongtheruled.ThusIltutmishcreatedmanymonumentsinDelhi
sothatthepubliccouldbeawed.QutubMinarwasbuiltasasymbolofTurkishvictory.Further
themonumentsoftheagecan'tbedividedexclusivelyintosecularandreligiousmonuments.This
is because the rulers needed monuments which could be used for huge public gatherings of the
nascentMuslimsocietyinIndia.Thustheywereoftenlocatedinthemiddleofthetownandhad
largeopengardeninthem,pillaredverandahson3sidesandtheprayingsitefacingwest.There
wasaraisedplatformwhereimamsandsultanscouldaddressthepublic.Firstsuchmonumentof
thekindwasKuwwatulIslaminQilaPithora.TheyhadcometoIndiaasconquerors.Sothey
didn't bring along any masons. So the initial monuments have a deep influence of Indian
architecture.Thebuildingsofthisphasewerebuiltbydemolishingpartsofexistinghindutemples

and converting them according to muslim needs by destroying the images, putting a wall in
garbhgrihaandinscribingQuranicverses.Alsotheflatroofhadtobeconvertedintoadomeand
flatwindowsintoarch.TheIndiancraftsmenwereusedtotheirtraditionalstyleonly.Oneofthe
earliest monuments is Adhai Din Ka Jhopda which was built by Qutubuddin which has false
arches.
7. Expanding muslim population in India and subsequent rise of Indian muslim class: A mosque's
areaisoftenproportionaltotheMuslimpopulationlivinginthearea.ThusQuwwatulIslam
mosquewasexpandedbyIltutmishandAlauddin.AsIndianmuslimclassgrewstrongeritalso
got its fair share in the ruling class in the form of Khaljis. So the expansion of the mosque also
symbolizesrisingpowerofIndianmuslimclass.
8. ExchangeofskillsandtraditionsbetweenIndianandIslamicarchitecturalforms:Graduallywesee
pure form of Islamic architecture coming as Indian craftsmen began to master the new form.
Balban'stombhadthefirstTruearch.JamatikhanamosqueofAlauddinisthefirsttrueIslamic
monument.AlaiDarwazacanbeconstruedtobethefirstmonumentwhichsymbolizestheendof
theinitialphaseofinsecurityandtheIndoIslamicarchitecturalform.
9. Tughluqage: The monuments built were inferior in grandeur and beauty compared to the Khalji
phase. Perhaps they represented a reaction to the excessive ways of the Khaljis or the economic
problems facing the sultan. Under Ghiyasuddin Tughluq we can see the continuation of the
fusionofIndoIslamicforms.Thusinhismausoleumwecanseeakalashkeptontopofthedome.
The construction work in Tughluqabad may also reflect the haste and commotion in the face of
impendingMongolthreat.Firuzconstructedmanymonumentsbutnonematchedthegrandeurof
earlier sultans. Specially under Firuz, sloping walls called salami were prevalent to give an
impression of solidity to the monument. True domes were constructed but they were somewhat
small.Pentagonaldesignscameup.
10. Lodi age: Lodis believed in the kingship theory of being first among the equals. This is also
reflected in the architecture as we find that the monuments built by many Amirs were equal in
scaleandgrandeurtothosebuiltbythesultans.Bytheirtime,theoctagonaldesigns,doubledomes
andheadersandstretchersbricklayeringstylescameup.Charbaghstylealsocameup.
Painting
1. Thesepaintingsalsoshowmanymusicalinstrumentslikevariousformsofveena.
EvidencesofGrowthofPaintingsUnderSultans
1. It was generally considered that the sultans didn't favor paintings. But recent evidences firmly
establishthatpaintingsflourishedunderthesultans,undertheprovincialrulersoftheageaswell
asundertheeliteelementsofthesociety.
2. Contemporary writer Tajuddin Raja says that paintings were quite popular under Iltutmish's
reign.HeexplicitlytalksofpaintingsinvolvinghumanandanimalfigureswhiletheCaliph'senvoy
waswelcomedattheport.Othercontemporarywritersconfirmwhathesays.
3. Wefindbothdirectandindirectevidencesofpaintingsbeingusedasillustrationsinbooksduring
Alauddin'srule.AmirKhusrauwritesindetailhowthesedesignswereprepared.
4. ShamsiSirajAfifinhisTarikhiFiruzshahiwritesclearlythatFiruzbannedthelivingportraitsof
humansinthepalacegalleriesandbedroomsofthesultan.Thistellsusthatsuchapracticewas
followedrightintheheartofsultanate.
5. SimilarlyBaraniwritesinTarikhiFiruzshahithatJalaluddinfinishedtheworkofconstruction
ofapalacestartedbySultanKakuibadanddecorateditwithpaintings.
RegionalPaintings

1. Jaunpurpaintings:VariousplaysandotherliteraryworksintheAvadhilanguagemakeliberaluse
of illustrations and/or talk explicitly about paintings. Prominent are the romantic works of
Chandayan and Mrigavati. The subjects of such works were often derived from Ramayan and
Mahabharat. Another Persian manuscript has been found which is heavily influenced by Persian
paintingstyle.
2. PaintingsunderJainmerchants:Since910centADwefindminiatureillustrationsinreligious
worksofBuddhism,JainismandHinduismunderthePalas.Inthe1315centADsuchatradition
emerged very strongly under the patronage of rich Jain merchants and spread to central and
northernIndiaaswell.InAhemdabadmanysecularaswellasreligiousJainworkswerecreated
whichhadillustrationsinthem.
3. Mandu paintings: We have found 4 major manuscripts here which give evidence of flourishing
paintingarthere.Amanuscriptfoundhere(Niyamatnama)hasmanyminiatureportraitsofSultan
NasiruddinKhalji.ThesepaintingsshowclearfusionofIndianandPersianart.Theyusebright
andlivelycolorsandreflectthelivelinessofthedurbarofMandu.AnothermanuscriptisMiftah
ulFuzalawhichisadictionary.ThemanuscriptVostanshowsheavyinfluenceofPersianart.The
4thoneisUjaibulSannati.
4. Bengalpaintings:AmanuscriptSharafnamahas9paintings.Sikandarnamahasbeautifulpaintings
onitsopeningpageitself.TheyshowclearfusionofIndoIslamicforms.
CompositeCulture
1. The fusion of Indo Islamic culture began with the Turks in 13th century. Before that Arab
merchants were residing in India in the Malabar and Rashtrakuta empire and Arabs had also
conqueredSind.Butstillnotmuchexchangehappened.Thisfusionreachedgreaterheightsunder
theMughals.
Music
1. Despitetheoppositionofreligiousextremists,musicflourishedundertheSultans.AmirKhusrau
developedanewIndianstyleofpoetry.MbTandZainulAbedinwerebigpatronsofmusic.Then
underMughalsitreacheditszenith.AbulFazltellsusabouttheprominentmusiciansinAkbar's
courtwhichincludedbothHindusandMuslims.UnderBijapur'ssultanIbrahimAdilShahmany
texts were written in poetry. He himself was a poet. Bahadur Shah and Muhammad Shah also
encouragedmusic.
LanguageandLiterature
1. One of the major steps which promoted the fusion was the complete Persianization of the
administrativework.ThisencouragedHindustotakeupPersianlearningandtheyalsobeganto
contributetothePersianliterature.
2. RegionallanguagesalsobegantoliberallyexchangewithPersianduetothismove.Thoughthey
kepttheirbasicgrammarandsyntaxbutincorporatedmanywordsfromPersian(speciallyMarathi
for instance Peshwa, Avadhi, Bengali). We can see the influence of Persian in Nanak's work as
well as Tulsi's Ramcharitmanas. Regional languages also developed as the Muslim rulers in
provinces also patronized them (for instance ZainulAbedin encouraged compilation of
Rajtarangini, he also encouraged Kashmiri literature. Sanskrit works came up in Muhammed
Begara's reign, Gujarati works were encouraged by Ahmedshah. Similarly Bengali, Telugu etc.
wereencouragedbythelocalrulers).ManyworksweretranslatedfromPersianandSanskritinto
theseregionallanguages.
3. Akbarwasveryfondofliteraryworksandhadabiglibraryofworksinmanylanguages.Healso
gotmanyworkstranslatedintoPersian.

UrduLanguage
1. TheTurkishinvaderscamehereandsettledhere.WithtimetheirlinkswithCentralAsiabroke
(specificallyduetoMongolinvasions)andhencetheyhadtorecruitfortheirarmedforcesfrom
among Indians. Naturally there was a barrier in communication between the Persian speaking
centralasiansandhindispeakingIndians.Thusurducameupasthecamplanguage.AmirKhusrau
wasoneofthefirstprominentwriterstoalsotakeupUrdu.
2. When the sufi saints and subsequently the sultans went to deccan they faced the same language
barrier again. So the language which subsequently came up after exchanges with the regional
languagesiscalledDeccanilanguagewhichevolvedintothemoreformal/classicalformofUrdu.
WiththeexpansionofMughalempirein17thcenturyinDeccanthespreadofDeccaniincreased.
3. In 18th century Urdu emerged as the leading language of the gentry and symbolized the revolt
againstthePersiandominance.
ProvincialArchitecture
1. GujaratistylerepresentstheclearestinfluenceofHindustyleofarchitecture.Wecanseethisinthe
JamaMasjid@Ahemdabad,KhambatandBadiMasjid@Champaneretc.wheretheyresemble
HinduandJainatemplesclosely.Thedomewassupportedbyslenderminarets.Influenceseenin
FatehpurSikri.
2. In Golconda fort we can see that the arches were ornamented with Hindu motifs like cranes,
parrots,lions,peacocksetc.SimilarlyinBijapur'sJamaMasjidwecanseesculpturesofPipaltrees
onthewallswhichisasacredtreeforHindus.
3. Under the Bundelas @ Orchha and Datia we can see arches along with Hindu style. Under
Marathas we can see Islamic features lime minarets, domes etc. which are even used in the
construction of temples. Marathas also had gardens constructed in their palaces along with
fountains,canalsetc.
ReligionandPhilosophy
1. Bhakti and Sufi movements influenced each other and the popular thought. Diniilahi was a
manifestationofthefusion.DaraShikohwasalsoagreatassimilatorycharacterandinfluencedby
sufism.
2. Still the exchange couldn't take place beyond some popular practices and beliefs. At the
philosophical level the fusion was not visible except for the above mentioned instances. There
weresomesufisaintswhoincorporatedsomepracticesofhindusaintslikeyogaetc.Aparticular
sectofMuslimsbelievedProphettobeanavatar,MuinuddinChistitobeademigod.Wecansee
people of both community celebrating many festivals together. This communal harmony was
encouragedbytheprovincialsultansaswell.
EvolutionofaCompositeRulingClass
1. WithtimethedominationofTurksendedandwecanseeIndianMuslimsrisingintherankofthe
rulingclass.ThenthereweremanyHinduswhowereexploitedintheHindusociety,theysought
totakeadvantageofthenewsituationfortheiradvance.Slowlyeventhebetteroffhindusaligned
themselveswiththesultansandeventhoughtheydidn'tgetasharedirectlyintheupperechelons
ofpowertheywerequiteimportantforthesultanate.
2. When Sikandar Lodi ordered for the adoption of Persian as the official language many learned
HinduclasseslikeKayastha,Kashmiribrahmansetc.learntPersianandtookadvantage.Theruling
classatthevillageandlocallevelstillcomprisedpredominantlyofhindus.YetbeforeMughalsa
trulycompositerulingclasscouldn'temerge.

AmirKhusrauinMusic
1. He was very much influenced by Indian music and gave many new ragas (like tilak, sarpada,
saajgiri) and taals by fusing Indian and Islamic music. He is said to have popularized Qawwalis
andinventedtablaandsitar.
SufisinMusic
1. Theycontributedintheformofgazalsandqawwalis.Gazalisaromanticformofmusicwherethe
objectofloveisapersoninthisworldonly.Qawwaliistheromanticmusicwheretheobjectis
God.Assuchgazalsbecameverypopularinthedurbarsofsultans.
CultureinMughalEmpire
PersianHistoryWriting
NatureandCharacter
1. In N India land records were kept in Persian only. In S India however, both local and Persian
languageswereused.ThisgaveagreatboosttothespreadofPersian.
2. ThehistorieswerewrittenwithintheconfinementofIslami.e.criticismofKuran,Hadi,Sunnaetc.
isnotpossibleanditmustremainwithintheconfinesofthereligion.
3. Therisingmightoftheemperorhadaninfluenceonthehistoriographyaswellandnowthehistory
oftheagebecamethehistoryoftheemperor.Thecompletedworksnowcametobededicatedto
the emperor. The earlier Arabic tradition of giving sources was also discontinued here. Divine
associationofthekingswasemphasizedupontoestablishtheirsovereignty.Wefindthetradition
ofhistorywritingspreadingtotheprovincesaswell.
4. We find extensive use of religious terminology in the texts which might appear to the extent of
outrightcommunalatthefirstglance.Butitmustbekeptinmindthatinthosedaysreligionand
educationwereintricatelylinked.Thescholarswereinvariablymenofreligionandtheyknewno
terminology other than religious. Thus they make indiscriminate use of such terms. For instance
usingsuchtermslashkarikufraandlashkariislamevenwhenbothsidesfightingeachotherwere
Muslims.
5. Wemustalsokeepinmindthattheinterestofmuchofthehistorywritingsectiondifferedfrom
thoseofthesultans.Thehistorywritingsectionmainlycamefromthereligiousulemmasclassand
wantedsultantobeboundbytheshariatandkuransothathewouldhavetoconsultthemonall
mattersandtheirimportanceinthepoliticsgrows.Sultansontheotherhandwerenotwillingto
acceptanysovereigntyabovethem.Sotopleasetheulemmasandtoshowtheircompleteloyalty
towards shariat whenever it was possible they tried to give religious color to actions otherwise
necessitated by politicoeconomic considerations. The historians naturally used to give lot of
importanceandcommunalcolortosuchevents.
6. Thepoliticalstabilityandeconomicprosperityoftheagecanalsobeseeninsuchworks.
DifferencesfromSultanateEraHistoryWriting
1. Thecompletedworksnowcametobededicatedtotheemperor.
2. TheearlierArabictraditionofgivingsourceswasalsodiscontinuedhere.
3. Theemperorsusedtopayalotofattentiontohistorywritingsthemselvesasisevidentfromthe
traditionofautobiographiesinthemughalage.Whentheycouldn'ttheyappointedhighestscholars
forthetaskandgavethemfullaccesstoallgovernmentrecords(includingtheclassifiedones)and
gavethemotherprivilegesaswell.Butasusualthismeansthesewritingswereoftenbiased.
4. Inthemughalworkswecanseeeventspresentedchronologicallyyearafteryearalongwithallthe
dates.ButinBarani'sworkweseelackofsuchchronology.

5. Thetechniquesofpapermakingandbindingshowedmarkedimprovementoverthesultanateera
andsowehavelargeramountofsourcesofmughalerawithus.
ZahiruddinMuhammedBaburandTuzukiBabri
(a)Importance
1. Its importance is that itsan autobiographyand this is where Mughalsdiffered fromsultans.The
workisfromsomeonewhowasshapingtheIndiaoftheageandbroughtarevolution.Hedivides
his work in 3 parts first part runs from his accession to the throne of Fargana and ends with
leavingSamarkandforthefinaltime,secondparttellsusabouthisstrugglesandwarsinIndiaand
thethirdparttellsusaboutthestateofaffairsinIndia.
2. Hedescribesthepoliticalsituationofthecountryingreatdetail.Hetalksaboutdifferentprovincial
rulerslikeGujarat,Malwa,Bijapur,Golcondaetc.,Vijaynagar,Bengal,Rajputana.Hetalksabout
thedifficultiesfacedinkeepingtheconqueredareasfirmlyunderhiscontrol.Hetalksaboutthe
difficultiesfacedincollectinglandrevenue.
3. Being a foreigner he tells us in detail about all things which struck to him and which may have
beenordinarytoaresidenthere.Hewasakeenobserveranddescribespeopleandgeographyin
great detail. He writes about their clothes, food, habits, behavior, profession, social structure,
festivals,artforms,architecture,technologiesetc.ingreatdetail.Thusheproducesarichaccount.
4. Healsowritesveryfranklyabouthisownmistakes.Italsogivesagoodaccountoftheconditions
prevailinginHumayun'sinitialyearsandtellsusabouthisstrengthsandweaknessesaswell.
(b)Limitations
1. Hecanbeaccusedofdistortionoffactsalsospeciallywhilehighlightinghismilitaryvictories.
2. HeformsanegativestereotypeofIndiansbasedonhisobservationsofcertainbackwardsections
ofthesociety.
3. He also leaves out certain provinces like Sind, Kashmir, Odisha, Khandesh. He neglects
Portugueseaswell.
4. Hisisalsoabrokenaccountsometimesithadlongbreaks.
Humayun'sHistoriography
1. TarikhiRashidibyHussainMirza:HewasaseniorcommanderinBabur'sandthenHumayun's
army and hence the importance. He talks in detail about Humayun's period. He writes about
character and habits of Humayun. He gives a different and detailed account of circumstances
leadingtothebattle@KannaujandKamran'sroleinit.Hesaidthatsomerevoltshademergedin
PunjabandQandharsoKamranhadtoreturnimmediatelybutheleft5000sawarswithHumayun.
2. KanuniHumayunibyKhondMir:ThewriterwasaseniorofficialunderHumayunandthusgives
usagoodaccountoftheeventsandconventionsofthedurbar.
3. HumayunnamabyGulbadan:ShewasastepsistertoHumayunandtellsusindetailaboutthelife
ofroyalladiesandHumayun'sexileandconqueringKabul.
Akbar'sHistoriography
1. It had 3 strands (a) the official version i.e. Akbarnama written by Abul Fazl and which was
sponsored by Akbar, (b) neutral version i.e. TabakatiAkbari written by Nizamuddin Ahmad,
and(c)antiAkbarversionMuntakbhutTarikhwrittenbyBadayuni.
(a)AkbarnamabyAbulFazl
1. AbulFazlwasaliberalpersonlikeAkbarandconsequentlyhadcomeveryclosetohim.In1590

hewasentrustedwiththetaskofwritinghistoryofAkbar.ThefirstpartstartswithAkbar'sbirth
andendsin1572wherehetalksaboutcreationoftheuniverse,otherreligionsandtheirprophets,
Akbar's ancestors etc. In the second one he covers the period till 1588. The third part is Aini
Akbari. The 4th part talks about the geography, people, climate, indian saints, sufi saints etc. of
India.Inthefinalparthegiveshisbriefautobiography.
2. He studied all relevant Arabic and Persian history books, he used all relevant official records,
farmaans etc., he interviewed a lot of people including the amirs and Akbar himself, he knew
intricate details of many things being a high amir himself and whenever there was a dispute
regarding anything he used to take opinion of maximum possible number of people conversant
withthematterandiftherewasstillanydisputeleftthenAkbarusedtotakeadecision.
3. AbulFazlwasagreatsupporterofAkbar'sliberalreligiousideasandhewantedtostrengthenhis
positionfurther.SohehighlightedthedivineaspectofAkbar'skingshipandalsopraisedsulhikul
policyofAkbar.Hesupportedhisclaimtomustajir.Variousreligionsgenerallyassociatebirthsof
prophetsorgreatmenwithsomedivinesigns.AbuFazltriestolinkAkbar'sbirthwithsomedivine
signsaswell.Ifhewasnotgivenformaleducationduringhischildhood,AbuFazllinksittosuch
atraditionamongtheprophets.HewantedpeopletobelievethatAkbarhadanelementofdivinity
inhimsothattheyfollowhisorderswithoutanyissues.
4. HerejectsthehighlyornamentalstyleofPersianwritingofprevioushistoriansandinsteadwrites
inaverysimpleandyetlovablelanguage.UnlikeotherPersianhistorianshedoesn'tuseanysuch
language which can even hint at religious intolerance. This was a big break from the history
writingtraditionoftheage.
5. AiniAkbarireflectstheliberalreligiousviewsandsulhikulthoughtsofAkbar.Ittriestogivea
harmoniousportrayalofhindusandhinduphilosophyandpresentsthemasbeingtolerant,liberal
and assimilatory. Although it must be noted that he didn't know Sanskrit like Berouni and thus
sufferedfromthishandicap.Hetriestoportraytheapparentdifferencesbetweenvariousreligions
asaresultofdifferentlanguages,ignoranceofthereligiousheadsandinterpreters,theirtraditional
andfanaticaloutlook,useofreligionbythemandtherulerstoservetheirpersonalambitionsetc.
Inrealitythereisnodifferencebetweenanyreligion.Herejectstheclaimofoldhistoriansthatin
Indiathereisaninherentconflictbetweenthemuslimsandhindus.Healsorejectsanyfanaticism
beitinhindusorinmuslims.ThushepraisesTodarmalforhisqualitiesbutcriticizeshimforhis
lackoftolerance.
(b)TabakatiAkbaribyNizamuddinAhmad
1. NizamuddinwasahighrankingofficerunderAkbaryetwroteinaneutralway.Hisbookcovers
thehistoryofsultanateandAkbarandotherprovinceslikeBengal,Malwa,Jaunpur,Kashmir,Sind
etc.Hedidn'twritetogainfavorsfromtheemperorandwasamanofhighintegrity.
2. HeusesotherworkslikeTuzukiBabri,Akbarnamaandnumerousotherhistoricaltextsofhisage.
(c)MuntakbhutTarikhbyAlBadayuni
1. Badayuni represented the traditional fanatical ulemma class. He had grown up and received
educationinaveryorthodoxandfanaticalenvironment.HehatedAkbarforhisreligioustolerance
whichhebelievedhadledtotheignoranceoflearnedscholarslikehim.Hebelievedthatallthe
high posts and influence should be exclusively reserved for muslims and that too for learned
scholarslikehim.Thiswashisbiggestlimitationbutatthesametimealsoletsusknowtheimpact
ofAkbar'spoliciesonthissection.
2. Badayuni had been invited to ibadatkhana affairs of Akbar. But he soon found out that his
orthodoxviewswouldhavenoimpactontheemperor.HewasalsojealousofAbulFazl(whonot
onlyinfluencedAkbar'spoliciesbutalsowasinvolvedinimplementingthem)whomheaccusedof
poisoning the emperor's mind and this hatred shows in his work. He believes himself to be a

soldier of Islam and brands both Akbar and Abul Fazl as enemies of Islam. He was also
dissatisfied from Akbar for his regulations imposed on madadimash (the tax free land grants
madetomuslimulemmas).
3. Hisworkhas3partsfirstonebeginsfromSubuktginandlaststillHumayun'sdeath(thiscanbe
consideredasasummaryofTabakatiAkbar),secondrelatestoAkbarandthirdrelatestosome
sufisaints,poetsandmuslimscholars.
4. Hisworkisfullofreligiousintoleranceandhatredforhindus.Butitmustbekeptinmindthathe
was jealous of rich hindus as they were richer than him and focuses his venom on them. At the
same time he ignores poor hindus just like he ignores poor muslims as this reflects the typical
mindsetoftheprivilegedclassoftheage.
5. Hisresearchandanalysiswasshallowashewasnotreallyinterestedindescribinganyeventofthe
age.HemerelywantedtopourvenomonbothAkbarandAbulFazl.
TuzukiJahangiribyJahangir
1. This is an autobiography and describes in detail his campaigns including failures, factionalism
emerginginthehighnoblery,transfersofmansabdarsandhowhehimselfturnedawayfromhis
responsibilities. The work reflects his desires, his efforts, successes, failures everything. He
describeshowhewantedtobelikehisfather.Hewritesindetailabouthisdailylife,histhoughts
veryhonestly.
2. He doesn't stay limited to his life only. He also describes his officers, his perception about their
thoughts and factional fights etc. This makes it a very good source. He also describes the
geographicaldetailsofhisjourneytoKashmir,Malwa,Ajmer,GujaratandPunjab.
3. First15yearsofhisreignwereverygoodbutfromthe16thyearonwardsproblemsbeginandhe
startstoretirefromactivelife.Thisisreflectedintheformofirregularentriesinthebook.Inthe
alter years he delegated the responsibility of history writing to Motmid Khan who writes in the
nameofJahangirtillthe19thyear.FromthenonhewritesIkbalnamaiJahangiriinhisownname
whichagainisaveryreliablesource.
Padshahnama(forShahjahan)
1. Thishas3versions.FirstwaswrittenbyKazwiniwhichcoversthefirst10yearsofhisreign.Next
waswrittenbyAbdulHamidLahoriandcoversfirst20yearsofthereign.Thethirdversionwas
written by Muhammad Waris which covers the last 10 years of his reign. This work covers in
detailtheprinces,amirs,scholars,sufis,poets,campaigns,politicalevents,transfersetc.
Aurangzeb'sHistoriography
(a)AlamgirnamabyKasemShiraji
1. Hecoversthefirst10yearsofhisreign.Likeotherofficialhistorians,hetoohadaccesstoallthe
governmental records. Where he needed more information he could investigate anyone and was
also free to consult the emperor. He liberally praises Aurangzeb and criticizes his brothers and
evenShahjahan.HepraisesthoseamirswhosidedwithAurangzebinhissuccessionwar.
(b)MuntakbhulLubabbyKhafiKhan
1. ThisisacriticalworkofAurangzeb'sreignandhewriteshowthepeasantrywasoppressedbythe
mughalsandalwayslivedinfear.Healsocriticizesthehandlingofdeccaniaffairsandhiswork
containstheelementspointingtowardsthedeclineofmughalempire.
(c)FutuhatiAlamgiribyIsardasNagar

1. Thiscovershisreignupto34yearsandtalksindetailabouthisrelationswithrajputs.Hewrites
howby1691Aurangzeb'spolicieshadfailedandhisnobleryhadhatchedambitionstocarveout
independentprincipalities.
EuropeanSources:JeanTaverner
1. Hewasamerchantandhencewasinterestedmostlyineconomicactivitiesofthecountry.Buta
differencebetweenhimandotherwritersisthathedidn'tremainconfinedtothecourtactivities.
He travelled across India and also wrote about the people, social life (whatever he could
understand)andeconomiclife.Thushebecomesanimportantsourcealbeitonewhichshouldbe
interpreted with proper caution. He thus writes about the production activities in India, the
merchants,thesarafs,theinvolvementofamirsintrade,varioustemplesetc.
2. Onelimitationisthathetravelledthroughforestssohecouldhavewrittenaboutthetribalsthere
buthedidn't.Thenhiswritingsonreligiousandculturallivesareatbestshallow.
EuropeanSources:FrancisBernier
1. He had stayed in India for a long period. So he came to understand the circumstances here in a
betterway.Hehadaccesstotheroyalcourtsandhencewritesaboutthelivesoftherulingclass
includingtheprincesses.Hewritesabouttherajputsaswell.
2. Healsothrowssufficientlightontheeconomiclife.Hewritesaboutthecraftsmen,thepeasants
etc.Butheincorrectlyassertsthattheemperorwastheownerofalllandhere.
3. Onamirshewritesthattheylivedaveryconsuminglife.Despitelargeincomestheywerealways
indebted.Hetalksaboutthetransportationmeans,themughalarmy,thebrahmansandtheirnarrow
mindsetandsuperstitions,thesatisystem,devadasisystemandcraftproductionprocessesinIndia.
MughalArchitecture
Features
1. Change & Continuity: Double dome, charbagh style were elements of continuity. Influence of
provincialarchitecture,kalash,petradurastylewereelementsofchange.
2. Due to the central asian origin of the emperors the architecture was characterized by fusion of
HinduIslamicarchitecturespeciallyunderAkbar.Onesuchinfluenceisthekalashplacedontop
ofthedomeswhichwasborrowedfromHindutemplearchitecture.InSJ'stime,greateremphasis
wasplacedonIslamiccharacterofbuildings.ThusduringAkbar'speriodwecanseeafusionof
regional styles into Mughal buildings. In Red Fort we can see distinct Gujarati and Malwa
influence.Theuseofdomeswasavoidedandinsteadreplacedbychatris.Domeswereusedonlyin
themosque.WecanseetheuseofcolorfulandglazedtilesontheexternalwallsinSikriwhich
resemble Persian style. On the other hand the internal walls and chatris were ornamented with
motifs of different animals and human beings in the Rajput style. Fatehpur Sikri too saw huge
influenceofGujaratandRajputstyles.Rajputinfluenceiswitnessedinthedoorsandwindowsand
in Jodhabai's and Birbal's palaces while Kashmiri influence is visible in Mariam's palace. In
Birbal'spalacewecanseethearchesweredecoratedwithmotifsoflotus,roseandotherflowers.
IntheDiwaniKhaswecanseetheinfluenceofJain,BuddhistaswellasHindustyles.
3. Itusedthecharbaghstyle.Initiallythemonumentwasconstructedinthemiddleofthegardenon
araisedplinthandflowingwater.Humayun'stombisthefirstexample.Shahjahanchangeditto
placingthemonumentinonecornerofthegarden.
4. Manybeautifulgardenswithflowingcanalswerecreated.ItbeganwithBaburwhogotagarden
created in Agra when he began to live there. Example are Shalimar @ Lahore, Nishat Bagh in
Kashmir.

5. Doubledomewasanotherfeature.Humayun'stombisthefirstexample.
6. RedsandstonefromDhaulpurwasextensivelyusedbyMughals.ExamplesareShahjahanabadand
FatehpurSikri.Marblewasalsoused.FromJahangir'stimeavisibleshiftwasmadetowardsuseof
marble.
7. SomenewcitieslikeDinPanahbyHumayunandShergarhbySSSwerebuilt.
8. Pietra dura style was used for ornamentation. Floral designs were carved in walls and semi
preciousstoneswerefittedintheseengravingsforentiredesign.
9. LastexampleofMughalarchitectureisSafdarjungtomb.
10. Thearchitecturewassuitedtotheclimaticconditionsoftheland.Theroomswerelargeandairy.
Therewerebiggardensaroundthebuildingandmanyfountainsaswell.Theroofshadthekhus
khusgrasstokeepthemcool.
MughalArchitectureasaReflectionofContemporaryLife
1. Itsymbolizesthegreatpoweroftherulingclassandthegreatdividebetweentherulersandthe
ruled.Mughalsbroughtavastareaofthecountryundertheiradministration.Theyhadelaborate
machinerytoextracttheagriculturesurplusandthissurpluswasconcentratedinfewhandsonly.
This gave them the ability to provide for best of the resources from all over the country in their
monuments.Thisshowsinthesuperiorityoftheirarchitecture.Theeliteandprivilegedclassused
burntbricks,mortarandstones(becausestonecuttingandpolishingwascostly)andarches,domes
and vaulted roofs in their constructions. They also made use of glasses for their windows and
Jahangir even used colored glasses which were very expensive. Commoners used mud bricks or
kucchahouses.
2. Theyreflecttheincreasingpoweroftheemperoreveninrespectofhisamirs.Thuswhileinthe
Lodirulewefindthatthemonumentsofhisamirswereasgoodasthoseofthesultan,inmughal
age monuments of the emperors were way above anybody else's. While the emperors had the
resourcesandcapacitytoobtainbestofmaterialandlaborfromanypartofthecountryhisnobles
andprovincialrulers/governorsclearlycouldn'tdoso.
3. WecanseetheimpactofAkbar'sdesiretobethereligiousleaderofIndianmuslimsaswell.In
DiwaniAam @ Sikri we can see that the emperor's throne was placed in the western direction
which gavehim religious supremacy aswell. The useof many provincialstyles inthebuildings
canbeseentoreflectAkbar'sdesiretobetheemperorofwholeIndiaandnotjustapartofit.But
this innovative and assimilative character was replaced by a traditional character in Shahjahan's
monuments.
4. Themonumentsclearlyshowthestateoftheempireinthosedays.Forinstancethemajesticfusion
andsmoothconstructionofSikrishowsthestabilityandthestrengthoftheempire.ByShahjahan's
time a stagnation had occurred which we can see in the lack of variety in the construction. The
freshnessandculturalfusionofthebuildingsgavewaytoartificialgrandeur.Theinnovativeand
assimilative character of Akbar's time was replaced by a traditional character in Shahjahan's
monuments. It appears that this was an attempt to hide the growing problems of the empire. By
Aurangzeb's time the architecture declined due to his personal indifference as well as economic
condition of the state. Whatever monuments are there show traditional style only and lack of
creativity. Instead the monuments of the regional principalities began to grow in their attraction.
Thisshowsthedeclineoftheempire.
5. Thesemajesticprojectsreflectedtheculturalcurrentsandtastesoftheageintherulingclass.The
emperorsoftenpersonallypaidattentiontotheplansandconstructionofthemonuments.Thuswe
havepaintingsofAkbarobservingtheconstructionofFatehpurSikripersonally.
6. After 300 years of liberal exchanges and changes, Indian architecture style had stabilized. The
craftsmenhadbecomemastersoftheirartandthisshowsinthebuildingswhichshowastylethat
is more mature and uniform than its predecessors. Architecture during sultanate period was
heterogenousandmorelikeacollectionofdifferentstyles.

7. The construction made use of labor intensive technologies which indicate the abundance of
unskilledandskilledlaboroftheageandthatithadbecomeanimportantindustry.Largeamount
oflaborwasemployed.ForinstanceAkbarnamatellsus4000workerswereemployedeveryday
for the construction of Agra fort. Jama Masjid of Delhi employed 8000 workers and Taj Mahal
employed20000workersworkingeveryday.
8. Thearchitecturewassuitedtotheclimaticconditionsoftheland.Theroomswerelargeandairy.
Therewerebiggardensaroundthebuildingandmanyfountainsaswell.Theroofshadthekhus
khusgrasstokeepthemcool.
9. The architecture clearly shows a fusion of IndoIslamic styles and shows the prevailing
undercurrentsofcommunalharmonyandliberalexchangeinthesociety.
10. The mughal amirs used to construct their buildings close to the buildings constructed by their
ancestors.
11. Thefoundationofanymajorprojectwaslaidonlyafterconsultingtheastrologicalcharts.
MughalPainting
Howtheyreflectthecontemporarylife?
1. PainterswerebothHinduMuslimsaswellaslowercastehindus.
2. Court patronized. Book illustrations played an important role. Karkhanas were established for
painting.Painterswerepaidmonthlysalaries+bonuses.
3. Itwasunislamicyetliberalinterpretationofislamallowsit.
4. PaintedportraitsofAkbarshowingdespotism.
5. Specializationabsent.
6. Mughal paintings show the construction scenes of the big monuments and also tell us about the
used technologies. For instance some paintings showus howstones were cut andpolishedtobe
usedinFatehpurSikri.
7. Courtscenes,huntingscenes,warswerepainted.Indiancolorsweredeveloped.
MughalPaintingsunderAkbar
1. In the initial phase during Akbar, paintings used to draw heavily from persian style though we
couldseesomeinfluencesofIndianstyleoccasionally.Oneofthefirstimportantpaintingswasthe
miniature style DastaniAmirHamza or Hamzanama. It had 1200 paintings and used bright
colors. Amir Hamza was a Persian mythological hero and Akbar used to enjoy his stories.
Hamzanamadepictsforeignplantsandflowers.WecanalsoseeinfluenceofHindusstyleinthe
paintingofwomeninit.InAnwariSuhailiwecanseethatthebirdsandanimalsarepaintedina
verynaturalstylewhereasinpersianstyleanimalsarepaintedinaveryartificialway(theyappear
morelikemasksthanaliveanimals).ItshowsIndiantreesandflowersbutpaintshillsandclouds
inpersianstyle.ThesepaintersweremostlyPersians.
2. In the next phase Akbar's policies had become much more assimilatory and the resulting fusion
culturehadbecomemature.Akbarwasbecomingmoreinterestedinanalysisofdifferentreligions.
So he wanted many books of different religions to be translated into Persian. Such translations
wouldalsoincludeminiatures.Thisgaveabigboosttothefusionprocess.Wecanseethesame
impact in the paintings as they now included various provincial styles like Gwalior, Gujarat,
Rajputana,Lahore,Kashmiretc.Thiswaspossibleastheirpainterswerenowdrawnfromallover
IndiaandnotjustPersia.TootinamaisanimportantpaintingfromthisphaseandwecanseeIndian
influenceinbothsubjectsaswellasstyle.ThemostfamouspaintingofthisagewasRazmnama
whichworkedasamilestoneforotherpaintings.
3. WithtimewecanalsoseetheEuropeaninfluenceinthepaintings.Itbeganwhenin1580Akbar
invitedamissionarytohisdurbar.Theybroughtmanypaintingswiththem.Themughalprinces
were impressed and the painters tried to incorporate its features in their own paintings. In the

beginningtheyjustcopiedtheoutlinesandfilleditintheirowncolorsandstyle.Lateronwecan
seetheeuropeaninfluencebothinthesubjectsandstyle.Apopularfeaturenowwasthatthefront
objectswereputinaperspectivebychangingtheirsize.
4. During the final years Akbar was besieged with many problems including the revolt of prince
Salim and death of princes Murad and Daniyal. We can see the corresponding decline in the
paintings as well specially miniatures. This decline was evident not only in quantity but also
qualityastheynowlackedcreativity.
MughalPaintingsunderJahangir
1. DuringAkbar'sreignthepaintingwasboundbythesubjectofthemanuscriptofwhichitformeda
part.Jahangirfreeditfromthislimitationandencouragedfreepaintings(onsubjectsdictatedby
him)includingportraits.Initiallyhegotsomeofthepaintingsredonefromtheroyallibrary.Then
heturnedtowardslifesizeportraitsandotherscenesfromroyallife.Itmustbekeptinmindeven
Akbar got portraits done but under Jahangir they became the dominating theme. Jahangir was
eager to have important events of his life and reign recorded and asked the painters to paint his
durbar scenes, festival celebrations, flowers and animals which interested him etc. There is one
paintingwhichshowsJahangiraimingforalioness'seyeandaRajputprinceispointingtowardsit.
2. ThepaintingsoftheageelevatedJahangir'sauraandshowedhiminamajesticform.Maybethey
are an attempt to take his mind away from the dissonance of his failures to tackle some of the
problemshefacedorsomeofthedesireshecouldneverfulfill.Theywerejustanattempttoshow
him as a great, all conquering, merciful and just ruler. For instance we can see him greeting the
persianruleronequaltermsthoughhenevermethim.Theonepaintingshowshimpresidingover
(asagreatgreatemperor)ameetingofmanykingsandprincesfromfarofflands.Inanotherheis
seenaskickingMalikAmbar'shead.
3. Thus gradually in his reign we can see miniatures declining and getting replaced by free style
paintingsincludingtheportraits.
4. The paintings also show the animals and birds in a very natural way and focus on their bodily
featureswithaprecisenesswhichisamazing.Wecanseesignsofscientificstudyofsuchsubjects
beforethepaintings.
MughalPaintingsafterJahangir
1. For some years Shahjahan let them work as they were working under Jahangir. But later on he
begantohavehimselfpaintedinassociationwithsomedivinepowerslikeforinstancetheangels
themselves are descending on earth to keep the crown on his head, or they are standing holding
flagsintheirhandsandprayingforhisvictoryandlonglife.Healsohadhimselfpaintedinmost
imposing forms. In one painting we can see Akbar, Jahangir and Shahjahan with Akbar directly
givingthecrowntoShahjahan.
2. Perhapsallthiswasanattempttohidethedeclineinthefortunesoftheempire.Thatiswhythere
is too much of glorifying the emperor. The decline in mughal painting had clearly set in and
creativityhadgivenwaytotraditionalism.
3. Europeaninfluencecanbeclearlyseeninthesepaintingsasthereisgenerallyanilluminatedcircle
behindhisheadradiatinglightasintheeuropeanpaintingsofJesus.Furtherwecanseethatthe
backgroundisgenerallypaintedblurinlightcolors.
RajputanaSchoolofPainting
1. Rajputana paintings can be broadly divided into (a) court paintings which depict as usual the
lifestyle of the feudal lords. We can see clear mughal influence here in the form of dresses,
symbols,background,sceneryetc.Theinfluencegrewasthepaintersreturnedfromthedelhicourt

due to the decline of the empire. (b) literary paintings which typically draw their subject matter
fromhindureligion.Theyalsoshowlessinfluenceofislamicartandmoreofrajputtraditionalart
onlybecausetheinteractionwithmughalswasmoreintherulingclass.(c)folkpaintingswhich
typicallyshowfestivals,celebrations,dailylifeeventsetc.
MewarSchool
1. It mainly flourished in Chittor, Udaipur, Nathdwara, Deogarh, Sirohi, Saawar under Sisodias. It
shows comparatively lesser influence of mughal style due to distant political relations with the
mughals.
2. UnderRanaAmarSinghwecanseethatthemenclothingistriangularinthebottompartofthe
bodywhichindicatesmildmughalinfluenceonly.UnderhissuccessorRanaJagatSinghwecan
seeanincreaseinthereligiouspaintingsaswellascourtpaintings.Thesepaintingsdepictedmen
andwomeninamixofmughalandtraditionalwear,birds,flowersetc.allintheirnaturalstatebut
thehillswerepaintedinmughalstyle.
3. Inthefirsthalfof18thcenturythecourtpaintingsflourishedfurtheraslotofpainterscameback,
butafterthatwecanseeadeclineundertheinfluence.
AmberSchool
1. ItflourishedunderKachwahasinAmber,Jaipur,Alwar.
2. Herethefolkpaintingandliteraturerelatedreligiouspaintingflourishedmore.Itflourishedunder
ManSingh,SawaiJaiSinghandhissuccessors.Butby19thcenturyitlostitsappeal.
MarwarSchool
1. ItflourishedunderRathoresinJodhpur,Bikaner,Jaisalmer,Pali.Withtimewecanseegrowing
mughal influence in the Jodhpur school as the traditional rajput elements were replaced by
refinementandadornment.Itportraysmenandwomeninstockybodiesandmenwithmustaches.
2. Bikaner school was the one most closely affiliated with the mughal style as it had very close
politicalrelationswithmughals.Insteadofbrightcolorsorbeautifulsceneryworklikeotherrajput
schools it uses soft lines and color assortment like the mughals. It appears that when mughal
painterswereneglectedunderShahjahantheycametoBikaner.Apartfromthemughalinfluence
wecanalsoseedeccaniinfluenceherebecauseRanaAnupSinghstayedindeccanforlongunder
Aurangzeb.Theytoofocusonthebodilybeautyofwomenwhoarelightandslim.
BundiSchool
1. ItflourishedundertheHadasinBundiandJhalawar.BundiwaslocatedbetweenAmberinnorth,
Mewar in south and Kota in west. So Bundi used to attract painters from all these schools and
hencedevelopeditsdistinctstyle.
2. It typically used bright lively colors, focused on the bodily beauty of women and added to their
beautybyusingsceneriesincludinghills,rivers,forests,trees,fruits,flowersetc.inverynatural
sense.Itusedaspecialmixtureofcolorstoshowtheskyinbackground.
3. In18thcenturythesubjectsweremostlyhuntingscenes,durbars,portraitsofthefeudallordsand
theirentertainment(examplesofmughalinfluence).Ittoodeclinedinthelaterhalfof18thcentury.
KotaSchool
1. AlthoughitisclosetoBundi,itstilldevelopedauniquestyle.Bundipassedthroughaturbulent
phase in the 18th century. So many painters from there came to Kota and worked here. Thus it
cameclosertoBundi.

2. The subjects were mostly hunting scenes, portraits of the feudal lords and their entertainment
(examplesofmughalinfluence).Ittoodeclinedinthelaterhalfof18thcentury.
KishangarhSchool
1. TheRanaherewasveryinterestedinartformsandwasinfluencedbysagunbhakti.Thefamous
BaniThanipaintingisfromKishangarh.ThepaintingsheredepictRadhaandKrishnaingardens
orcelebratingfestivalsetc.Itwasverymuchinfluencedbybhaktiandthefocusisonthebodily
beautyofRadha.
PahadiSchoolsofPainting
KangraSchoolofPainting
1. Thisschoolreflectstheclosenesstonatureandusesnaturalscenestoexpresshumanemotions.For
exampledrytreestosymbolizeseparation,brightflowerstosymbolizemeetingetc.
2. IthasmanyregionalvariationswhichcanbeseeninBilaspur,Jammu,Mandi,Garhwal,Chamba,
Nurpuretc.
BasauliSchoolofPainting
1. WecanseeaclearfusionoffolkartofKashmir,MughalschoolandRajputschoolhere.Itschief
centerswereJasrota,Mankot,Bandharlata,Jammu,Nurpur,Chamba.
2. Initially we can see the traditional art forms clearly with people wearing traditional dresses and
ornaments etc. After the turbulence in Delhi due to invasions and throne games, many painters
came here and we see the influence of mughal style growing. This we can see in the form of
changesindresses,expressionsofwomen,ornamentationetc.
GulerorEastKangraSchoolofPainting
1. One of the reasons for its development was that due to disorder the route between Delhi and
NWFPandKashmirchangedfrompassingviaLahoretoviaJammu.Sowithtimethiscameunder
mughalinfluence.
DifferenceswithMughalandRajputSchools
1. While mughal school has focused on the splendor of the emperor and his court, pahadi school
expresses the emotions, nature, religious sentiments etc. Thus pahadi school could focus on life
outsidetheroyalsphereaswell.
2. Pahadischooltriestoportraycommonlifestyleandclothingstylethroughkrishnaasithappened
in European renaissance. Thus krishna is depicted as wearing pahadi dresses and among pahadi
womenwearingtraditionaldresses.Thescenesaredepictedintheoriginalstateofnature.
3. Apartfromkrishna,pahadipaintingsalsodepictcommongirlsplayingthecommongamesofthe
dayorplayingmusicordepictsanimalsandbirdsintheirnaturalsettings.Womenareshownas
welllikemughalpaintings.thepaintingsoftheprincesandtheirfamiliesareverymuchmughal
styled.Thedifferenceherethoughisthatwhilesuchmughalpaintingsfocusedonsomepolitical
eventslikebattles,surrenderbytheenemy,receivinganambassadoretc.pahadipaintingsonsuch
eventsarefew.
ProvincialArchitecture&Painting
LucknowSchoolofPainting
DeccaniSchoolofPainting

1. ItflourishedinBijapur,GolcondaandAhmadnagar.Therewasalotofexchangebetweenthethree
centers due to the upheavals of the age so it is often difficult to distinguish which painting
belonged to which place. There were exchanges with Rajputs as well as Mughals. Nizamshahi
sultansalsowelcomedthepaintersfromVijaynagarempire.Thusthepaintingsshowagoodfusion
withhindustyleaswell.
2. These paintings show openness as against the traditionalism which crept into mughal paintings
during Shahjahan. The most famous painting is that of a yogini (or princess) from Bijapur. Adil
Shah I and Ibrahim Adil Shah of Bijapur were great patrons of art including paintings. Their
paintingsareclearlyinfluencedbywesternromanticschool.
PatnaSchoolofPainting
LucknowSchoolofArchitecture
RajputanaSchoolofArchitecture
ClassicalMusic
1. Originally there was only one system of music but in medieval age, north India came under the
influenceofPersianmusicleadingtoformationof2schoolsHindustani(north)andKarnataka
(south). They have common basic features like raga, taal, performance includes a soloist (either
vocaloroninstrument),adrummerandatanpura.
2. Initially Dhrupad style was popular which used veena as the instrument. Another music style
which was popular among people in those days was Dhamar style which focused on describing
krishna along with the country girls, krishna playing holi in Braj, celebration of festivals etc.
Mughalcourtcouldn'tremainuninfluencedbyHoliandTansenetalcomposedmanyDhamarsas
wellandthusthisfolkmusicstylefounditswayinthemughalcourts.Apartfromthesetwothere
was the bhakti music specially from Kabir, Mira etc. which was sung. Then Akbar also gave
patronagetomusiciansfromsouthernindiaaswellasnorthwest.Thusanallencompassingmusic
evolved in his period. Jahangir was a patron of music as well specially gazals. This continued
underShahjahanbutdeclinedunderAurangzeb.
3. In the 18th century under Muhammed Shah (court musicians Adarang and Sadarang) and under
ruler of Jaunpur, the khyal style emerged dominant. It differed from dhrupad in the sense it
allowedformorefreedomofthemusicianaswellaswaswaslightandfulloflife.Ithasonlytwo
parts(sthayiandantara)asagainstthe4indhrupad.Itismoresuitedtothefemalevoiceandthis
helpedinitsspread.Inkhyalstyleaswellthereweretwotypeschotakhyalandbadakhyal.Bada
khyal has slow tempo while chota khyal has medium and high and hence became more popular
amongthetwo.Khyalwasdifficulttoplayonthetraditionalveenaandhencenewinstrumentslike
sitarandtablacameup.
CarnaticMusic
1. IncontrasttoHindustanimusic,themainemphasisinCarnaticmusicisonvocalmusicmostcompositions
2.

are written to be sung, and even when played on instruments, they are meant to be performed
ingayaki(singing)style.
It peaked under Vijaynagar empire @ Tanjavur in 16 17 century. Purandar Das is known as the father of

Bhakti movement and folk music traditions contributed a lot to the

developmentofCarnaticmusic.
Carnatic Music.

Shruti
1. Itreferstomusicalpitch,thenotefromwhichalltheothersarederived.Itisalsousedinthesenseofgraded
pitchesinanoctave.WhilethereareaninfinitenumberofsoundsfallingwithinaragainCarnaticmusic,the
numberthatcanbedistinguishedbyauditoryperceptionistwentytwo.

Swara

1. It consist of seven notes, "sarigamapadani". Every member of the swara has 3 variants (like ra, ri, ru)
except for sa, pa, ma. It refers to a type of musical sound that is a single note, which defines a relative
(higherorlower)positionofanote,ratherthanadefinedfrequency.
Raga

1. In Carnatic music, it prescribes a set of rules for building a melody. It specifies rules for movements up
(aarohanam)anddown(avarohanam),thescaleofwhichnotesshouldfiguremoreandwhichnotesshouldbe
usedmoresparingly,whichnotesmaybesungwithgamaka(ornamentation),whichphrasesshouldbeused
or avoided, and so on. In effect, it is a series of obligatory musical events which must be observed, either
absolutelyorwithaparticularfrequency.

Tala
1. Taalsaretherepeatingsuccessionofbeatsorclapslikeonadholak(dhikdhadhikdhak
dhin).Theyhavecyclesofadefinednumberofbeatsandrarelychangewithinasong.
HindustaniMusic
1. Fusion of Vedic and Persian music as well as sufi tradition. Names like Amir Khusrau and Tansen are
2.

associatedwiththisschool.SufitraditionbroughtreligiousassimilationinthemusicasMuslimsingerssung
praisingHindudeitiesandviceversa.
Itistraditionalforperformerswhohavereachedadistinguishedlevelofachievementtobeawardedtitlesof
respectHindusareusuallyreferredtoaspanditandMuslimsasustad.

DhrupadStyle
1. Its name is derived from the words "dhruva" (fixed) and "pada" (words). This tradition can be traced back to

2.
3.

Vedas. But it saw a decline from 18 century onwards. A newer genre, khyal, gained popularity at dhrupad's
expense as it placed less constraints on the singers and also the new instruments being developed
thesitarandthesarodwerenotsuitedtodhrupad.
Dhrupadasweknowittodayisperformedbyasolosingerorasmallnumberofsingersinunisontothebeat
ofthepakhavajormridangratherthanthetabla.Thevocalistisusuallyaccompaniedbytwotanpuras.
Dhrupadstyleshavelongelaboratealapsandgraduallyaccelerates.Thealapisderivedfromamantra,ina
recurrent,setpattern:arenena,tterenena,rirerenena,tenetone.Inmoststylesofdhrupadsinging
caneasilylastanhour.Itisbroadlysubdividedintothealapproper(unmetered),thejor(withsteadyrhythm)
and the jhala (accelerating strumming) or nomtom, when syllables are sung at a very rapid pace. Then the
composition is sung to the rhythmic accompaniment: the four lines, in serial order, are
termedsthayi,antara,sanchariandaabhog.

KhyalStyle
1. Khyalbasesitselfonacollectionofshortsongsoftwotoeightlineseachcalledabandish.Khyalbandishes
aretypicallycomposedinavariantofUrdu/Hindi,andsometimesinPersian,MarathiorPunjabi,andthese
compositions cover diverse topics, such as romantic or divine love, praise of kings or gods, the seasons,
dawn and dusk and they can have symbolism and imagery. The bandish is divided into two parts
the sthayi and the antara. The sthayi often uses notes in the lower octave, while the antara uses in upper

octave.

2. Every singer generally renders the same bandish differently, with only the text and the raga remaining the

3.

same.Atypicalkhyalperformanceusestwosongsthebadakhyalin slow tempo comprising most of the

performance, while the chota khyal in fast tempo used as a finale. The songs are sometimes preceded by
improvisedalap.
The singer uses the bandish as raw material for improvisation, accompanied by a harmonium or sarangi,
tablaandatanpurainthebackground.

TaranaStyle
1. ItisatypeofcompositioninHindustaniclassicalvocalmusicinwhichcertainwordsandsyllablesare used
inamediumtempoandfasttempo.ItwasinventedbyAmirKhusrau.
TappaStyle

1. Tappa originated from the folk songs of the camel riders of Punjab and developed as a form of classical
musicbyMianGhulamNabiShori@Oudh.
ThumriStyle

1. ItisasemiclassicalIndianmusic.Itdeveloped@OudhanddealsmainlywithKrishna.