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The Formula SAE competition demands that teams pursue synergistic designs in
creating a competitive high performance vehicle. As a result, the design of each
component fitted to a vehicle, including that of the exhaust, must be undertaken with
a sound foundation of technical understanding in conjunction with creativity and
innovation. Exhaust design is shown to make a significant contribution to engine
performance, economy and noise attenuation. Hence, this work aims to assist the
ADFA Formula SAE team of 2012 develop an understanding of current exhaust
analysis and tuning techniques such that they may be innovatively applied to the
design of a high performing exhaust system as a part of a holistic engine tuning
approach. Extensive research has been conducted into the mechanisms by which an
exhaust design may enhance engine performance and attenuate noise. In particular,
an exhaust design is understood to effect engine performance via influences upon
engine scavenging. Furthermore, the action of automotive silencers was identified to
be governed by their ability to manage the mass flow rate from the exhaust outlet as
opposed to that of acoustic theory. In addition, research has identified methods such
mechanisms may be analysed and predicted. Engine simulation software Ricardo
WAVE was used to demonstrate and analyse the performance and noise attenuation
implications of exhaust system componentry and their design parameters. A volume
restricted silencer design proposed by Professor Blair of the University of Belfast
formed the basis of further experimental and theoretical analysis of the governing
principles of silencer operation. Specifically, a derivative of this design concept was
manufactured with in-built variability to enable an experimental investigation of the
design and to also help validate data obtained using WAVE. Finally, WAVE was used
to enable a theoretical analysis which underpinned a design proposal for a high
performing silencer.
Contents
I.
II.
Introduction .............................................................................................................................................. 3
A.
Motivation .................................................................................................................................. 3
B.
C.
B.
C.
D.
E.
Conclusion .................................................................................................................................. 9
A.
B.
C.
V.
A.
Design Requirements................................................................................................................ 15
B.
Silencing Strategy..................................................................................................................... 15
C.
D.
E.
Nomenclature
ADFA
CFD
SPL
Q
D
=
=
=
=
=
=
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Final Project Report 2011, SEIT, UNSW@ADFA
A1
A2
I.
Introduction
A. Motivation
The Formula SAE competition constitutes a variety of rules and regulations that aim to challenge design
teams whilst maintaining fairness and safety. A number of pertinent rules to this study [1] include:
The vehicles engine must be a four cycle piston engine with a maximum swept displacement of 610cc,
An intake restrictor must be fitted with a maximum diameter of 20.0 mm for vehicles operating with
gasoline and 19.0 mm for vehicles operating with E85, and
A vehicles measured noise level must be less than 110 decibels.
It is obvious from these rules in particular that teams are challenged to form a competitive advantage via [2]
synergistic vehicle designs by applying technical knowledge innovatively as well as through the application of
advanced performance tuning techniques. In this way, teams may attain the necessary combination of power and
efficiency to be competitive throughout a series of trying auto-cross events.
The concept of exhaust tuning has been under development for over 60 years [3]. In this time,
exhaust design has been proven to have a marked influence upon the performance and efficiency of an engine
by way of power output, specific fuel consumption, heat production and radiated noise level. It is as a
consequence of the flow on effects of such factors that the implementation of a sound understanding in the
design of an exhaust is crucial in order to obtain a high performing racing vehicle. For the benefit of
competitiveness, it is therefore important for the Formula SAE team representing ADFA to learn to approach
the design of the exhaust in such a way that maximizes performance of the competition vehicle and ensures
compliancy.
B. Project Aims
The ADFA Formula SAE team of 2012 has purchased a Yamaha WR450 single cylinder engine to be
integrated into a new competition vehicle. It is therefore the intent of this project to assist the team to understand
the potential benefits of exhaust tuning as well as the methods that are available in the analysis and design of an
exhaust. This project will consist of the validation of theories currently used to enhance engine output.
Furthermore this investigation will be extended to noise generating phenomenon and associated analytical and
prediction techniques. The project will employ a one-dimensional engine simulation software, Ricardo WAVE
to then undertake analysis to be validated experimentally, culminating in a final design proposal for a new high
performing silencer.
C. Project Methodology
This project utilised a series of methods to carry out an investigation into exhaust systems and their design.
Initially, extensive research constituting a literature review was undertaken to build a knowledge base requisite
of applied analysis and design. The complex trade-offs found to characterise silencer design then motivated an
experimental investigation using a promising silencer design concept that was developed and proven upon a
similar engine as the Yamaha WR450, by Professor Blair of the University of Belfast. An experimental muffler
was manufactured based upon this design concept which incorporated in-built variability to enable an
experimental parameter study of silencer attenuation. DOE methodology was utilised to conduct this
experimental study which employed an available and operable WR250 motorbike in lieu of the engine testing
rig still under development by the FSAE team. This experiment obtained insertion loss for the silencer within
the frequency domain to such that the governing principles of silencer operation could be identified. An engine
simulation model was then developed using the one-dimensional engine simulation software Ricardo WAVE.
This software then underpinned the demonstration and theoretical analysis of performance exhaust tuning and
silencer theories. Exhaust performance aspects investigated include the concept of tuned length, the effect of
stepped pipes and diffuser components as well as the nature of inertial scavenging phenomena. Performance
data obtained is discussed such that these methods become yet another tool for the ADFA FSAE team to utilise
within an integrated engine tuning process. The silencer experiment was duplicated within WAVE to provide a
level of validation of the developed model. Continued silencer analysis employed the WAVE transmission loss
work bench. The conclusions drawn from these analyses then facilitated the development of a design proposal
for a high performance silencer.
II.
Quality design of an exhaust system requires a sound understanding of its contribution to both the overall
power output of an engine and to noise attenuation. Furthermore it is important to understand the mechanisms
that enable these contributions as well as their significance. A wide variety of sources were studied to determine
current exhaust theories, design and analysis methods as well as to better understand the restrictions imposed by
Formula SAE noise regulations.
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Another perspective of the priorities of exhaust system design is provided by a parameter study conducted
by Sammut and Alkidas [11]. This study utilizes the engine simulation software Ricardo WAVE to quantify the
effects of and interactions between exhaust, intake and valve timing parameters. For a constant valve timing and
engine speed, Fig.(4) shows a comparison of the scavenging effect of the intake and exhaust measured in
volumetric efficiency. The data presented firstly shows that the individual contributions of the intake and
exhaust are independent as the contribution made by the exhaust is relatively constant for any intake length.
However, it is important to note that such independence should not be assumed between all parameters. All data
presented herein illustrating variation in scavenging as a function of tuned length is obtained for constant valve
timing. Variation in valve timing would inevitably change the characteristics of the overlap period and therefore
the action of exhaust scavenging. The effects of this are well documented throughout literature but assumed
constant for the purpose of this investigation of exhaust design. Secondly, data presented in Fig.(4) also
concludes that the effect of exhaust tuning is relatively small compared to the benefits of intake tuning. As a
consequence of the diminishing significance of exhaust scavenging benefits, minimizing the losses conceded to
increased pumping losses whilst achieving sufficient noise attenuation becomes of relatively high importance if
a maximum amount of power is to be derived from the engine. With the realization that there as much potential
for an exhaust system design to reduce performance as to improve it, the design of an efficient silencer becomes
crucial to the competitiveness of the vehicle. Moreover, it needs to be integrated within a system with minimal
prejudice towards efforts to attain an effective scavenge by providing low exhaust valve pressure at valve
overlap [6].
B. Acoustics, Vehicle Noise and Exhaust Silencing
Literature was consulted in order to define the problem of vehicle noise as well as to gain an appreciation of
current vehicle noise attenuation techniques such that this design issue could be effectively addressed. A noise
measurement of sound radiated from a vehicle is subject to a variety of sources including mechanical noise,
shell vibration radiated noise and duct noise where duct noise then consists of intake and exhaust tail pipe noise
[13]. Fig.(5) is provided to illustrate the prevalence of intake duct noise, being a source not considered here.
The sound pressure measured at any point in space is
relative to the radius defining the distance between the
source and the point of measurement as well as the
directivity of the source with respect to this radius vector.
Furthermore, an important consequence of the logarithmic
scale of sound measurement is that the sum of SPL from
multiple sources varies little from the maximum SPL [4] as
seen in Fig.(5). Consequently, a vehicle silencing strategy
formulated to control sound pressure at a specified location
relative to the vehicle, needs to acknowledge the most
significant source at that location in order to effectively
control the final measurement. Therefore, the following
discussions detailing exhaust tail pipe noise attenuation can
only be effective within spatial regions where this is the Figure 5. Noise level of intake and exhaust duct
dominant noise source and sound pressure contributions of noise
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Final Project Report 2011, SEIT, UNSW@ADFA
(1)
with which they enable the viscous dissipation of acoustic energy. Their unique action often makes them highly
effective attenuators in discrete frequency ranges or otherwise less effective over a more general range of
frequencies. As a result hybrid silencers aim to utilise a combination of such components in order to form an
effective broadband attenuator. A summary of the acoustic theory for these common silencer types is attached in
Annex A.
Blair quotes the work of Coates [15] who shows that the sound pressure level at any point in space beyond
the termination of an exhaust system to the atmosphere, is a direct function of the instantaneous mass flow rate
from the end of the exhaust pipe, the relative distance between source and microphone and the directivity of the
pipe end. The instantaneous mass flow rate was calculated using the Eq.(2) [4].
)(
) (
(2)
This expression states that the radiated noise is a function of gas temperature, the discharge coefficient of the
pipe end, the outlet diameter as well as pressure wave amplitude ratio travelling in the left and rightward
direction. As a result of this direct relationship with the mass flow rate Blair states that silencing is easily
achieved given an unlimited volume able to dampen the pressure and mass flow oscillations. However, when
subject to space restrictions the design of a silencer must conform to the following empirical design guidelines:
A silencer should have a minimum silencer-cylinder volume ratio of ten.
If this cannot be achieved the silencer must choke the exhaust system via a restrictive muffler in order
to sufficiently damp the mass flow rate for effective noise attenuation. (However increased back
pressure will result from increased restriction, therefore a silencer with minimal choke would represent
the most efficient attenuator).
Blair [4] uses this theory to conduct a study into the effectiveness of motorcycle silencers via experimental
and numerical methods. This study tests a plenum, absorption, diffusing and side-resonant type mufflers all with
a constant silencer-cylinder volume ratio of ten. Data shown in Fig.(9) and Fig.(10) illustrates that individually
these mufflers either offer excessive reductions in the BMEP of up to 30% whilst being unable to attenuate
noise sufficiently or offer negligible effect to power and noise.
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Final Project Report 2011, SEIT, UNSW@ADFA
Data illustrate the potential of the volume restricted two-box silencer design as an effective and efficient
attenuator of exhaust tail pipe noise. Noise spectra in Fig.(15) shows the attenuation achieved by the two-box
silencer as well as by individual absorption and diffusing silencer components. This demonstrates the highly
non-linear interaction between the absorption and resonant/diffusing components.Acoustic theory would suggest
that the effectiveness of this particular hybrid silencer represents a combination of the attenuation of the
diffusing silencer at low frequency and the attenuation of the absorption silencer at high frequency which is to a
limited extent demonstrated within Fig.(15). However, acoustic theory is experimentally shown by Blair to be
highly ineffective in accurately predicting the achieved attenuation from a silencing element. Data in Fig.(16)
and Fig.(17) compares the experimentally obtained attenuation with that predicted by acoustic theory which
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Final Project Report 2011, SEIT, UNSW@ADFA
indeed shows poor correlation. The inaccuracy of acoustic theory is understood to stem from its specific
relevance to waves of infinitesimal amplitude which differ fundamentally from wave phenomenon experienced
in exhaust flows being waves are of finite amplitude. Methods of accurately appreciating the true nature of
exhaust waves must therefore employ an appreciation of the instantaneous mass flow rate emenating from the
outlet which is proven by Coates [15] to an accurate approach.
The design of an efficient and effective hybrid silencer is understood to be a highly complex task that may
employ acoustic theories as merely the basis of an informed estimate for attenuation in order to commence a
design process characterised primarily by experimental trial and error. Luckily, one-dimensional gas dynamic
computational programs have the capability of providing accurate estimates of the time-varying mass flow rate
from the exhuast outlet and may therefore be used to supplement the experimental silencer design process.
D. Design and Modelling of Exhaust Systems
Literature was also consulted in order to determine the capability and implementation of current numerical
techniques for the design and modelling of exhaust systems. This review identified that as unsteady gas
dynamics within an exhaust system are predominantly onedimensional in nature, a great deal of research,
design and optimization is carried out with one-dimensional engine simulation software. These analyses also
achieve excellent agreement with experimental data providing the exhaust geometries of concern are free of
excessive curvatures or complex silencing components characterized by strong three dimensional turbulence[4].
Additional advantages of employing this simplification include the ability to simultaneously calculate the effect
of duct and silencer geometry upon engine performance and noise spectra, as well as to do so across a variety of
designs within a reasonable timeframe. Consequently, one-dimensional codes have demonstrated an ability to
enhance the efficiency of the design process [16]. Enhanced accuracy is accomplished with the use 3D CFD
and coupled 1D/3D analyses however these generally have a far greater computational cost.
E.
Conclusion
This literature review summarises current theory and practices relating to exhaust system design,
performance analysis and optimisation. Specifically, the mechanisms by which an exhaust design contributes to
engine performance via scavenging were detailed. The nature of noise measurement, vehicle noise generation
and attenuation were described. Acoustic theory of common silencing elements was detailed, and the deficiency
of this theory in providing accurate predictions of silencer performance was addressed. The complexity of the
silencer design process was established and studies demonstrating successful design methods have been
described.
Importantly, the outcomes of this literature review enable a more informed requirement definition for a new
high performing exhaust system for the Yamaha WR450 engine. The aims of the exhaust design are summarised
as an ability to assist in engine scavenging at the desired engine speeds and also to incorporate an efficient
silencer design so as to minimise engine pumping work whilst achieving the specified noise target. To
demonstrate the implementation of the presented theories within an exhaust design, this project undertook to
varying degrees, the stages of concept development and preliminary design of the exhaust system.
Activities under the concept development stage stemmed from the manufacture of a two-box hybrid
silencer as well as the development of a WR450 engine simulation model using Ricardo WAVE. The conduct of
this stage consisted of an experimental investigation of achieved noise attenuation with parameter variations in
the manufactured design. Furthermore, the simultaneous conduct of this investigation with a physical engine as
well as within WAVE provided a means for comment upon the effectiveness of the design, as well as the quality
of the simulation model developed. This experimentation thereby performed both the roles of a parameter study
as well as an experimental validation of the developed WAVE model.
In addition, the concept development stage included the investigation of each of the scavenging mechanisms
detailed, using the WAVE model. (These investigations were also intended to encompass an experimental
component utilising an in-house developed engine testing rig, however this could not be accomplished due to
technical difficulties). This analysis considered all possible design parameters within a reasonable range such
that the ADFA FSAE team would be enabled to make an informed design selection as a part of an integrated
engine tuning strategy.
Finally, the preliminary design stage was conducted to provide the team with a refined design concept for a
high performance silencer based upon that which was manufactured. The proposed prototype design was
formulated using engine simulation results as well as data obtained from a silencer parameter analysis assisted
by Ricardo WAVE transmission loss work bench.
These processes thereby underpinned the aims of this project being to provide the ADFA FSAE team with
the means of designing, analysing and implementing a high performance exhaust system.
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III.
Figure 19. CAD model of manufactured silencer showing initial discontinuity, absorption component and
expansion/resonator chamber
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Final Project Report 2011, SEIT, UNSW@ADFA
In addition to the original concept, the manufactured design incorporates an initial discontinuity of area ratio
equal to six which is conformant to the findings of Blair. This was included to provide a decisive location that
may be used to define the tuned length as well as to decouple design parameters concerned with silencing from
performance aspects of the exhaust. (Blairs original design would instead tune from the end of the perforated
pipe. However, an industry SME advises that wave propagation through the perforated pipe enhances wave
degradation and therefore wave tuning effectiveness). This design was subject to some variation from the
original design as it was constrained by the availability of off-the-shelf (OTS) components which were preferred
in order to simplify the manufacturing process. The design may be fully disassembled as per Fig.(19), such that
parameters including the choke size, the resonator length and packing density could be varied in accordance
with the experimental intent. Table 1 shows a comparison of the non-dimensional parameters of the Blair design
and the current experimental design.
Table 1. Non-dimensional parameter of Blair silencer and mancufactured silencer
Blair
46.6 mm
Experimental Design
51 mm
2.58D
8.58D
4.29D
19%
15
2.49D
9.0D
Variable up to 5.88D
25%
14.5 - 19.5
Comments
OTS component and recommended
by industry SME
OTS
OTS
Custom telescoping component
OTS
2.
Experiment
1
2
3
4
3.
Fig.(C5). This data shows variation in emitted noise from the unsilenced pipe with engine speed as well as the
broadband attenuation achieved by the manufactured silencer which is seen to be equivalent to a standard
WR450 muffler. Calculated insertion loss is provided in Fig.(C6), Fig.(C7) and Fig.(C8). Data provided is
limited to a frequency of 1000 Hz as consistently high levels of attenuation are achieved for all designs at
frequencies beyond this point. Transmission loss for the each of the silencer configurations was also calculated
using WAVE for comparison, and is seen in Fig.(C9) and Fig.(C10).
The data obtained is generally supportive of the theory of silencer design concerned with the management of
the mass flow rate from the exhaust outlet as opposed to acoustic theory. For instance, within Fig.(C1), Fig.(C2)
and Fig.(C3) the most choked designs 1 & 3 record significantly lower sound pressure level recordings
compared to the less choked designs. Furthermore, both experimental and WAVE data agree that those designs
with a larger volume will attenuate noise to a greater extent. Plots in Fig.(C11), Fig.(C12), Fig.(C13) and
Fig.(C14) of outlet mass flow rate, generated with WAVE, illustrate the silencing action of the muffler
variations. These plots show data for all tested engine speeds. Prominent features include the higher peaks
recorded for the less choked designs as well as the higher steady mass flow rate recorded for the more choked
designs. This steady flow rate leading up to the peak is much more constant for choked designs, which increases
in magnitude at high engine speeds in comparison to the relatively less choked designs. This behaviour suggests
that designs utilising a 20mm orifice are likely to become aerodynamically choked leading to a rapid increase in
back pressure, but also attests to the effectiveness of a choke for the purpose of exhaust tail pipe silencing under
Blairs theory concerned with the outlet mass flow rate. Furthermore, fluctuations within this mass flow rate are
seen to be damped by silencers employing a larger expansion chamber volume.
However, with reference to Fig.(C1), Fig.(C2) and Fig.(C3) it could also be argued that higher attenuation is
achieved by those designs with larger expansion chambers due to an increased ability to attenuate low frequency
noise as per acoustic theory for an expansion chamber. This low frequency noise is recorded in Fig.(C4) and
Fig(F5) as a source that is relatively constant as well as relatively elevated in comparison to other regions of the
noise spectra emanating from the unsilenced pipe. To investigate this possibility, the transmission loss for each
of the silencer configurations was attained from WAVE and is shown in Fig.(C9) and Fig.(C10). (This was
conducted within the WAVE transmission loss workbench which employs the well documented two source
method to compare sound power at the inlet and outlet of the silencer). As seen in Fig.(C10), the predicted
transmission loss below 500Hz for both designs 1 and 4 is seen to be consistently up to 5dB greater than for
designs 2 and 3 which employ a smaller chamber. However, it is questionable that this extra achieved
attenuation could be the main reason for these larger designs consistently out performing corresponding designs
with an equal choke diameter and smaller chambers. This doubt is particularly pertinent as transmission loss
data predicts generally lower attenuation achieved by larger designs 1 and 4 at higher frequencies, yet
experimental data states that these larger designs record lower SPL even at high engine speeds where high
frequency flow noise becomes more dominant. Furthermore, calculated insertion loss data does not show any
significant agreement with theoretical attenuation for the silencer represented by the transmission loss data.
Subsequently, the achieved attenuation of a silencer in practice is seen to be more dependent upon the manner in
which the design manages the exhaust outlet mass flow rate to atmosphere than the attenuation predicted by
acoustic theory. Results leading to this conclusion are in line with published theory of Blair described
previously.
The value of acoustic theory is not, however, totally diminished as some agreement is found between
transmission loss data and calculated insertion loss data by way of comparative performance. Discrepancies
between these sources may also be exaggerated by inaccurate assumptions and experimental error. This would
include the assumption of nil mean flow during the transmission loss analysis and aliasing within experimental
measurements. Furthermore, the consistently high attenuation achieved at high frequency by the manufactured
design agrees with the acoustic theory of absorption silencer. (The effectiveness of an absorption silencer was
also experimentally determined by Blair and is shown in Fig.(17)). Therefore whilst acoustic theory and its
implementation may not take into account all non-idealities it may provide a good initial estimate of silencer
performance.
Further comment can be made as to the effectiveness of the manufactured design with reference to Fig.(C4)
and Fig.(C5). These show measured sound pressure with frequency at position B for engine speeds of 3000 and
7000rpm. These plots show that the test silencer offers significant attenuation averaged between 20dB and 30dB
which is also recorded for the standard WR450 muffler. The WR muffler has a silencer-cylinder volume ratio of
5 in its intended role upon a WR450 and a ratio of 7.5 for the test engine and as a result it employs a 10mm
choke in order to meet road authority noise regulations. The trade-off between silencer volume and choke is
made clear as experimental data concludes that the designed silencer of a volume ratio of 4 to 5 times greater
than the standard WR muffler, yet far less choked is able to achieve equivalent attenuation. This data thereby
emphasises the importance of exploiting available vehicle space for a silencer in order to minimise the level of
choke required and therefore minimise power losses. A comparison of these figures also illustrates the
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increasing prevalence of high frequency flow noise at high engine speed, a trend which is also shown by Honda
et al in Fig.(7).
A comparison of all SPL spectra data obtained experimentally is compared with corresponding data attained
from the WAVE model in Fig.(C15), Fig.(C16), Fig.(C17) and Fig.(C18). Obvious discrepancy should be
expected as the data sources are generated by different engines. Despite this, however, fair agreement is found
highlighting the capability of the developed WAVE engine model.
Finally, noise measurement data obtained from position C is given in Fig.(C19) and Fig.(C20). This data
shows no clear indication of any significant resonances that are absent from unsilenced data.
4.
Conclusion
The base silencer design as proposed by Blair is here shown to have high potential as an effective silencer.
With further design refinement and testing, the efficiency of this concept may also be appreciated. The
expansion chamber has shown enhanced sensitivity to the non-idealities present within an exhaust silencing
application. As a result, more significant correlation is found between the volume of this component than with
its length as per acoustic theory. However, acoustic theory was demonstrated to generate predictions of
absorption silencer performance with relatively high accuracy.
This experiment established the priority for silencer design as to control the mass flow rate from the exhaust
outlet. Acoustic theory was determined to have limited effectiveness in predicting silencer performance. The
usefulness of acoustic theory within silencer concept development is recognised.
Fair agreement was found with WAVE data obtained despite variation in engine displacement used to
generate the data sets. This agreement was represented mainly by similar trending. As per theory detailed in the
literature review, the value of a one-dimensional software for concept development is shown to be founded in its
ability to quickly describe unsteady gas flow throughout an engine.
C. WAVE Investigation Exhaust Design Parameters for Engine Scavenging
A literature review identified that exhaust performance considerations are resultant of the nature of the gas
exchange process in a four stroke engine. The following investigation was undertaken using WAVE to
demonstrate the potential of the identified exhaust tuning strategies. This included the variation in wave tuning
and inertial scavenging with exhaust pipe geometry. Specifically, this study was concerned with identifying
the extent of variation in engine performance possibly accomplished via the design of an exhaust pipe for a
single cylinder engine assuming a constant intake length and valve timing. The purpose of this investigation is
therefore to inform the ADFA FSAE team of the methods commonly incorporated within the design of an
exhaust system, that aim to enhance or merely shape an engines performance characteristic. The following
findings should therefore act as a tool to be used in conjunction with many other powertrain parameters to
obtain a desired engine performance target.
1.
system at the acoustic speed which is a function of temperature, the hyperbolic nature of this relationship is
therefore present due to the asymptotic nature of heat transfer from the exhaust pipe.
Stepped Pipe Tuning
As a part of an investigation into exhaust
wave tuning techniques, the industry practice
of utilising stepped pipes was considered. A
schematic of a stepped exhaust pipe is shown
in Fig.(20). A stepped pipe offers extra degrees
of freedom in wave tuning practices as there
exists more discontinuities able to create
rarefaction wave reflections. Furthermore this
characteristic can also lead to varied heat
transfer properties. To illustrate, Fig.(D9) is
provided. This plot is the product of a 1500mm Figure 20. Simplified schematic of stepped pipe
pipe with a fixed expansion at 500mm and
another expansion whose location in the pipe varies between 510mm to 1490 mm. Wave action from the pipe
end at a tuned length of 1500mm is tuning at 4000 rpm and secondly at 7500rpm shown by two regions of
relatively low residual gas fraction. In addition, wave action from the first expansion occurs at 500mm
enhancing the region of low residual at 7500 rpm. Of note, data shows a noticeable change within each of these
regions as a result of the location of the second expansion. To illustrate Fig.(D10) is provided which shows
variation in exhaust gas temperature (in blue) as well as acoustic velocity (in green) with position for two
stepped pipes with location of the steps indicated. Fig.(D10) specifies that these shifts in the tuning behaviour of
the pipe can be attributed to the effect stepping behaviour of the pipe has on heat transfer, average gas
temperature and the average acoustic speed which are indicated to vary slightly. In addition to this effect,
Fig.(D11) and Fig.(D12) show that for these same two stepped pipe designs, the intermediate expansions are in
fact also able to reflect rarefaction waves for the purpose of scavenging, despite being of a lesser magnitude.
Specifically, these figures show that for two different stepped pipes (parameters indicated in plot caption), a
variation in the arrival of the first smaller wave is recorded, giving rise to corresponding change in the recorded
valve mass flow rate purely as a consequence of the unique positioning of the intermediate discontinuity.
Diffusers
The most effective exhaust component design for wave
scavenging is that of the diffuser as seen in the schematic
provided in Fig.(21). This type of exhaust component is
known to be able to tune over a wider range of engine
speeds offering superior scavenging and engine
performance. For comparison however, a generally
accepted rule-of-thumb states that a third of the length of
the diffuser is used in the calculation of the total effective
tuned length.
To demonstrate the action of the diffuser, Fig.(D13)
shows residual quantity achieved for a diffuser 400mm Figure 21. Simplified schematic of diffuser
long and with a taper angle of 6.34 degrees attached to a
variable length of pipe. What is instantly noticeable is the greater dominance of the scavenging region compared
to that of the straight pipe. Again Fig.(D14), shows residual quantity for a larger diffuser of 600mm in length
with a taper angle of 6.65 deg. Once more this shows a vastly greater scavenging ability than that shown by a
single straight pipe. Finally, Fig.(D15), is showing residual gas fraction for a diffuser larger still, of 900mm in
length with a taper angle of 6.65 degrees, however no significant benefit is seen to be gained by the extra length.
Through the course of this study a diffuser was manufactured in order to obtain experimental validation of
this theory and to promote the diffuser as an innovative technique to enhance overall engine power. However, as
a result of the continuing inoperability of the teams engine testing rig this validation could not be undertaken.
2.
Inertial Scavenging
Inertial scavenging describes a scavenging effect that is enabled by the inertia of a high velocity column of
exhaust gas escaping from the cylinder. As seen in the simplified schematic in Fig.(22), the interaction between
this column of gas and the gas exhange process during valve overlap may see a build up of pressure energy at
the exhaust valve that acts to assist in engine breathing. This mechanism functions under the principle that a
fixed volume flow rate is achieved at a certain engine speed and for a fixed volume flow rate through a pipe, gas
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Final Project Report 2011, SEIT, UNSW@ADFA
6000rpm
724
31
7000rpm
559
31
8000rpm
586
34
These plots draw attention to the minimum residaul gas fraction which is achieved with a specific
combination of pipe length and diameter. Comparison of data at 6000rpm and 7000rpm suggests that wave
tuning is the dominant mechanism at these engine speeds. This can be concluded as a constant diameter has
been maintained, suggesting no significant variation in inertial scavenging achieved between these two engine
speeds. Furthermore, a longer pipe is seen to contribute to scavenging at lower engine speed which is in line
with previously discussed wave tuning concepts. However, a comparison of data at 7000rpm and 8000rpm
shows that inertial scavenging is seen to gain significane again due to devaition from this logic. Now at
8000rpm, peak scavenging is achieved with a longer tuned length than at 7000rpm, which is contrary to wave
tuning trends, as well as a larger diameter. This larger diameter can then be understood to underpin a required
flow velocity such that inertial scavenging is maximised.
The reciprocal exchange of energy from exhaust gas inertia to pressure energy which works to assist in
pumping is seen in Fig.(D25) which shows variation in pumping torque with the length of constant 35mm
diameter pipe. Here, at low engine speeds longer pipes offering back pressure record higher relative pumping
losses. However, at higher engine speeds the maintenance of flow enery within longer pipes works to assist the
piston during the exhaust stroke leading to a reduction in pumping losses relative to shorter pipes.
IV.
A. Design Requirements
As per the design of any engineering product, the design of a performance exhaust system must be
conducted relative to specified requirements. Therefore before implementing knowledge gathered as a part of
the concept development stage, customer requirements were explicitly stated. For a performance exhaust for the
WR450 engine, they are stated in order:
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Final Project Report 2011, SEIT, UNSW@ADFA
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Adequate insertion lossin accordance with FSAE regulations the noise measurement taken near the
exhaust must not exceed 110dB;
Back pressure minimalto maximize vehicle competitiveness throughout the competition the
implemented silencer should introduce minimal engine power losses by way of back pressure and be
integrated within an exhaust system that provides a desired torque and power output characteristic.
Sizethe silencer must be able to be easily integrated within the vehicle;
Costlow cost desirable;
Durabilityhigh durability desirable.
B. Silencing Strategy
In accordance with findings of the literature review, the formulation of a preliminary design proposal was to
be carried out relative to the identified noise problem. In this case noise problem was established from an
estimate of the SPL spectra, measured under FSAE conditions, emanating from a 1000mm stepped pipe, which
was obtained from WAVE. This data is provided in Fig.(E1) in Annex I. It shows the predicted sound pressure
relative to a ceiling of 108dB. This target was calculated in accordance with theory detailed in Annex B. This
calculation recognises that the intake is the second most dominant source of noise upon a vehicle, as well as that
any other sources of noise varying from the maximum of more than 15dB offers a negligible addition to the total
SPL measurement. A pessimistic estimation of the intake noise is taken as 100dB, and therefore with the
addition of a 108dB exhaust noise contribution, a total measurement of 109dB would be achieved which is in
accordance with noise level design requirement.
Predicted noise spectra for the WR450 at its test engine speed of 7000rpm shows that the noise measured
from the outlet of the stepped pipe constitutes a number of significant contributions from a range of frequencies
corresponding to flow noise as well as to the engine firing rate. Therefore the proposed silencer is required to
offer broadband attenuation of up to 20 dB to satisfy noise the level design requirement.
C. Design Investigation and Definition
The definition of a final design proposal comprised a process of systematic analysis and selection, of silencer
components. Each of the significant silencer components including the absorption silencer, expansion chamber
and the choke were investigated individually such that the final silencer assemblage would represent the option
best able to satisfy the design requirements.
In line with findings of experiments conducted, the analysis of these individual components was conducted
relative to their governing principles. Since good correlation was found between acoustic theory and achieved
attenuation for an absorption silencer, the analysis of this component was based upon the predicted acoustic
transmission loss, which ignores the non-idealities of an exhaust silencing application. In contrast, the analysis
of the choke and expansion chamber volume was conducted upon the developed WAVE engine model such that
variation in outlet mass flow rate and consequent attenuation could be appreciated.
In accordance with findings of the WAVE enabled investigation into exhaust scavenging mechanisms, the
final silencer design proposal will be implemented upon a 1000mm stepped pipe as this design offers the highest
level of inertial scavenging for a fixed tuned length. Tuning of this integrated system will then be undertaken in
order to demonstrate the process of exhaust tuning relative to a performance target. In this case, the performance
target will be the unsilenced performance trend such that the attainment of this target will help demonstrate the
efficiency of the silencer design proposed by way of minimal back pressure.
1.
with perforated area of the inner pipe used. Negligible variation is illustrated therefore the selection of
perforated tube used will be constrained the requirement for durability of the silencer, as too high a perforated
area will allow violent exhaust gas flow to degrade or remove sound absorbing material.
2.
Choke Diameter
The choke was proven to practice significant control over emitted noise within experiments conducted which
is demonstrated further in Fig.(E7). This shows the ability of the choke to scale the emitted noise levels via
practicing direct control over the outlet mass flow rate. Fig.(E8) is also provided in order to emphasise the
silencing action of the choke. This data is generated within the WAVE Transmission Loss Workbench, which
conducts a comparison of sound power at the inlet and outlet of a silencer under nil mean flow conditions. As a
result, the choking of an expansion chamber element is seen to have minimal effect in the absence of mean flow.
In accordance with the design requirement for engine power losses, Fig.(E9) and Fig.(E10) are provided.
These plots show that for a choke diameter greater than 26mm a minimal effect upon engine scavenging,
measured in total residual quantity, and brake torque is predicted. Meanwhile a choke of 26mm also achieves an
increase in overall attenuation of up to 5dB making this a highly efficient component for silencing.
3.
Expansion Chamber
Having acknowledged the trends in attenuation achieved via absorpion parameters as well as choke, the
volume of the expansion chamber was varied to gain a similar appreciation. Variation in predicted outlet mass
flow rate with expansion chamber length with fixed diameter is provided in Fig.(E11). The maximum mass flow
rate recorded is seen to decrease consistently until a length of 150 mm is reached. A negligible change in peak
mass flow rate is found beyond this length and instead a phase shift is noted. Similar behaviour is seen in
Fig.(E12) which illustrates the resultant SPL measurement taken under SAE noise test conditions. A consistent
reduction in SPL is recorded up to a length of 150mm at which point the negligible change in the magnitude of
the mass flow rate results in no further reduction in SPL.
B. Design Proposal
The conducted parameter study was used to inform the formulation of a final design concept. Data generated
justified the selection of silencer parameters such that concepts could be verified using the developed engine
model. So as to minimise size and weight of the silencer, a conservative choke diameter of 30mm was selected
to exercise meaningful control over the outlet mass flow rate without deliberately increasing engine pumping
losses. The diameter of the silencer was identified to represent the most significant factor per unit mass, for
increasing absorption attenuation and silencer volume. As a result, in order to minimise weight of the silencer
and with a consideration of space constraints relevant to the current vehicles side pod arrangement, a diameter
of 175mm was selected. Again to minimise weight, a minimal length was sought for the absorption silencer
component. Data suggested that lengths beyond 300 mm were subject to diminishing returns in terms of
attenuation and so this was selected as the final absorption length. By doing so the requirement for extra
chamber volume would also be minimised. The packing density was selected to be 150g/L as acquired data
suggested diminishing returns beyond this value. Finally, expansion chamber length was increased until a
satisfactorily low outlet mass flow rate was obtained giving a prediction of under 108 dB as per design goal.
The ability of WAVE to accurately calculate the instantaneous mass flow rate from the exhaust outlet, being
the definitive measure of silencer performance, underpins confidence within this design proposal. The
characteristics of the proposed silencer design are provided in Table (4).
Table 4. Design Proposal
Component
Resonator Chamber
Parameters
Length: 150 mm
Diameter: 175 mm
Attenuation Characteristics
Dampen outlet mass flow rate thereby
providing broadband attenuation.
Absorption
Component
Length: 300 mm
Diameter: 175mm
Packing Density: 150 g/L
Diameter: 30 mm
Choke
Silencer-Cylinder
Volume Ratio
24
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Predicted SPL measurement for the proposed silencer configuration is provided in Fig.(I13). Unsilenced
SPL data is also provided on this figure to demonstrate the broadband attenuation characteristics of the design.
Data sets are also seen to diverge slightly at higher engine speeds where the increasing dominance of flow noise
is experienced. This deviation attests to the effectiveness of the absorption silencer component at attenuating
this high frequency flow noise. Performance variation as a result of the implementation of the proposed silencer
design is shown in Fig.(I14). As per design requirements, the efficiency of the proposed silencer design is
defined as its ability to achieve a required level of attenuation with minimal effect upon performance. As such,
performance with and without the silencer fitted to a 1000mm stepped pipe is given. The addition of the silencer
was seen to cause a significant change in the mean exhaust temperature over the tuned length of the exhaust
system leading to a reduction in the effective tuned length of the system. The resultant change in wave tuning is
illustrated in Fig.(I15) which shows a time plot of the inward travelling waves at the exhaust valve. The increase
in exhaust temperature causes the inward wave to arrive earlier than the wave generated by an unsilenced
exhaust system causing a reduction in scavenging effectiveness at this engine speed. In order to investigate a
strategy to retrieve peak torque and power, contours provided in Fig.(I16), Fig.(I17) and Fig.(I18) of residual
quantity, brake torque and power with exhaust length in addition to a 500mm header pipe, were generated.
These plots show that an increase of exhaust length by 200mm is able to achieve similar performance obtained
from the unsilenced system without becoming subject to unsteady behaviour seen to exist for longer lengths.
Therefore with an extension of the exhaust length to 1200mm, Figs.(I14), Fig.(I19) and Fig.(I20) show that a
negligible reduction in overall power and torque is achieved for the silenced engine. This data also shows a
number of other performance variations resultant of the addition of the silencer. As per Fig.(I15), whilst the
extended exhaust pipe has attained the correct phasing of pressure waves with valve overlap, the intensity of this
wave is seen to be degraded by the extra distance of pipe travelled. The other significant consequence of silencer
addition, has been a marked increase in scavenging and torque at high engine speeds. With reference to
Fig.(I19), Fig.(I20) and Fig.(I21), a large amount of inertial scavenging has been achieved beyond 7000rpm
leading to a significant reduction in pumping losses as well as residual gas fraction.
In conclusion, the exhaust system design process has demonstrated the effectiveness and efficiency of the
proposed silencer as an integrated component within a performance exhaust system. Specifically, the proposed
silencer design is demonstrated to satisfy design requirements in terms of noise attenuation targets and back
pressure. Furthermore this process has demonstrated the tuning effect of silencer addition to an exhaust system
and described a strategy to attain a required engine performance characteristic of the silenced exhaust system.
By no means does this design process identify this particular tuning strategy as the best but instead merely sets
out to demonstrate the implementation of exhaust tuning theories discussed.
D. Vehicle Integration of Exhaust System
The process of vehicle integration of an exhaust system provides numerous constraints to the design
parameters of an exhaust system. In particular, due to limited number of mounting positions of a silencer, tuned
length could be understood to be constrained to discrete values. However, this would merely require the
innovative combination of exhaust techniques discussed such that a desired tuning effect is achieved. For
example, if silencer integration dictates that the exhaust length must differ from that which directly offers the
desired wave tuning effect a number of alternate strategies are available. These may include:
the manipulation of pipe diameter so as to target this performance characteristic with inertial
scavenging,
the use of exhaust pipe insulating wraps or coatings to tailor the mean exhaust gas temperature and
therefore the effective tuned length, or
the implementation of an appropriately sized discontinuity to define the tuned length prior to the
silencer,
the use of stepped pipes to target a performance characteristic with a combination of partial wave
reflections and inertial scavenging.
Whilst considering concerns of exhaust integration, it is important to explicitly state that by minimising pipe
bends within the exhaust will act to minimise overall back pressure and engine pumping losses. Consequently,
supplementary reports provided in Appendix A and Appendix B, demonstrates the performance effect of pipe
bends on heat transfer and engine performance as well as the optimisation of pipe geometry for pressure loss
using ANSYS Fluent and the optimisation routine NSGA2.
Finally, it is important to consider the achieved exhaust flow Mach number during the selection of exhaust
pipe parameters. This is in accordance with findings of Wiemeler, Jauer and Brand [14] who direct correlation
between Mach number and flow noise generation efficiency.
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Final Project Report 2011, SEIT, UNSW@ADFA
V.
As a one-dimensional software WAVE is limited in the accuracy with which it can represent any part of an
engine which inherently consists of three dimensional flow behaviour to some extent. As a result spurious data
can sometimes be obtained from simulations conducted, seen within some of the provided plots as seemingly
random spikes. However, the majority of data is conformant to a definite trend which is for the most part where
the value in this software is derived.
Of particular note, by utilising a one-dimensional simplification the model relies highly upon the quality of
its inputs rather than directly resolving aspects of engine operation. As a result, there exists a central
requirement for the validation of the model whilst it is under development. For example, a flow noise efficiency
factor is user defined input as a part of the process of acoustic acquisitions within the post processing program
WAVE-post. Standard values for this input, as with many inputs, were used which may need to be verified
within the process of model development.
VI.
Conclusion
The aim of this work is to underpin all future development by the ADFA FSAE team, of a high performance
exhaust system for a single cylinder engine. In accordance with findings presented, the presented silencer design
will be able to provide the required noise management capability without prejudice to engine performance.
Performance exhaust tuning techniques have been discussed and demonstrated such that this design should be
able assist in shaping the torque and power output characteristic of the engine for the benefit of vehicle
competitiveness. Moreover, the importance of conducting of exhaust tuning as a part of an integrated engine
performance tuning process has been identified. The presented design and analysis methodology has provided a
meaningful demonstration of the silencer operation and design. Finally this demonstration has culminated in the
proposal of an efficient silencer design.
VII.
The complexity of operation and analysis of the exhaust provides a wide scope. This research has attempted
to provide the basic foundations of exhaust and silencer design and analysis however in doing so, depth of
research has been sacrificed for breadth. As a result continued work should hope to explore more specialised
techniques of exhaust design and analysis to extend upon the basic concepts presented herein. Some topics of
interest would stem from tuning interactions assumed constant within this study. For instance, the simultaneous
tuning of the exhaust and intake as well as valve timing is documented as a significant method of engine
performance optimisation. In addition, tuning methods identified herein suggests potential for innovative
integrated designs that combine the use of inertial scavenging and wave tuning in a synergistic manner that may
be worthy of investigation. For a single cylinder engine there is limited further work that could be undertaken in
the way of exhaust tuning via pipe design. However a hypothesis was formed during the course of this study that
specialised exhaust components such as Helmholtz chambers have been used within industry to not only provide
a means of targeted silencing but also to enhance wave tuning effects via wave interaction. The implementation
of such a component in this way would be expected to enhance performance as well as to justify a lighter
silencer and therefore it seems worthy to recommend an investigation into the feasibility of the idea.
Furthermore, commercial products such as those in
Fig.(39) incorporate components that are unexplained by
this study but may offer extra performance benefit and
therefore may represent another opportunity for further
work.
It was found during the course of this research, that a
range of studies into silencer design used other forms of
silencer concepts as the basis of a design optimisation. In
particular a text by Munjal entitled Acoustics of ducts
and mufflers with application to exhaust and ventilation
system design was used by a number of studies who
were concerned with the implementation of reactive
silencers. Ideally, future work conducted by the ADFA
FSAE team would be able to identify whether a reactive
silencer concept would be able to surpass the current Figure39. Commercial exhaust system with novel
proposed design in terms of attenuation, back pressure components labelled Powerbomb and Megabomb
and weight.
Finally, much literature is available as to the implementation of coupled 1D/3D analyses within this topic
area. WAVE openly admits to enhanced inaccuracy when dealing with complex components and the
development of this capability within any aspect of exhaust design would represent a powerful design tool.
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Final Project Report 2011, SEIT, UNSW@ADFA
Acknowledgements
The author would like to gratefully thank a variety of important individuals that helped throughout the course of
this study. Thanks goes to thesis supervisor, Dr Warren Smith for providing much needed guidance during the
course of what always seemed to be a grossly under defined problem. To Mr Alan Fien, for your willingness to
offer your vast technical insight. To Mrs Marion Burgess for your patience and understanding despite the
tribulations of this project. Much thanks goes to SEIT workshop staff particularly Doug Collier and Marcos De
Almeida for their assistance throughout the design and manufacturing process. Thanks to members of the FSAE
team and fellow engineers whose support was invaluable and who at times managed to make this project an
enjoyable process. Finally, to my girlfriend who showed amazing patience over the course of a very long year of
work as well as offering much needed support over the course of this degree. Thanks to my family who are well
deserving of official recognition of all their support over the many years.
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Final Project Report 2011, SEIT, UNSW@ADFA
References
[1]
[2]
[3]
[4]
[5]
[6]
Smith and Morrison, Scientific Design of Exhaust & Intake Systems, 2009.
[7]
[8]
D. Winterbone and. R. Pearson, Design Techniques for Engine Manifolds - Wave action methods for IC engines.
London and Bury St Edmunds, UK: Professional Engineering Publlishing Limited, 1999.
[9]
M. Ashe, G.Blair, G.Chatfield, D.Mackey, "Exhaust Tuning on Four-Stroke Engine: Experimentation and
Simulation," The Queen's Univeristy of Belfast; OPTIMUM Power Technology2001.
[10]
Yunquig Li, Jincheng Wang and Peng He, "Study on the exhaust system parameters of a small gasoline engine,"
Beihang University 2008.
[11]
G. Sammut and. A. Alkidas, "Relative Contributions of Intake and Exhaust - Tuning on SI Engine Breathing - A
Computational Study," Oakland University 2007.
[12]
J.D. Irwin and E.R. Graf, Industrial Noise and Vibration Control. New Jersey: Prentice-Hall 1979.
[13]
J. Pang et al. "Flow Excited Noise Analysis of Exhaust," Ford Motor Company; Gates Coporation2005.
[14]
A. Jauer, J. Brand and D. Wiemeler, "Flow Noise Level Prediction Methods of Exhaust System Tailpipe Noise,"
Tenneco, Germany 2008.
[15]
S. W. Coates, "The Prediction of Exhaust Noise Characteristics of Internal Combustion Engines ", The Queen's
University of Belfast, 1974.
[16]
Muthukumar Yadav, Kiran, Tandon and Raju, "Optimized Design of Silencer - An Integrated Approach," The
Automotive Research Association of India, Pune, India 2007.
[17]
Silvestri, Morel, Goerg and Jebasinski, "Modeling of Engine Exhaust Acoustics," Gamma Technologies, BMW
AG, J. Eberspacher, GmbH & Co.1999.
[18]
Wrtz and Mazzoni, "Application of WAVE in Motorcylce Prototyping," Ducati Motor S.p.A,, Bologna, Italy.
[19]
Honda et al, "Honda, Kodama, Wakabayashi,Nakayama, Morimoto and Ueda," Kokushikan University, Japan
2005.
[20]
Rose, Marshland and Law, "Optimisation of the Gas-Exchange System of Combustion Engines by Genetic
Algorithm," in 4th International Conference on Autonomous Robots and Agents, Wellington, New Zealand, 2009.
[21]
Massey, Williamson and Chuter, "Modelling Exhaust Systems Using One-Dimensional Methods," Flowmaster
(UK) Ltd. ; ArvinMeritor 2002.
[22]
Montenegro and Onorati, "A Coupled 1D-multiD Nonlinear Simulation of I.C. Engine Silencers with Perforates
and Sound Absorbing Material," Politecnico di Milano 2009.
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Final Project Report 2011, SEIT, UNSW@ADFA
[23]
Montenegro and Onorati, "Modeling of Silencer for I.C. Engine Intake and Exhaust Systems by Means of an
Integrated 1D-multiD Approach," Dipartimento di Energetica - Politecnico di Milano2008.
[24]
Zhang and Romzek, "Computational Fluid Dynamics Applications in Vehicel Exhaust System," Eberspaecher
North America, Inc.2008.
[25]
J. Middleberg, T. Barber, S. Leong, E. Leonardi and K. Byrne, "Determining the Acoustic Performanec of a
Simple Reactive Muffler using Computational Fluid Dynamics," presented at the The Eight Western Pacific
Acoustics Conference, Melbourne, Australia, 2003.
[26]
Shah, Kuppili, Hatti and Thombare, "A Practical Approach towards Muffler Design, Developement and Prototype
Validation," 2010.
[27]
S. Sen, "Predction of Flow and Acoustical Performance of an Automotive Exhaust System using 3D CFD," TATA
Technologies Ltd.2011.
[28]
[29]
Lu Lirong, Jin Xiaoxiong, Peng Wei and He Wei, "Application of Flow Field Simulation Technique to the Study
of Exhaust Noise of Car," presented at the IEEE Vehicle Power and Propulsion Conference, Harbin, China, 2008.
[30]
W. Y. Fowlkes a. C. M. Creveling, Engineering Methods for Robust Product Design- Using Taguchi Methods in
Technology and Product Developement. Reading, Massachusetts: Addison Wesley, 1954.
[31]
[32]
[33]
T. J. Schultz, "Acoustical Uses for Perforated Metals: Principles and Applications," I. P. Association, Ed., ed:
Industrial Perforates Association Inc, 1986.
[34]
N. Huff, "Materials for Absorptive Silencer Systems," Owens Cornering Automotive Solutions2001.
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Final Project Report 2011, SEIT, UNSW@ADFA
Annex A
Summary of Acoustic Theory for Automotive Silencers
1.
Absorptive/Side-Resonant Silencer
The absorptive and side-resonant silencers operate under the principles established for the use of perforated
metals in acoustic treatments. These principals differentiate between the design parameters of the perforated
materials utilised within the design, which in turn specify if the action of the silencer to be through the resonant
action of the perforated material or via viscous dissipation within sound absorbing material placed behind.
Parameters such as the Transparency Index [33] in Eq.(A1) or otherwise Blairs empirical relations [4] in
Eq.(A2) and Eq.(A3) may be used to distinguish between these types of silencer which are concerned with
perforation pattern of the material used. However, since the transparency index measure is only capable of
distinguishing between these variations of silencer beyond 10 kHz, being a frequency fairly well beyond the
significant spectrum present in an exhaust, it is not predominantly used for this purpose within this application.
Aonversely, Blairs relations were developed specifically for automotive silencers and are therefore much more
relevant.
(A1)
( )
( )
( )
( )
(
(A2)
(A3)
An absorption silencer utilises perforated material that shows negligible preference to the transmission of
any region of the frequency spectrum through the material and into the side chamber, otherwise known as the
transparency approach [33]. By permitting acoustic wave energy within the side chamber it is made to reflect
from the outer shell and constructively interfere with sound waves entering the chamber. This interference then
establishes standing waves characterised by increased amplitude of particle oscillation, within the region
between the perforated pipe and the silencer housing. As seen in Fig.(A1), sound absorbing material fills this
region where wave superposition is predicted to occur.
Consequently, viscous dissipation of sound is achieved
as particle kinetic energy is converted to thermal energy
via interaction with the sound absorbing material. As per
Fig.(A2), correlation is shown between the radial
distance between the silencer shell and perforated pipe
and the largest wavelength capable of superposition
within the thickness of the sound absorbing material.
Consequently, this figure shows that for an increase in
thickness of the sound absorbing material, a significant
increase in attenuation is achieved for noise of longer
wavelength.
The Transparency Index can however be informative
through the evaluation of the Access Factor, which
represents a measure of the perforated metals ability to
obstruct the entry of acoustic waves and has the effect of
scaling the absorption factor of the silencer[33] (The
absorption factor is defined as the transmission loss
Figure A1. Schematic of absorption silencer
expressed as a fraction of the incident sound energy).
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Final Project Report 2011, SEIT, UNSW@ADFA
Annex A
Summary of Acoustic Theory for Automotive Silencers
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Final Project Report 2011, SEIT, UNSW@ADFA
Annex A
Summary of Acoustic Theory for Automotive Silencers
(A4)
(A5)
(A6)
(A7)
hole conductivity
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Final Project Report 2011, SEIT, UNSW@ADFA
Annex A
Summary of Acoustic Theory for Automotive Silencers
2.
)]
(A8)
(A9)
(A10)
(A11)
As per Fig.(A9) [12], the attenuation is seen to be periodic with frequency. In addition, the maximum
attenuation is seen to increase with area ratio of the chamber (m). These relations have been experimentally
determined to have value up to a frequency of 1500 Hz. In practical terms, Fig.(A9) suggests that a longer
chamber will offer increased attenuation at lower frequency, hence why this component is employed within
silencers to address low frequency noise corresponding to the engine firing rate.
Figure A9. Plot of theoretical attenuation of expansion chamber with design parameters
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Final Project Report 2011, SEIT, UNSW@ADFA
Annex A
Summary of Acoustic Theory for Automotive Silencers
3. Hershel-Quincke Tube
As seen in Fig.(A10), the Hershel-Quincke tube is a device in which sound waves from a common source
travel through two tubes of different lengths and recombine, producing reinforcement or cancellation of sound
depending on the difference in path length. Unfortunately, no further description can be provided as this concept
is poorly documented with regards to acoustic attenuation.
4.
(A12)
(A13)
) )
(A14)
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Final Project Report 2011, SEIT, UNSW@ADFA
Annex A
Summary of Acoustic Theory for Automotive Silencers
Figure A13. Acoustic power transmission coefficient for an example Helmholtz chamber
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Final Project Report 2011, SEIT, UNSW@ADFA
Annex B
WAVE model validation data -WR450 Power curves
35
30
Engine Power(hp)
25
20
15
10
0
1000
2000
3000
4000
5000
6000
RPM
7000
8000
9000
Figure B1. WR450 power curve generated with developed WAVE model
Figure B2. WR450 power curves provided by Cal Poly FSAE team
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Final Project Report 2011, SEIT, UNSW@ADFA
10000
Annex C
Muffler Parameter Study - Experimental Data
SPL (dB)
115
Design 1
110
Design 2
Design 3
Design 4
105
WR450 Muffler
100
0
2000
4000
6000
8000
10000
SPL (dB)
115
Design 1
110
Design 2
Design 3
105
Design 4
WR
100
Unsilenced
95
90
0
2000
4000
6000
8000
10000
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Annex C
Muffler Parameter Study - Experimental Data
Figure C3
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Annex C
Muffler Parameter Study - Experimental Data
Design 1
80
Design 2
Design 3
70
Design 4
60
WR Muffler
Unsilenced
50
40
0
200
400
600
800
1000
1200
1400
1600
1800
2000
Frequency (Hz)
Figure F4
SPL (dB)
90
Design 2
80
Design 3
70
Design 4
WR Muffler
60
Unsilenced
50
40
0
200
400
600
800
1000
1200
1400
1600
Frequency (Hz)
Figure F5
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Final Project Report 2011, SEIT, UNSW@ADFA
1800
2000
Annex C
Muffler Parameter Study - Experimental Data
SPL (dB)
30
20
Design 1
10
Design 2
Design 3
0
-10
100
200
300
-20
400
500
600
700
800
900
1000
Design 4
Frequency (Hz)
Figure F6
SPL (dB)
40
30
Design 1
20
Design 2
Design 3
10
Design 4
0
-10
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
800
900
1000
Frequency (Hz)
Figure F7
SPL (dB)
Design 1
Design 2
Design 3
Design 4
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
800
Frequency (Hz)
Figure F8
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Final Project Report 2011, SEIT, UNSW@ADFA
900
1000
Annex C
Muffler Parameter Study - Experimental Data
80
70
60
50
X: 2620
Y: 40.65
40
30
20
10
500
1000
1500
Figure F7
Frequency (Hz)
2000
2500
3000
Figure F9
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
100
200
300
400
Frequency (Hz)
500
Figure F10
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Final Project Report 2011, SEIT, UNSW@ADFA
600
700
800
Annex C
Muffler Parameter Study - Experimental Data
Figure C11
Figure C12
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Final Project Report 2011, SEIT, UNSW@ADFA
Annex C
Muffler Parameter Study - Experimental Data
Figure C13
Figure C14
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Final Project Report 2011, SEIT, UNSW@ADFA
Annex C
Muffler Parameter Study - Experimental Data
Design 1: 4000 rpm
120
100
SPL (dB)
SPL (dB)
100
80
60
40
120
80
60
200
400
600
800
1000 1200
Frequency (Hz)
1400
1600
1800
40
2000
200
400
600
1800
2000
100
SPL (dB)
SPL (dB)
1600
120
100
80
60
40
1400
120
800
1000 1200
Frequency (Hz)
80
60
200
400
600
800
1000 1200
Frequency (Hz)
1400
1600
1800
40
2000
200
400
600
800
1000 1200
Frequency (Hz)
1400
1600
1800
2000
Figure F15
120
100
SPL (dB)
SPL (dB)
100
80
80
60
40
120
60
200
400
600
800
1000 1200
Frequency (Hz)
1400
1600
1800
40
2000
200
400
600
1800
2000
100
SPL (dB)
SPL (dB)
1600
120
100
80
60
40
1400
120
800
1000 1200
Frequency (Hz)
80
60
200
400
600
800
1000 1200
Frequency (Hz)
1400
1600
1800
40
2000
200
400
600
Figure F16
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Final Project Report 2011, SEIT, UNSW@ADFA
800
1000 1200
Frequency (Hz)
1400
1600
1800
2000
Annex C
Muffler Parameter Study - Experimental Data
150
150
WAVE:SPL at muffler outlet
Theoretical resonator chamber transmission loss
Experimental data
SPL (dB)
100
SPL (dB)
100
50
50
200
400
600
800
1000 1200
Frequency (Hz)
1400
1600
1800
2000
200
400
600
800
1000 1200
Frequency (Hz)
1400
1600
1800
2000
150
150
WAVE:SPL at muffler outlet
Theoretical resonator chamber transmission loss
Experimental data
SPL (dB)
100
SPL (dB)
100
50
50
200
400
600
800
1000 1200
Frequency (Hz)
1400
1600
1800
2000
200
400
600
800
1000 1200
Frequency (Hz)
1400
1600
1800
2000
Figure F17
120
100
SPL (dB)
SPL (dB)
100
80
80
60
40
120
60
200
400
600
800
1000 1200
Frequency (Hz)
1400
1600
1800
40
2000
200
400
600
1800
2000
100
SPL (dB)
SPL (dB)
1600
120
100
80
60
40
1400
120
800
1000 1200
Frequency (Hz)
80
60
200
400
600
800
1000 1200
Frequency (Hz)
1400
1600
1800
40
2000
200
400
600
Figure F18
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Final Project Report 2011, SEIT, UNSW@ADFA
800
1000 1200
Frequency (Hz)
1400
1600
1800
2000
Annex C
Muffler Parameter Study - Experimental Data
Series1
75
Series2
70
Series3
Series4
65
Series5
60
55
50
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
800
900
1000
Figure C19
80
Series2
75
Series3
70
Series4
65
Series5
60
55
50
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
800
Figure C20
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Final Project Report 2011, SEIT, UNSW@ADFA
900
1000
Annex D
WAVE Parameter Study Exhaust Design for Scavenging Performance
Figure D1
Figure D2
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Annex D
WAVE Parameter Study Exhaust Design for Scavenging Performance
Figure D3
Figure D4
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Final Project Report 2011, SEIT, UNSW@ADFA
Annex D
WAVE Parameter Study Exhaust Design for Scavenging Performance
Figure D5
Figure D6
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Final Project Report 2011, SEIT, UNSW@ADFA
Annex D
WAVE Parameter Study Exhaust Design for Scavenging Performance
Figure D7
Figure D8
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Final Project Report 2011, SEIT, UNSW@ADFA
Annex D
WAVE Parameter Study Exhaust Design for Scavenging Performance
Figure D9
1100
1100
Pipe step 1
Pipe step 2
1000
1000
900
900
Pipe step 1
Pipe step 2
800
700
600
500
400
800
700
600
500
0.5
1.5
400
0.5
Position (m)
1
Position (m)
Figure D10
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Final Project Report 2011, SEIT, UNSW@ADFA
1.5
Annex D
WAVE Parameter Study Exhaust Design for Scavenging Performance
Figure D11
Figure D12
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Final Project Report 2011, SEIT, UNSW@ADFA
Annex D
WAVE Parameter Study Exhaust Design for Scavenging Performance
Figure D13
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Final Project Report 2011, SEIT, UNSW@ADFA
Annex D
WAVE Parameter Study Exhaust Design for Scavenging Performance
Figure D14
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Final Project Report 2011, SEIT, UNSW@ADFA
Annex D
WAVE Parameter Study Exhaust Design for Scavenging Performance
Figure D15
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Final Project Report 2011, SEIT, UNSW@ADFA
Annex D
WAVE Parameter Study Exhaust Design for Scavenging Performance
Figure D16
Figure D17
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Final Project Report 2011, SEIT, UNSW@ADFA
Annex D
WAVE Parameter Study Exhaust Design for Scavenging Performance
Figure D18
Figure D19
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Final Project Report 2011, SEIT, UNSW@ADFA
Annex D
WAVE Parameter Study Exhaust Design for Scavenging Performance
Figure D20
Figure D21
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Final Project Report 2011, SEIT, UNSW@ADFA
Annex D
WAVE Parameter Study Exhaust Design for Scavenging Performance
Figure D22
Figure D23
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Final Project Report 2011, SEIT, UNSW@ADFA
Annex D
WAVE Parameter Study Exhaust Design for Scavenging Performance
Figure D24
Figure D25
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Final Project Report 2011, SEIT, UNSW@ADFA
Annex E
WAVE Parameter Study Exhaust Design for Scavenging Performance
140
140
SPL prediction at outlet
max tolerated SPL: 108 dB
120
100
SPL (dB)
SPL (dB)
120
80
60
40
100
80
60
200
400
600
800
1000 1200
Frequency (Hz)
1400
1600
1800
40
2000
200
400
1400
1600
1800
2000
140
SPL prediction at outlet
max tolerated SPL: 108 dB
120
120
100
SPL (dB)
SPL (dB)
800
1000 1200
Frequency (Hz)
140
80
60
40
600
100
80
60
200
400
600
800
1000 1200
Frequency (Hz)
1400
1600
1800
40
2000
200
400
Figure E1
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Final Project Report 2011, SEIT, UNSW@ADFA
600
800
1000 1200
Frequency (Hz)
1400
1600
1800
2000
Annex E
WAVE Parameter Study Exhaust Design for Scavenging Performance
Figure E2
Figure E3
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Final Project Report 2011, SEIT, UNSW@ADFA
Annex E
WAVE Parameter Study Exhaust Design for Scavenging Performance
4
3.5
3
2.5
2
Diameter
1.5
Length
1
0.5
0
0.00E+00 2.00E+00 4.00E+00 6.00E+00 8.00E+00 1.00E+01 1.20E+01
Ratio increase in weight
Figure E4
Figure E5
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Final Project Report 2011, SEIT, UNSW@ADFA
Annex E
WAVE Parameter Study Exhaust Design for Scavenging Performance
Figure E6
Figure E7
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Final Project Report 2011, SEIT, UNSW@ADFA
Annex E
WAVE Parameter Study Exhaust Design for Scavenging Performance
30
30
20mm
30mm
no choke
20
15
10
5
0
-5
20mm
30mm
no choke
25
Frequency (Hz)
Frequency (Hz)
25
20
15
10
5
0
200
400
600
800
1000 1200 1400
Transmission Loss (dB)
1600
1800
-5
2000
200
400
Frequency (Hz)
25
20
15
10
5
0
-5
200
400
600
800
1000 1200 1400
Transmission Loss (dB)
1600
1800
2000
Figure E8
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Final Project Report 2011, SEIT, UNSW@ADFA
600
800
1000 1200 1400
Transmission Loss (dB)
1600
1800
2000
Annex E
WAVE Parameter Study Exhaust Design for Scavenging Performance
Figure E9
Figure E10
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Final Project Report 2011, SEIT, UNSW@ADFA
Annex E
WAVE Parameter Study Exhaust Design for Scavenging Performance
Figure E11
Figure E12
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Final Project Report 2011, SEIT, UNSW@ADFA
Annex E
WAVE Parameter Study Exhaust Design for Scavenging Performance
Figure E13
Figure E14
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Final Project Report 2011, SEIT, UNSW@ADFA
Annex E
WAVE Parameter Study Exhaust Design for Scavenging Performance
Figure E15
Figure E16
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Final Project Report 2011, SEIT, UNSW@ADFA
Annex E
WAVE Parameter Study Exhaust Design for Scavenging Performance
Figure E17
Figure E18
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Final Project Report 2011, SEIT, UNSW@ADFA
Annex E
WAVE Parameter Study Exhaust Design for Scavenging Performance
Figure E19
Figure E20
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Final Project Report 2011, SEIT, UNSW@ADFA
Annex E
WAVE Parameter Study Exhaust Design for Scavenging Performance
Figure E21
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Final Project Report 2011, SEIT, UNSW@ADFA