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UnitedStatesPatent
Eccles

6,290,836
September18,2001

Electrodes
Abstract
Anelectrode(1)havinganactivesurfaceforcontactinganelectrolyte.Theelectrode(1)comprisesfirst
andsecondmetallicmaterials(2,3)arrangedtoprovideanumberoffirstmetallicmaterialtosecond
metallicmaterialinterfacesattheactivesurface.Theinventionalsorelatestoamethodofmakingsuch
anelectrode(1)andtoanelectrolysiscellprovidedwithsuchanelectrode(1).
Inventors:
Assignee:

EcclesChristopherRobert(Colchester,GB)
EcclesChristopherR.(Colchester,GB)
DaviesChristopherJ.(Dedham,GB)
DaviesCarolineJ.(Dedham,GB)
BeithRobertM.V.(WallView,GB)
FamilyID:
10807064
Appl.No.:
09/355,783
Filed:
September27,1999
PCTFiled:
January28,1998
PCTNo.:
PCT/GB98/00252
371Date:
September27,1999
102(e)Date:
September27,1999
PCTPub.No.: WO98/33955
PCTPub.Date: August06,1998
ForeignApplicationPriorityData
Feb4,1997[GB]
CurrentU.S.Class:

9702253

205/638204/278204/290.01204/292204/293205/210205/217
205/218205/223205/636

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CurrentCPCClass:
CurrentInternationalClass:
FieldofSearch:

UnitedStatesPatent:6290836

C25B11/00(20130101)
C25B11/00(20060101)C25B001/02()
205/636,638,210,217,218,223204/290.01,292,293,278
ReferencesCited[ReferencedBy]
U.S.PatentDocuments

4171247
4450187
4496442
4584065
4969980
5843538

October1979
May1984
January1985
April1986
November1990
December1998

Harangetal.
Gestaut
Okazakietal.
Diviseketal.
Yoshiokaetal.
Ehrsametal.

ForeignPatentDocuments
0405559
2132742

Jan1991
Nov1972

EP
FR

PrimaryExaminer:BellBruceF.
Claims

Whatisclaimedis:
1.Anelectrodehavinganactivesurfaceforcontactingandelectrolytecomprisingfirstandsecond
metallicmaterialsarrangedtoprovideapluralityoffirstmetallicmaterialtosecondmetallicmaterial
interfacesatsaidactivesurface,whereinsaidfirstmetallicmaterialcomprisessteelandsaidsecond
metallicmaterialcomprisesnickel.
2.Anelectrodeaccordingtoclaim1,whereinsaidfirstmetallicmaterialcomprisesasubstrateofthe
electrodeandsaidsecondmetallicmaterialisanelectroplatedlayeroverregionsofthesubstrate.
3.AnelectrodeAccordingtoclaim2,whereinsaidsubstratehasanunevensurfacewithexposed,
unplatedraisedportionsandtroughportionsplatedwithsaidsecondmetallicmaterial,theunplated
raisedportionsandplatedsecondmetallicmaterialprovidingthesaidactivesurface.
4.Anelectrodeaccordingtoclaim3,whereinthesaidraisedportionsofthesubstratehaveanaverage
spacingdistributionoffrom0.03mmto0.05mm.
5.Anelectrodeaccordingtoclaim1,whereinsaidfirstmetallicmaterialcomprisesmildsteel.
6.Anelectrodeaccordingtoclaim1,whereinsaidsecondmetallicmaterialcomprisesamatrixofnickel
andchromium.
7.Anelectrodeaccordingtoclaim1,whereintheelectrodeisgenerallyflatandhasanactivesurfaceon
eachofitsoppositesides.
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8.Anelectrolysiscellforobtainingthereleaseofgaseousproductsbyelectrolysis,comprisingan
electrolyte,ananodeandacathodeintheformofanelectrodeaccordingtoclaim1.
9.Acellaccordingtoclaim8,whereintheelectrolytecomprisesdilutesulphuricacid.
10.Acellaccordingtoclaim8,whereintheelectrolytecompriseslithiumsulphatemonohydrate,nickel
sulphatehexahydrate,chromiumsulphateorpalladouschloride.
11.Amethodofobtainingreleaseofgasfromanelectrolysiscellaccordingtoclaim8,comprising
applyingadecompositionvoltageofnomorethan1voltacrosstheanodeandcathodeoftheelectrolysis
cell.
12.Themethodofclaim11,whereinthestepofapplyingthedecompositionvoltagecomprisesapplying
adecompositionvoltageofnomorethan0.8volts.
13.Themethodofclaim11,whereinthestepofapplyingthedecompositionvoltagecomprisesapplying
adecompositionvoltagebetweenthevaluesof0.2to0.6volts.
14.Amethodofmakinganelectrodehavinganactivesurfaceforcontactinganelectrolyte,comprising
platingasubstrateofafirstmetallicmaterialwithasecondmetallicmaterial,whereinthefirstmetallic
materialcomprisessteelandthesecondmetallicmaterialcomprisesnickelandinthatregionsofthe
platedsecondmetallicmaterialareremovedtocreatesaidactivesurfacewithapluralityoffirstmetallic
materialtosecondmetallicmaterialinterfaces.
15.Amethodaccordingtoclaim14,whereinthesurfaceorsurfacesofthesubstrateontowhichthe
secondmetallicmaterialisplatedisoraremadeuneventocreateraisedportionsandtroughportions
ontowhichthesecondmetallicmaterialisplated.
16.Themethodaccordingtoclaim15,whereinthesurfaceorsurfacesofthesubstrateisoraremade
unevenbyetching.
17.Amethodaccordingtoclaim14,whereinthesaidregionsofplatedmetallicmaterialareremovedby
machining.
18.Amethodaccordingtoclaim17,whereintheregionsofplatedmetallicmaterialaremachinedfrom
saidplatedraisedportionsofthesubstrate.
19.Amethodaccordingtoclaim14,whereinsaidfirstmetallicmaterialcomprisesmildsteel.
20.Amethodaccordingtoclaim14,whereinsaidsecondmetallicmaterialcomprisesamatrixofnickel
andchromium.
21.Anelectrodehavinganactivesurfaceforcontactinganelectrolytecomprisingfirstandsecond
metallicmaterialsarrangedtoprovideapluralityoffirstmetallicmaterialtosecondmetallicmaterial
interfacesatsaidactivesurface,whereinsaidfirstmetallicmaterialcomprisessteel.
22.Anelectrodehavinganactivesurfaceforcontactinganelectrolytecomprisingfirstandsecond
metallicmaterialsarrangedtoprovideapluralityoffirstmetallicmaterialtosecondmetallicmaterial
interfacesatsaidactivesurface,whereinsaidsecondmetallicmaterialcomprisesnickel.

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Description

TECHNICALFIELD
Thisinventionrelatestoanelectrodeandtoamethodofmakingsuchanelectrode.Theinventionalso
relatestoacellincorporatingsuchanelectrodeasitscathodeandtoamethodofobtainingreleaseof
gaseousproductsfromsuchacell.
BACKGROUNDART
Duringelectrolysis,themassofasubstanceliberatedbythepassageofanelectriccurrentisstrictly
determinedbyFaraday'sLawsofElectrochemicalDeposition.Theselawsstatethat:
1."Theamountofchemicalchangeoccasionedbythepassageofanelectriccurrentisproportionaltothe
quantityofelectricitypassed"and
2."Themassesofdifferentsubstancesliberatedbyagivenquantityofelectricityareproportionaltotheir
chemicalequivalentweights."
Thechemicalequivalentweightofanysubstanceiseasilydeterminedandremainsafixedstandardfor
thatsubstanceunderallconditionsofelectrolyticaction.Itisusuallyquotedinm.g.C.sup.1,1Coulomb
(C)beingthequantityofelectricityusedwhenacurrentofoneampereispassedforonesecond.
Ifthechemicalequivalentweightisrepresentedbyz,themass,m,ofanysubstanceliberatedduringan
electrolyticprocessisgivenby:
whereIisthecurrentpassedinamperesandtisthetimeinseconds.
Duringnormalelectrolyticprocesses,itisnotpossibletoinduceacurrenttoflowthroughtheelectrolyte
unlessthevoltageacrosstheelectrodesoftheelectrolyticcellisraisedtosomespecificvalue,which
variesaccordingtotheelectrolyteandtheelectrodecomposition.Thisvoltage,V.sub.d,isknownasthe
DecompositionVoltage.Hitherto,ithasnotbeenpossibletoarrangeforelectrolyticcellstofunctionat
voltagessufficientlylowtoenableofverylowpowerinputstothecell.
Anyprocesswhichcanbearrangedtoruninsuchawaythat,whenthecalorificvalueofaliberatedgas
ishigherthanthepowerrequiredtoruntheelectrolyticprocesswhichliberatesthatgas,willactasanet
providerofenergy.Theapparentsurplusofenergycoming,inthisinstance,fromthebonddissociation
energiesoftheionsinvolvedintheprocess.
Anexampleoftheoperationofanelectrolyticcellwillservetoillustratetheabovepointsmoreclearly.
Letusfirstconsideracellwhichliberateshydrogengasbytheelectrolysisofwatercontainingastandard
electrolytesuchasH.sub.2SO.sub.4orLi.sub.2SO.sub.4.Ifsuchacellisrunsuchthatitsterminal
voltageis5voltsandthecurrentbeingpassedthroughitis2amperes,itwillrequireapowersourceofat
least10watts,allowingforsmalllossesinwiresandcontactresistances.Themass,andhencecalorific
value,ofthehydrogenliberatedfromsuchacellwillbeinaccordancewithFaraday'sLawsandwillbe
proportionaltotheproductofcurrentandtimeasoutlinedabove.However,theproductofcurrentand
timeisnotthesamethingastheproductofcurrentandvoltage,whichgaveusthepowerconsumptionof
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thecell.Inthecaseofthiscell,thepowerinputisgivensimplyby:
P.sub.in=V.times.I
whereVisthecellvoltageandIisthecellcurrent.
Tocalculatethepoweroutputofsuchacell,weneedtoknowhowmuchenergyisavailablefroma
givenmassofhydrogengaswhenitcombineswithoxygenduringcombustion.Thisfigureis285
KJ.mol.sup.1,where1KJ(kilojoule)istheenergyconvertedwhen1kilowattofpowerisusedfora
durationof1second.Sincethechemicalequivalentweightofhydrogenisknowntobe0.01045
mgC.sup.1,itcanbecalculated,accordingto(1)above,thatthecellwillyieldamass,m,ofhydrogen
gasgivenby
1molofhydrogengas,asmolecularhydrogenH.sub.2,hasamassof2.016g.Utilisingtheenergy
contentofhydrogenasitundergoescombustion,wethereforehaveanenergyyieldfromthecellof:
##EQU1##
Itcanbeseen,therefore,thatthisconventionalcellonlyproducesjustoveraquarterasmuchenergy
fromthefullcombustionofitshydrogenyieldastheelectricalenergyrequiredtomakeitrun.Sucha
deviceisnotanefficientconverterofenergy.
Considernowtheperformanceofthesamecellifitscurrentof2amperesweretoflowusingavery
muchsmallerpotentialofonly0.5volts.Theinputpowerisgivenbythesameequation(2)above,
namely:
=0.5.times.2=1W
Theoutputpower,however,remainsthesameasinthe5voltexample,itbeingdependentsolelyupon
theparametersofcurrentandtime.
The0.5voltcell,therefore,yieldsasupplyofhydrogengaswhichiscapableofbeingburnedtoprovide
some2.9timestheelectricalenergyinputtothecell.
Inthepastithasnotbeenpossibletocauseelectrolysiscellstooperateatthesmallvoltagesnecessaryto
achievethiskindof"energymultiplier"effect.Thenaturalbarrieroftheestablisheddecomposition
voltagealwayshaltedtheprocesssomewaybeforetheoverunityeffectsofthecellbecameevident.
DISCLOSUREOFTHEINVENTION
Thepresentinventionseekstoprovideanelectrodewhichwhenusedinanelectrolyticcellenables
currenttopassatalowvoltagecomparedwithconventionalcells.Itisalsoanaimoftheinventionto
enablethegenerationofagaseousproductformanelectrolyte.
Accordingtooneaspectofthepresentinventionanelectrodehavinganactivesurfaceforcontactingan
electrolyte,ischaracterisedinthattheelectrodecomprisesfirstandsecondmetallicmaterialsarrangedto
provideatleastonefirstmetallicmaterialtosecondmetallicmaterialinterfaceatsaidactivesurface.
Preferablythereareapluralityofsuchinterfaces.
Preferablythefirstmetallicmaterialcomprisesasubstratee.g.ofsteel,oftheelectrodeandthesecond
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metallicmaterial,e.g.nickeloramatrixofnickelandchromium,isplatedoverregionsofthesubstrate.
Accordingtoanotheraspectofthepresentinventionthereisprovidedanelectrolysiscellforobtaining
thereleaseofgaseousproductsbyelectrolysis,comprisinganelectrolyte,ananodeandacathodeinthe
formofanelectrodeaccordingtosaidoneaspectofthepresentinvention.Inuseofthecell,thecurrent
canbepassedinsuchawaythatdecompositionoccursatafractionoftheusualrequiredvoltage.
Typically"energymultiplier"effectsoftheorderof6:1areachievable.
Suitablytheelectrolytecomprisesdilutesulphuricacidoranaqueoussolutionoflithiumsulphate
monohydrate,nickelsulphatehexahydrate,chromiumsulphateorpalladouschloride.
Accordingtoastillfurtheraspectoftheinventionthereisprovidedamethodofmakinganelectrode
accordingtosaidoneaspectoftheinvention,comprisingplatingasubstrateofafirstmetallicmaterial
withasecondmetallicmaterialandremovingregionsoftheplatedsecondmetallicmaterialtocreatesaid
activesurfacewithsaidpluralityoffirstmetallicmaterialtosecondmetallicmaterialinterfaces.
Accordingtoayetfurtheraspectofthepresentinvention,amethodofobtainingreleaseofgasfroman
electrolysiscellaccordingtosaidfurtheraspectoftheinvention,comprisesapplyingadecomposition
voltageofnomorethan1volt,preferablynomorethan0.8volts,e.g.from0.2to0.6volts,acrossthe
anodeandcathodeoftheelectrolysiscell.
BRIEFDESCRIPTIONOFDRAWINGS
Anembodimentoftheinventionwillnowbedescribed,bywayofexampleonly,withparticular
referencetotheaccompanyingdrawing,inwhichFIGS.1to3showthreestagesinthemanufactureof
anelectrodeaccordingtothepresentinvention.
BESTMODEFORCARRYINGOUTTHEINVENTION
Aknownelectrolytecellcomprisesananodeandacathodeaselectrodesinanaqueoussolutionofan
electrolyte.Ifasufficientlylargevoltage,i.e.the"emf"ofthecell,isappliedacrosstheelectrodes,
gaseousproducts(hydrogenandoxygen)arereleasedattheelectrodes.Foranygivenelectrolytein
water,thisvalueliebetween1.250voltsand2.000volts,dependingupontheambientconditionsinthe
cell(temperature,electrodemetals,degreeofwetting,pHoftheelectrolyteetc.),andisknownasthe
DecompositionVoltageorDV.Itismadeupofthreecomponentvoltages,whichaddarithmeticallyto
givetheoverallDVforthecell,namely:thehydrogenovervoltageatthecathodetheoxygenover
voltageattheanodeandtheelectrolytebreakdownvoltage.
Anelectrolyticcellinaccordancewiththeinventiondiffersfromknownelectrolyticcellsinthatit
functionsasasocalledSubDecompositionVoltage(hereafterreferredtoas"SDV")cellwhichisable
tooperateatvoltageswellbelowthepredictedemfswhichwouldbeexpectedbysummingthethree
componentvoltagesaboveforanygivensetofcellcharacteristics.
TherearetwoprincipalparametersofanSDVelectrolyticcellwhichcauseittofunctioninthewayit
does.Thefirstparameteristhenatureoftheelectrolyte,andthesecond(moreimportant)isthephysical
characteristicofthecathodicelectrode.Thesetwoparametersareconsideredbelow.
Electrolyte
Incommonwithnearlyallelectrolyticmechanisms,anSDVcellwillnotworkusingpurewateroreven,
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toanygreatdegree,tapwaterastheelectrolyte.Theactivityofelectrolysisdependsuponthemigration
ofionstowardschargedsurfaces,wheretheyactaseitherdonorsorrecipientsofelectrons,andthereare
simplynotenoughdissociatedionsinpurewatertoenablethistotakeplaceeffectively.Anelectrolyte,
aswellasdissociatingintoionsitself,willfacilitatetoagreaterorlesserdegreethedissociationofthe
waterinwhichitisplaced.Theelectolytematerialis,nonetheless,recycledandwhollyconservedinthe
processand,oncecharged,anSDVcell,incommonwithmostotherelectrolysisdevices,requiresonlyto
betoppedupwithwater,notfreshelectrolyte.Examplesofelectrolyteswhichhavebeensuccessfully
employedinSDVcellsincludediluteH.sub.2SO.sub.4,lithiumsulphatemonohydrate,nickelsulphate
hexahydrate,chromiumsulphate,andpalladouschloride,althoughthisisbynomeansanexhaustivelist
ofthepossiblesubstances.ThosewhichfunctionbythereleaseofSO.sub.4.sup.2ionsinsolutionseem
alsotoperformbetterwhenacidifiedslightly.
TheNatureoftheCathode
ThecathodeoftheSDVcellhasanactivesurfacecomprisingtwodifferentmetallicmaterialswitha
pluralityofinterfacesbetweenthedifferentmetallicmaterials.ConvenientlytheSDVcathode1(see
FIG.3)consistsofasubstrate2ofafirstmetallicmaterialandapluralityofisolatedplatedregion3on
thesubstrate2.Suitablytheplatedsecondmetallicmaterialcomprisesnickel,oramatrixofnickeland
chromium,soastocreateinterfacesbetweenthesubstrateandtheplating.
AttheseinterfacesinuseoftheSDVcell,anumberofcomplexelectrochemicalinteractionstakeplace.
Whenasmallvoltageisappliedacrosstheanodeandcathode,H.sub.3O+(andother+ve)ionsare
attractedtowardsthecathode.Theseionsareabsorbedintothecrystalmatrixofthenickelplatedareas
butnotintotheareasofuntreatedsteel.Thesorptionprocesstakesplaceinthreemainsteps,namely:the
surfaceadsorptionoftheions,accompaniedbytheirpartialdissociationintomonatomichydrogenand
waterfollowedbyintergranularriftdiffusionofindividualatomsofhydrogenbetweenthenickel
crystalsand,lastly,latticediffusionofthesamehydrogenatomsfromtheriftsintotheactuallatticeof
thecrystalstructure.Thisisnotaclathrateprocess,therebeinganimmediateassociationofmonatomic
HintomolecularH.sub.2withinthelattice,accompaniedbyanincreaseinpressure.Theratecontrolling
processisprobablythesurfaceadsorptionasincreasedworkingpressurewithinthecellappearstohave
littleeffectontherateofhydrogentakeup.
Latticediffusioncontinuesuntiltheinterfacebetweennickelandsteelisencounteredanditisatthis
pointthatmolecularhydrogenisreleasedintotheadjacentelectrolyte.Theentireprocessmaintainsan
equilibriumwiththeionproductofthewaterintheelectrolyte,newH.sub.3O+andotherionsbeing
formedatthesamerateasmolecularhydrogenisbeingdischargedfromthecell.Itisthoughtthatthere
aretwocatalytic,facilitating,reactionsatwork.Firstly,thetransitionfromintegranularriftdiffusionto
latticediffusionisbelievedtobefacilitatedbythesomewhatunbalancednatureofthetwooutermost
quantumgroupsinthenickelatom,monatomichydrogenbeing"ushered",asitwere,bytheweakforces
withinthelatticeitself.(Althoughnascenthydrogenisnotitselfapolarentity,theexistencewithinany
massofHoftwospecies,orthoandpara,dependantonPaulim.sub.svaluesof+or1/2,doesnotrule
outsomekindofinteractionwhensuchamonatomicgasisconfinedwithinanelectrostaticallyactive
crystallinecomplex.)Secondly,atthesmallironnickelinterfaceswhichoccurwhenthecathodeis
machined,thereisadegreeofelectronsharingbetweenadjacentironandnickelatomsattheperiphery
ofthecrystalstructurewhichinsomewaymitigatesinfavourofmolecularH.sub.2.Therearealso
groundsforconsideringtheexistenceoffreeprotonswithinsuchaintercrystallineconfinementandthere
isnothingintheelectrochemistrywhichwouldrulethisout.
TheAnodeProcess

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Theanodeprocessdiffersfromthatofaconventionalcellinthattheoxygenovervoltageisrarely
exceededandthereactionattheanodeisoneoftheformationofa(conductive)layerofamatrixof
ferrousandferosoferrousoxideovertheplainsteelelectrode.Thereissomeliberation,albeitslowly,of
gaseousoxygenattheanodebutthisissmallincomparisonwiththeejectionofH.sub.2fromthe
cathode,whichoccursprolificallyandoften(aswouldbeexpectedgiventhepressurewithinthe
crystallineabsorptionmechanismatwork)withsomeminorviolencewhenobservedunderthe
microscope.
Thereis,obviously,somelikelybenefitinobtaininghydrogenfromsuchaprocesswhichisrelatively
freeofassociatedoxygenbut,todate,thegaseousmixfromexperimentalSDVcellshasnotbeensuchas
tobringtheO.sub.2leveldownbelowtheLELforhydrogen/oxygenmixture,andsuchcellsshouldnot
beregardedasbeingintrinsicallysaferthanconventionalones.
OnemethodofcreatinganSDVelectrodeisdescribedbelow.
TheelectrodewhichistobecomethecathodeinanSDVcellismadebytakingasheetofordinarymild
steelasthesubstrate2andcreatingonitssurfaceaseriesofirregularities,intheformoftroughregions4
andraisedregions5(seeFIG.1),byetchingthesteelinabathofconcentrated(5055%)sulphuricacid.
Thenaturalimpurityofmostcommonlyavailablemildsteelensuresthatetchingwilltakeplaceina
randomandirregularmanner.Mostly,thisiscausedbythepresenceoffinelydividedgranularalpha
ferritewhichappearstobepreferentiallyattackedbytheacid.
Afterinspectionofthesurfaceandthedeterminationoftheaveragesizeofthenodesorraisedregionson
theroughenedsteel(optimallytheseshouldbeat0.030.05mmdistribution),thesurfaceispassivatedin
concentratednitricacidandfurtherpassivatedinachromicacidbath.
Theroughenedsurfaceofthesteelsubstrate2isthengivena25microncoating6ofnickelbythe
"electroless"process,alsoknownasautocatalyticchemicaldeposition(seeFIG.2).Thisplatingprocess
providesaccretionofdepositednickelinthetroughregions4andthinnerdepositsofnickelontheraised
regions5.
Aftercoating,theelectrodeismachinedorground,e.g.usingalinishingsanderand120gritsilicon
carbidepaperbelt,toremovethe"peaks"oftheplatedraisedregions5andinparticulartoremovethe
platednickelfromthese"peaks"soastoexposethesteelofthesubstrate2(seeFIG.3).Inthiswaya
pluralityofmetaltometalinterfacesarecreatedontheactivesurfaceofthecathodebetweenthenickel
platedregionsonthetroughregions4ofthesubstrate2andtheexposedsteelsurfacesofthesubstrate.
Constantmicroscopicinspectionisrequiredtodeterminetheexistenceofthecorrectbimetallic
interfacesontheactivesurfaceoftheelectrode.Iftheelectrodeistobeusedwithonlyoneactivesurface
(SASelectrode),notreatmentisgiventotheotherplatedsurface,whichwillremainelectrochemically
inactiveduringtheoperationofthecell.Ifbothsurfacesarerequiredtoworkelectrolytically(DAS),a
similartreatmentisgiventotheotherside.Aftercleaningtheelectrodeinmethylethylketonetoremove
greaseandothermachiningdeposits,itisleftimmersedina0.5Naqueoussolutionofnickelsulphate
hexahydrateat55.degree.C.for24hours,whichprocessactsasan"initiator"forthelatercomplex
sequenceofionexchangeoperationsintheactivecell.
ThepresentinventionenvisagesanovelcathodeandSDVelectrolyticcellprovidedwithsuchacathode.
Theinventionalsoteachesanovelmethodofmakingsuchacathodeandanovelmethodofreleasing
gaseousproductsfromanSDVcell.
Theinventiondisclosestheprovisionofbimetallicinterfacesontheactive,electrolytecontacting
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surfaceofanelectrodewhichproduceshithertounobservedelectrochemicalphenomena.Theuseof
dissimilarmetallicmaterialsontheactivesurfacefacilitateslatticediffusionofgaseswithinthecrystal
structureoftheelectrode.
AnSDVcellaccordingtotheinventionactsasan"overunity"cellinrespectofhydrogengasproduction
fromthecell.Thecelloperatesatlowvoltagesofnomorethan1volt,preferablynomorethan0.8volt
andtypicallyfrom0.2to0.6volts.Howeverevenloweroperatingvoltagesarefeasible.
*****

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