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CHAPTER 5
CONSTRUCTION-FABRICATION OF FERROCEMENT

5.1

INTRODUCTION

The materials used in ferrocement production and their selection have already been discussed in
Chapters 1 and 2. This chapter discusses construction details that directly affect planning,
mixing, placing, handling, and the quality of the finished ferrocement product. Much of the
information found in section 6.3 of this chapter is taken from the ACI Guide for the Design,
Construction, and Repair of Ferrocement, which was developed by ACI Committee 549 while
the author was Chair of the committee. [25]
The ranges of mix proportions recommended for common ferrocement applications are (Table
1.1 ) sand-cement ratio by weight 1.5 to 2.5, water-cement ratio by weight 0.35 to 0.6. Typical
mix proportions and corresponding compressive strengths are given in Table 1.2. The higher the
sand content, the higher the required water content to maintain equal workability. Shrinkage is
not a problem in ferrocement because of the high reinforcement content and because the large
surface area of the aggregates demands high cement factors. Instead, in mortars for ferrocement
is the most important to maintain plasticity as a mix design criterion. The moisture content of the
aggregates should be considered in the calculation of the required water. Quantities of material
should preferably be determined by weight.
The mix should be as stiff as possible (except when closed molds are used), provided it does not
prevent full penetration of the mesh. Normally the slump of fresh mortar should not exceed 50
mm (2 in). For most applications with normal weight concrete and steel meshes, the 28-day
compression strength of 75 x 150 mm (3 by 6 in.) moist cured cylinders should be not less than
35 MPa (5000 psi).

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5.2

COSTRUCTION-FABRICATION OF
FERROCEMENT

MORTAR PLACEMENT

Mortar is generally placed by hand plastering. In this process, the mortar is forced through the
mesh. Alternatively the mortar may be shot through a spray gun device (shot-creting). A
proprietary technique, called the lay-up technique (or laminating process) was developed by
Martin lorns of California. It involves placing the mesh in the mortar rather than the mortar in the
mesh. In this technique, successive layers of mesh are placed in layers of freshly sprayed or
manually placed mortar.[26]
From a modern perspective, it is possible to assume that industrialized techniques of production,
such as utilized of extruded or pultruded sheets are applicable to ferrocement. In the case of
extrusion, for instance the mortar matrix will be very stiff (zero slump), but high vibration and
compaction in the production process would take care of full penetration.

5.3

CONSTRUCTION METHODS

There are several means of producing ferrocement. All methods (except the lay-up method
described in Section 6.2) require high level quality control criteria to achieve the complete
encapsulation of several layers of reinforcing mesh with a well compacted mortar or concrete
matrix with a minimum of entrapped air. Indeed, air voids trapped within the ferrocement during
the plastering process can be sources of leaks, especially serious in water retaining or water-tight
structures.[27]
Four methods of fabrication are described next: 1 ) the skeletal armature method, 2 ) the closed
mold method, 3) the integral mold method, and 4) the open mold method. These methods have
been successfully used in the construction of ferrocement structures, the vast majority in marine
applications, that is, boats, barges, bulkheads, piers, and docks. In these four generic ferrocement
molding methods, mortar may be applied by a variety of techniques, including direct plastering
and wet shotcreting. Variations of these basic methods may be engineered to incorporate factory
production techniques, such as flat-bed fibro-casting and vacuum extraction. Extrusion and
pultrusion of simple linear shapes, or the use of a closed mold system where the matrix is poured
as in conventional reinforced concrete, or other possible alternatives, which require a higher
initial investment in set-up and equipment.
In most ferrocement fabrication, the mesh layers should be staggered, or the ends lap-spliced at
least four mesh openings to insure continuity of the reinforcement. For design, alternating the
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direction of the principal axis of successive mesh layers by 90 to achieve continuity and
isotropy may be desirable, especially in shell type structures subjected to biaxial loading.

5.3.1

Skeletal Armature Method

The armature method is a framework of tied reinforcing bars (skeletal steel), wires or strands, to
which layers of reinforcing mesh are attached on each side. Mortar is then applied, preferably
from one side, and forced through the mesh layers until a slight excess appears on the other side.
This excess is then pressed back through the armature and struck off.

Constructions Notes:
1.
2.
3.
4.

Skeletal steel must be tied together at intersections unless a welded fabric is used.
Layers of mesh mustbe tied to skeletal steel and/or together.
Force plaster, preferably from one side, to fully encapsulate armature.
Finishing preferably from both sides.

Advantages:
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1. No forms
2. Good penetration.
3. Easy to patch up all areas from both sides.
Disadvantages:
1. Time consuming.
2. Skeletal steel not as performing as mesh.
3. Possible galvanic corrosion between galvanized mesh and non-galvanized steel.

5.3.2

Closed Mold Method

In this method, several layers of mesh or mesh and rod combinations are stapled or held in
position against the surface of a closed mold; that is, a male mold or a female mold. The mortar
is then applied from one side. The mold may either remain as a permanent part of the finished
ferrocement structure, or be removed for future use. However, if the mold is to be removed, pretreatment with release agents may be necessary prior to laying the reinforcing mesh.
The selection of a closed mold tends to eliminate the use of skeletal rods or bars, thus permitting
essentially all-mesh reinforcement; it requires that plastering be done from one side. In the layup
technique, a thin layer of mortar is first placed in the mold and allowed to settle; then a layer of
mesh is pushed in the mortar and fully encapsulated; a second layer of mortar is then placed and
the procedure is separated until the desired number of layers is placed. The procedure is also
suitable for wet-mix shot creting (dry mix shotcrete, commonly called gunite, is more difficult to
control), thus allowing increased efficiency and savings on labor cost.

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Construction Notes:
1. In one method, plastering can be applied from one side while mesh layers are stapled to
or held in position against the mold.
2. In another method mesh layers are successively layed into a preplaced mortar bed.
3. The mold may remain as a permanent part of the ferrocement structure.

Advantages:
1. Molds may be reused.
2. No skeletal reinforcement.
3. Suitable for patented layup method.
4.
Disadvantages:
1. Mold is costly for one time use.
2. Internal voids more difficult to avoid and detect.
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3. Complete penetration from one side more difficult to guarantee.

5.3.3

Integral Mold Method

An integral mold is first constructed by application of mortar from one to two sides onto a semirigid framework made with a minimum number of mesh layers, or a coarser mesh. This forms,
after mortar setting a rigid but low quality ferrocement mold onto which further application of
reinforcing mesh and mortar are applied on both sides. Lightweight mortar may be used.
Alternatively, the integral mold may be formed using rigid foam insulation materials, such as
polystyrene or polyurethane, as the core. A schematic description of this method is shown in Fig.
6.5.
Advantages of the integral mold method include: 1) excellent rigidity and insulating properties
when an insulating core is used, and 2) if rods must be used to form of reinforce the core, their
thickness can be filled with lightweight mortar, or rigid foam insulating materials.
The main disadvantage is that special details are required for adequate shear connections
between rigid ferrocement layers, especially across insulating cores.
The integral mold method can be ideal for field operations. The possible variations are unlimited
provided adequate attention is paid to structural detailing requirements to guarantee that the final
structure will function as a true composite.

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Construction Notes:
1. Plastering or lay-up from both sides to penetrate layers of mesh stapled or held against
permanent mold.
2. The integral mold may be made of ferrocement or other material.
3. Generally the skin layer on each side of the mold is thinner and easier to penetrate than
other methods.

Advantages:
1. Integral mold may be designed to provide good insulation.
2. Integral mold provides good rigidity.
3. May provide good water tightness.
Disadvantages:
1. Special detailing is needed for bonding to and shear.
2. Finishing in needed on both sides.

5.3.4

Open Mold Method

The open mold method is a traditional boat-building construction method. An open mold is
made of a lattice of wood strips or other suitable material and stiffened by farming ribs or by
shorting (Fig. 6.6). Mortar is applied from one side-through layers of mesh or mesh and rods
attached to the open mold. To facilitate mold removal, the mold is coated with a release agent
and/or entirely covered with polyethylenesheeting, thereby forming a closed, transparent, but
non-rigid surface. The transparent sheeting permits observation and fixing during the mortar
application process. It also catches excess mortar that must be pushed back and struck off on
the outside.

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Construction Notes:
1. Plastering is applied from one side while mesh layers are stapled to or held in position
against the rib bands or framing.
2. The polyethylene sheeting allows observation to facilitate full mortar penetration and
patch up.
3. The mold may remain as a permanent part of the ferrocement.
Advantages:
1. Better control of finish than closed mold method.
2. No skeletal reinforcement needed.
3. Use traditional boat building methods.
Disadvantages:
1. Framing and shoring systems are costly.
2. Finishing may be needed on both sides.
3. Complete Penetration from one side more difficult to guarantee.

5.4

SPECIAL MANUFACTURING TECHNIQUES

There are other construction methods for ferrocement that do not fit exactly into the above
mentioned categories. For instance, in forming the shape of a ferrocement element, the
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armature system can be reshaped using different techniques such as described above, or by
lifting, or by pressing such as in pressure molding, or by explosion to give a threedimensional spherical like shape.[28]
Recharger and taster described several manufacturing technologies for fabricating singly and
doubly curved ferrocement elements from flat ferrocement sheets. In one method, a
ferrocement sheet is initially cast on a flat mold and then bent to produce a U-shaped section.
The bending must be done while the mortar matrix is still plastic and not yet hardened. Also
the mold must be properly designed to allow a smooth operation. In another method, a flat
ferrocement panel is cast while having at its periphery a rigid fame. The frame is later lifted
slightly, while the matrix is still plastic; as the panel tends to deform under its own weight, it
forms a curved shell like element.
Figure 6.9 describes another manufacturing technique for mass production of small elements.
In that technique a strong molding press is used to shape the element into the desired form.
The mesh reinforcement could be prepared either flat as for flat sheets, or roughlyreshaped
for the final product. Here also, it is essential to have good control of the matrix composition
in order to insure penetration of the mesh.
Wainshtok Rivas describes a technique for producing U-shaped, V-shaped, or W-shaped
roofing panels from flat panels. The techniques involve pouring the mortar matrix over a
series of parallel flat panels, leaving strips of mesh between them without mortar. These
strips act as joints traversed by mesh reinforcement. After hardening of the mortar, the panels
are lifted to proper position and the joints are filled with new fresh mortar. This technique is
essentially inspired by the origami concept of paper folding and should be applicable, in
principle, to many other shapes.

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5.5

COSTRUCTION-FABRICATION OF
FERROCEMENT

FERROCEMENT ELEMENT VERSUS STRUCTURE

The methods described in the preceding sections apply primarily to manufacturing

ferrocement composite material elements from which a structure is to be built. In the case of
a boat, the shell element becomes the boat hull itself, although it can be argued that the boat
is made of different components such as the hull, the deck, the keel, etc. Generally, methods
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used in building reinforced concrete structures apply to ferrocement as well. They include
cast in place, construction, prefabrication, and in some instance prestressing.[29]

5.6

PROTECTIVE SURFACE TREATMENTS

Like other concrete materials, ferrocement can be made to perform satisfactorily when
exposed to serve weather conditions, to water and soil containing chemicals, and to many
common chemicals. The ACI Guide for design, Construction, and Repair of Ferrocement
(ACI549.1R) has an excellent chapter on Maintenance and Repair and an Appendix on
Surface Treatments. Most of the following information is taken from that document.[30]
Protective coatings, when used, must bond well, be alkali tolerant, thermally compatible, and
resistant to environmental pollutants and ultraviolent radiation, if exposed.
Generally, good quality mortar has excellent resistance to weathering. For general
construction purposes it does not require any protective surface treatment. However, the
application of protective surface treatments can improve the performance of ferrocement and
extend its services, and reduce permeability, thus guarding against the corrosive action of
acids, alkaline salts and organic substances. Protective surface treatments take the form of
hardeners, polymeric coatings, oils, or sheathing.
Diluted raw, or boiled oils, such as wood oil, Tung oil, soybean oil, and linseed oil, if applied
with brushes, penetrate in concrete and ferrocement and provide, upon drying, good
protection for acid waters, phosphoric for acid waters, chlorides, fluorides, sulfates, gasoline,
and heavier oils.
Fiberglass laminates have been often used on boat hulls to steal the surface against leakage
and improve impact resistance; epoxy resins are preferred for such application. Several
factors such as temperature when sheathing, soiled mortar surface, and thermal
incompatibility must be considered to develop successful sheathing.

5.7 CURRENT REACHES WITH AND NOTABLE

STRYCTURES OF FERROCEMENT
As with any other structural materials, the design of ferrocement structures is controlled by a
number of design criteria, which may test the limits of the material. In order to provide an
idea of what can be achieved, following are some examples:[31]
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1. Boats of up to 33 meters in length (China, New Zealand); boats using combined

ferrocement and reinforced concrete of up to 90 meters in China.
2. Double cantilever V shaped roofing beams spanning 33 m and having a thickness of only
50 mm (reported by de Hanoi in Brazil).
3. Structural shell elements spanning 16 m, such as for the group of cupolas built by V.
Barberio, to house a fish farm in Abruzzo, Italy.
4. A 55 meter long by 15.9 m wide oil tanker to carry up to 1100 tons of fuel built in
Indonesia by Douglas Alexander of New Zealand.
5. A series of domes built for the mausoleum of Queen Alia in Amman, Jordan, the largest
having a diameter of 16 m with a 10 m height as reported by Jennings.
6. Ribbed precast ferrocement coffers (3.6 x 3.6 and 50 mm thick) used as permanent
formwork for the reinforced concrete roof of the Schlumberger laboratories in
Cambridge, England.
7. Lining for an Olympic size swimming pool in Cuba, reported by Wainshtok Rivas.
8. Thinnest ferrocement shell built at the University of Sidney for theirferrocement canoe; it
had a thickness of about 2 mm and used the concept of an origami folded structure.
9. A six meters span hollow cored box section, bridge built for one way traffic and light
trucks weighing up to 8 tons in Mexico, reported by Fernandez.
10. A 150 m elevated water tank in Brazil, reported by de Hanai.
11. Prefabricated water tanks, 3.6 m in diameter and 16 m in capacity, developed in
Singapore by Paramasivam.
12. Sunscreen L shaped elements 5 m long and 40 mm thick also developed in Singapore by
Paramasivam and Mansur.
Some of the most daring structures using ferrocement were built by D. Alexander in New
Zealand. He combined the concepts of ferrocement, fiber reinforced concrete, and
prestressing with high strength wires to build relatively large scale oil barges and wharves
at competitive cost. In particular, he combined the use of high tensile wires and fibers
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with wire mesh reinforcement to improve crack distribution, crack width, and overall
mechanical properties.

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