Thermosiphon Reboilers-A Review

Literature pertaining to the design o f thermosiphon reboilers is

reciewed in terms of available methods and appropriate data sources

he practice of boiling inside vertical tubes has been

Tin existence for almost a century in the forin of

evaporators. T h e use of a steam chest inside the process
\,esse1 was not always practical, and a separate unit
evolved (Figure 1). The thermosiphon reboiler contains the two endearing qualities of the evaporator,
namely, mechanical simplicity, and operation in the
nucleate boiling regime with its attractively high fluxes.
I t is unfortunate thar the design of a thermosiphon
reboiler does not follow along the lines of simplicity, although all that is required is the prediction of the f l o ~ 7
and heat-transfer rates.
T h e successrd design of a therinosiphon reboiler then
is dependent upon the prediction of a tubeside coefficient,
which in turn is beset by complications owing to the
presence of two phases. T h e designer is quickly involved in considering pressure drop, flow regime prediction, realistic boiling curves, flolv instabilities, and
scale-up reliability from single tube data to tube bundles.
Since available head to a reboiler is usually fixed by
existing equipment, the allowable pressure drop is
considered a dependent variable for design purposes.
T h e tubeside pressure drop then becomes a function of
the physical properties of the fluid, the fraction vaporized, and the flow geometry.
Design Procedures

A general design procedure for thermosiphon reboilers was presented in 1960 by Fair (22). This
method is flexible enough to allow inclusion of newer and
more reliable correlations as they evolve. Pertinent
areas of research concentration in the past ten years
have included two-phase flow friction losses, boiling
coefficients, and two-phase heat-transfer coefficients.
Fairs method involves a nestled series of trial and crror
calculations, starting with a rough estimate as a pre76

INDUSTRIAL A N D ENGINEERING CHEMISTRY

liminary design. T h e outermost loop is thc cornparison of the flow performance of the preliminary
design with the available head. A secondary inner
loop consists of assuming a total fraction vaporized, and
estimating the circulation rate. This may require
correction of the preliminary design a t this point, or,
if not, then the heat-transfer raie is calculated by proceeding to another trial and error loop that converges
on the assumed fraction vaporized. Additional calculation loops could be incorporated to include the effect of
variation of liquid phase friction factor and lengthwise inside tube temperature profile effects. Fairs method requires selection of a boiling coefficient in the deterrnination of the two-phase coefficient. Fair (24) also presented a reviey of the state-of-the-art for reboilers in
general, including kettle-type units. Fair (23) lists references for holdup correlations. T h e essentials of a
computer program were later discussed by Fair (24)
based on earlier work (22).
T h e problems involved in estimating circulation and
heat-transfer rates were discussed by Hughmark (40)
with the utilization of a lengthwise temperature profile.
T h e overall design approach is essentially the same as
Fairs method, with a simplification in the form of a
correlation for predicting the inside coefficient. Prediction of the circulation rate was considered by Hughinark
in a later report (44) in which the two-phase pressure
drop was calculated by means of a polynomial in terms
of the Froude number and volume fraction liquid.
Pressure drop calculated values are point values and
the total pressure drop is obtained by integration over
the tube length. Hughmark (45) has summarized his
efforts (40, 42, 44) with therniosiphon design. Inside
coefficient relationships are presented for the liquidsensible heat region, nucleate boiling region, and the
two-phase region (slug, annular, and mist flow). T h e

HUGH R. McKEE

latest holdup correlation proposed is the model of Levy

(55) with additional empirical relationships between
variables established from actual data applicable to
thermosiphons. Pressure-drop calculations follow the
recommendations of Collier and Hewitt (14) who found
agreement with the Lockhart-Martinelli correlation
below a liquid Reynolds number of 2100, and Chenoweth-Martin (73) above 2100. Nucleation effects are
considered as a function of liquid film thickness in the
calculation of a maximum flux, thus relating these two
design features to experimental data.
A recent study by Tripathy (73) compared the pressure-drop calculation methods of Fair, Hughmark, and
a shortcut method based on an overall average twophase density, using data obtained on a 5/8 in., 16
gauge, 4.5-ft tube, with water as the process fluid.
Agreement was found best using Fair's method, acceptable for Hughmark's method, and rather poor for
the shortcut method. I t was recommended that the
designer follow the more sophisticated methods for
other than very approximate work.

where ha, is the inside average boiling coefficient,

Urn is a log mean velocity assuming homogeneous
flow equals ( U mixture outlet - U liquid inlet)/ln
UL, PL, kz, Cz, PL are liquid phase prop[uout/uinl,
erties (surface tension, viscosity, thermal conductivity,
heat capacity, and density, respectively), urnis the surface
tension of water, and D is the characteristic length.
T h e authors also correlated their data using the superposition technique of convection and pool boiling.
Guerrieri and Talty (36) employed a light oil as a
heating medium around a 0.75 in. i.d. by 6-ft long tube
and a 1.0 in. i.d. by 6.5-ft long tube. Inside wall and
boiling stream temperatures were measured a t 6-in.
intervals along the tubes. Film coefficients are presented for methanol, cyclohexane, benzene, pentane,
and heptane atmospheric pressure as a function of the
Lockhart-Martinelli parameter X t t . Wall temperatures were found generally to decrease from the bottom
to the top of the tube. Stream-temperature distributions displayed the expected maximum at some intermediate point. T h e boiling film coefficient is also presented in terms of a nucleate boiling correction factor.
Dengler and Addoms (18) used a 1 in. i.d. by 20-ft
long copper tube in a forced convection study on water,
using radioactive tracers to measure liquid fractions
along the tube. They present the ratio of the local coefficient to the liquid-phase coefficient as a function of
the reciprocal of the Lockhart-Martinelli parameter.
They observe and discuss the suppression of nucleate
boiling by forced convection either externally induced
or vapor induced.
Beaver and Hughniark (8) used an electrically heated
3/4 in. by 8-ft long carbon steel tube to investigate the
reliability of using developed correlations in vacuum
operations. T h e authors decided that for wall minus
saturation temperature differences less than 15F single
phase coefficients dominate and can be predicted by a
modified Dittus-Boelter equation (Sieder-Tate modification)
Nu = 0.023 (Re)'J.* (Pr)0.4

Design Data Sources

Overall design data, including both local heat-transfer
coefficients and pressure-drop values, started appearing in
the mid-fifties. Piret and Isbin (67) investigated six fluids:
water, carbon tetrachloride, normal butyl alcohol,
isopropyl alcohol, 35 wt % KzCOa, and 50 wt % KzCOa
a t atmospheric pressure in a 1-in. nominal copper tube
with a heated length of 46.5 in. They correlated the
inside heat-transfer coefficient by using a modified
Dittus-Boelter equation

Steam

Thermosiphon
Reboiler
Tubes

Figure 7.

Vertical thermosiphon reboiler

VOL. 6 2

NO. 1 2

DECEMBER 1970

77

Nucleation occurs for temperature differences greater

than 15F and local inside coefficients can be predicted
by existing two-phase correlations. Investigations
covered a total of twelve fluids, and the observed liquid
circulation rates are presented ; this allows the designer
to compare calculated and experimental liquid rates.
Lee et al. (53)used a reboiler consisting of se\wi tubes
in a bundle. T h e tubes \vex 1 in. o.d., 14 gauge, 10-ft
long Admiralty metal. Data for a total of s e ~ e nliquids
are presented for pressure ranges of approxiniatcly 2 to
120 psia. T h e authors present overall coefficients as
functions of overall temperature differences. T h e average inside-film coefficient and tlie niaxiriiuiii flux are
presented in terms of dimensionless groups. T h e niaximum flux !vas found for each fluid and system pressure.
Above the niaximuni flux, vapor lock occurred; it \vas
the departure from smooth cocurrent flow of the two
phases through tlie equipment. Recoininendations
include a inaximurii overall coefficient of 500 Btujhr
sq ft O F , and the need for giving particular atrention to
reboiler entrance and exit piping.
Johnson (46) measured circulation rates and overall
temperature driving forces for a 15-in. shell reboiler containing 96 1 in., 1 2 gauge, 8-ft long tubes. One tube was
equipped with a temperature probe to obtain local boiliiig stream temperatures. Circulation rates were predicted by Kern's method. This method assumes a linear
variation of specific volume Tvith length in the vaporization zone, and that heat transfer proceeds from the
wall to the liquid and then to the vapor ca\.ities. T h e
Lockhart-h,lartinelli parameter is used in t h e calculation
of friction and expansion losses for the two-phase zonc.
Overall coefficients, driving forces, fluxes, flow, and
vaporization rates are tabulated for water and a hydrocarbon having a normal boiling point of 80.8"C. Typical temperature profiles are show711 for six runs on the
hydrocarbon. Overall temperature differcncc predictions are compared to the work of Piret and Isbin (67).
Data on 44 runs are included.
Shelleiie et al. (69) also used an industrial-size reboiler
having a 14-in. shell, containing 70 3/4 in., 13 gauge, and
3 7/8 in., 12 gauge, 8-ft long tubes, providing 110 sq f t
of area. T h e reboiler was connected to an existing distillation column and, except for instrunlentation, was
identical to a typical coriiniercial unit. T h e hcat sourcc
was steam, and the process fluids \vex benzene, water,
isopropyl alcohol, methyl ethyl ketone, glycerine, and
various aqueous solutions of the alcohol, ketone, and
glycerine. Of particular interest in the work was the
exploration of the onset of unstable operation. The
authors found that rhe addition of flow resistance to the
inlet line extended the srable operating range and: as
might be expected, the allowable pressure drop across
the tubes decreases as the heat flux increases. Resistances were also added to the vapor return line, which
resulted in a decrease in the niaxirnuni flux as the resis-

AUTHOR Hugh R. McKee is with

Born Engineering Company,

P. 0.Box 102, Tulsa, Okla. 74101.

78

I N D U S T R I A L A N D E N G I N E E R I N G CHEMISTRY

tance increased. The resulting rccoiiiiiiciidation of

keeping t h e return line flow area cqual to the tubc flow
area was consistent with that of Giliiiorc (L31). Maximum lieat fluxes are tabulated for the various fluids with
accoiiipanying ieinperature differences and c;/c 17aporization. Other data are prescntcd as flux us. log nieaii
temperature differciic,e and mass x-clocity us. pressure
drop. This work will be invaluable for design and coinparison purposes, and it shows that an opportunily cxists
for a n experiinen talist to iiivestiga tc the contribution of
the various componcnis in the flow loop to stablc opcrarion. Emphasis to date has been placed on the hcat.cd
elenient of the loop, ivhicli is certainly justified. The
designer also needs to be sure that his filial proposal will
meet both heat transfer arid stable operation rcquircmen t s .
Research into boiling heat-transfer cocf-licients has
been rather recent, and as yet no coiiiplctcly reliable
correlation has evolved, as it has for single phase flow for
various geometries.
Table I is a brief suiiiiiiary of typical boiling data in
tcrnis of the more coiniiionly investigated fluids. W h e n
lack of a siinilar fluid-surface coiiibination is encountered,
particular attention should be givcn in riiatchiny surfaces when using a generalized correlation. Fluid property variations are adequately described in inost correlations, the surface characteristic remaining independent. Unfortunately, the best one can do is rciiiciiiber that the type of surface is iiiiportant i n boiling heat
transfer, and remain alert to clcvelopinents in this arca.
Schrock aiid Grossman (68) correlated local hcatLransfer cocfficients for the lorccd flow of water in the
wettcd-wall rcgion---i.e., between subcoolcd boiling and
tcrnis of the
the traiisition to dry wall conditions-in
Lockhart-hlartinelli parameter and the boiling nuliibcr.
The boiling number is the hcat flux cli\rided by the product of the mass flux aiid rhc latent heat of vaporization.
Local pressure gradients are presented as functions of a
niodified Lockhart-hlartinclli parameter

where p is the viscosity. 17 is the specific volume. x is the

fraction vapor. and F refers to saturatcd liquid.
Experiinents \\ere perforiiied on tubes 0.11 62 to
0.4317 in. i.d , 15- to 40-111. long, Tlith hcat fluxcs of
6 X l o 4 to 1.45 X l o G Btu/lir ft2. i n a v fluxes of 49 to
911 lb/sec ftL, and system pressures from 42 to 505 psia.
The authors rccornrriend their correlation for cxit qualities up to 50%.
A niaximuni coefficient was observed by Groothius and
Hendal (35) a t the suspected transition from slug to
niist-annular flow. The authors were in\-estigating twophase heat transfer in air-water and air-gas oil mixtures.
The conditions for the riiaxirnurn coefficient arc related
to a dimensionless group deri\-ed from the IVeber nuiiiber. Local coefficients are presented in terms of S u , Re,
Pr, and viscosity ratio.
T h e concept of superposition of heat-transfer inecha-

TABLE I.
Surface

Fluid
Aniline
Aniline

Stainless steel

Benzene

Brass
Chromium
304 Stainless
Stainless steel

n-Butyl alcohol
Alcohol, n butyl
Carbon tetrachloride
Cyclohexane
Diphenyl
Alcohol, ethyl ethanol
Ethylene glycol

Freon 11, 113

Heptane

NUCLEATE BOILING CORRELATIONS

Generalized correlation
independent of flow pattern
Annular
Pool boiling
Pool boiling
Inside horizontal, vertical

Copper
Brass
304 Stainless

Copper
347 Stainless
A-nickel
Copper and stainless steel

Data from 15 runs

Annular
Pool boiling
Pool boiling
Pool boiling, axial, and
twisted tape swirl flow
Inside horizontal
Annular
Pool boiling

Atmospheric pressure
Burnout data included
Pressure drop data included

11 correlations
Data from 14 runs

Copper
Annular
Inside tubes, across flat
plate
Annular

Neon

Copper, nickel, cadmium

Nitrogen

Copper, nickel, cadmium

Pentane
Potassium carbonate,
35% and 50%

Stainless steel

Sodium

Nickel

Meta-terphenyl,
orthoterphenyl, 4.35y0 puraterphenyl in meta-terphenyl (SantowaxMonsan to)
Water

Horizontal disk
Pool boiling
Pool boiling

Copper

Inside vertical tubes

Other correlations

13.5 to 48.8 psia

Data from 14 runs

Copper

Polished chromium
Hydrogen
Isopropyl alcohol
Alcohol, isopropyl
Methyl alcohol
Alcohol, methyl
Mercury

Comments

Flow pattern
Inside horizontal, vertical

Pool boiling
Annular
Pool boiling
Annular
Inside horizontal
vertical

1 and 3 atm
30"-78"K temperature
range
30'-78 OK temperature
range

and

Data from 15 runs lengthwise temperature profile

included
65-400 mmHg abs
1200-15000F

Boiling
Two-phases (gas-liquid)
Review

nisms was modified by Chen (72) to account for the suppression effect of the moving fluid on the boiling rate.
T h e conditions of convective heat transfer are met at the
limits of 0% and 100% quality, and in the boiling, twophase region the interaction between the mechanisms
is accounted for. I t is a t this point that empiricism
enters the model, that is, in the determination of the
interaction effect. Chen's approach provides the designer with a method of obtaining a forced con-

(22, 23, 24, 71)

(69)
(66)

vection boiling coefficient with a minimum of model

detail considerations.
Other generalized boiling correlations have been presented by Levy (54,Gilmore (31), and Forster and
Greif (25). Boiling curves and correlations are also to
be found in the general review of boiling by Westwater
(79, 80). Pressure effects on boiling curves have been
studied by Mendler et al. (63).
For those who insist on climbing the nucleate boiling
VOL. 6 2

NO. 1 2

DECEMBER

1970

79

curve as far as possible, a great deal of attention has been

given to the critical flux, first boiling crisis or burnout
point. This riiaxiiiiuiii nucleate boiling flux is slightly
above the DNB (departure from nucleate boiliiig) point.
The area is unreliable in ternis of stability and reproducibility. One easily slips over into either the transition region or the film-boiling region, with a resultant
decrease in the flux. This critical flux is a point the
designer should respect enough to check and avoid.
Bergles et al. ( 9 ) investigated the critical hcat flux for
water at low pressures (below 100 psia). They iiivestigated the effects of tube length, inler temperature, tube
diameter, and pressure on the critical heat flux. T h c
authors relate their results to the instabilities of the slugflow regime. Critical heat fluxes for water are normally
considered to start around 0.4 X l o 6 Btulhr ft; ho\vever, the authors have shown values of half this amount
under low pressure conditions.
Gaiiibill (28) has kept abreast of the critical flux literature in ternis of general rcvie\vs (27), aiid in the prcsentation of a corrclation. The latter correlation is
based on two ternis, a forced convection term and a boiling term. Gaiiibill has also demonstrated the uncertainty in predicting the critical flux ( 2 9 ) . If one needs
to be impressed xvith the magnitude of the problem, the
latter reference is suggested.
Boiliiig curves and critical fluxes for some binary
liquids have been presented by van tVijk e t al. (75)for
benzene, toluene, and acetone for both pool boiliiig, aiid
for forced convection lengthwisc outsidc tubes by Carne
( I I). Pressure effects on the critical flux have been in\-cstigated by Hoxvell and Bell (37).
T h e designer then h a s the usual problem of selecling
which approach to utilize, empirical or theoretical.
Fair (22) describes these approaches as the statistical
approach of Iliighniark, arid his oivn riiechanistic approach. The former presents sccurity to the, dcsigner,
if siiiiilar coiidir ioiis can be found betwxen his problem
and the contributing data. T h e advaiitage of the rnechanistic approach lies in extrapolation into the unknown.
T h e soft spot in Fairs nierhod is in the selection of a boil-

TABLE I I .
Sjsteni

.lir-Water
Air-lvater

.\ir-\Vater

Boiling water

V E R T I C A L FLOW TWO-PHASE
CORRELATIONS
Comments

Rejerence

Introductory survcy
Survcy advocating Duklers
(20, 2 1 ) approach
Energy equation discussion
(theory)
Film thickncss, film flow rate
study
Pressure drop and holdup
study comparison with experimcntal data
Pressure drop in slug flow, experimciital study
Elevated pressure effects, cxperimeiital study

(77)
(76)

(76, 74)

(30.1

17)
(33)

1631

80

I N D U S T R I A L AND ENGINEERING C H E M I S T R Y

ing coefficient, which places one in the wonderland of

boiling data. T h e most benevolent advice to the designer in selecting a boiling coefficient is to adopt Hughmarks attitude and search for an appropriate boiling
curve that represents identical fluid propcrties and surface characterisLics.
Pressure Drop Calculations

First, it should be mentioned that several valuable

works are available for reference purposes in tkvo-phase
flow. Kepple and Tung (47) have absrracted the literature for the period 1950-1962. Grouse (34) has also
classified a large amount of the tLvo-phase literature.
Anderson and Russell (2, 3, 4 ) present a thrce-part
survey of nvo-phase floxv. Parr I deals with flow patterns
encountered in two-phase flo\v, and how to predict these
floiv patterns for horizontal and \,ertical flow. For vertical f l o ~the
, slug-flow regime envelope (between bubble
and annular mist), is presented as thc voluiiietric gas
fraction of the entering fuel streaiii ZJS. a gas-liquid
Froude nuniber. ,4second correlation is also presented
as the liquid superficial velocity us. the gas-liquid voluiiictric ratio at input, which is divided into the bubble,
slug, froth, ripple, and film-flow regimes.
Part I1 considers the prediction of pressure drop in
two-phase flow. T h e authors recommend Duklers (20,
27) method as a general approach and they also find
favor in Hughmarks (43)method as applied to either
horizontal or vertical flow.
Part I11 coiicerns itself with a review of the status of
inass transfer, heat transfer, and clieinical reaction in
tlvo-phase flow. (Other pertinent references arc prescntcd in Table 11.)
Hsu and Graham (38) forced water through 13- and
1~-11111itubes Lvith boiling in an effort to gain soiiie insight
into the niechaiiisiri of boiling inside tubes. The forced
floiv produces a scarcity of nucleation sites and a corresponding small bubbly flow region. Coiivcciioii slugf l o ~ v(a large hot layer forining vapor instead of bubble
coalescence to form slugs) occurs rapidly, forming a long
Taylor bubble. Bubble trajectories into the stream arc
compared to jet rrajectories, aiid an actual trajectory
from high-spced motion picture studies is shown. T h c
change from bubble to slug aiid annular flow is compared
to the adiabatic map : ( r7,j ( JTL+ V,) ZJS. Fr, where
Fr = ( V ~ + V J 2 / ( D g )( ,V is velocity, D is characteristic
length, a n d g is acceleration of gravity), not too favorably.
T h e slug to annular flow transition occurred ax a diniensionless vapor velocity Ut* = 0.417 M-hich, according to
Wallis (78) should take place a t G,* = 0.525, (U,* =
U / d G where U equals superficial vapor velocity).
T h e calculation of the void fraction is dependent up011
the relative velocity ratio between the phases (velocity
slip ratio), which is unknown. Von Glahn (77) corrclated all xhe available steam-water data froin the literature
in the form of an empirical equation that needs to be
tested on other s>-stems. Hughmark (47, 42) also has
been busy in the holdup correlation area. Xicklin et al.
(65) investigated the rise velocity of bubbles in a one-in.

tube. Equations are presented for the velocities in slug

flow as approximations below R e = 8000, and accurate
above R e = 8000.
The dimensionless group approach as employed by the
petroleum industry in two-phase flow problems has been
discussed by Baker (5).
The work of Lockhart and Martinelli (56) has been
modified innumerable times, which only seems to attest
to its utility. Chenoweth and Martin (73) extended the
Lockhart-Martinelli work to larger straight pipes and
included flow through some fittings.
Dukler et al. (20, 27) have presented a review of twophase pressure drop. The conclusion of (20)was that the
Lockhart-Martinelli correlation showed the best agreement with reality of the pressure-drop correlations tested,
and the holdup correlation of Hughmark (42)for holdup
calculations was best. Hughmark's correlation is a
modification of one proposed by Bankoff (6),which assumes a high bubble concentration at the center of the
stream, decreasing to zero at the wall for bubble flow.
The slippage between the phases also is assumed zero,
which is the single fluid model assumption. The model
is applied to stream qualities for zero to 60%.
Following the work of Bankoff, we have the salvation
of two-phase flow by Zuber and Findlay (87). They
considered both the velocity and concentration profiles
across the duct, along with the relative velocity between
the phases in arriving at a holdup correlation. The
result is a correlation that is independent of flow regime;
however, it is limited to two-phase systems in which no
phase change occurs by evaporation, condensaiion, boiling, or chemical reaction.
Davis ( 7 5 ) modified the Lockhart-Martinelli parameter using the Froude number to accommodate the horizontal to vertical flow geometry change. LockhartMartinelli :

Revised Lockhart-Martinelli parameter by Davis :

where V , is the mean velocity of the liquid-vapor mixture, D is the diameter, and gc is the gravitational constant.
The Davis correlation for pressure drop ( f20%) is
applicable to the same pressure range as the LockhartMartinelli correlation : for the turbulent-turbulent flow
regime with liquid Reynolds numbers above 8000, and
the vapor Reynolds numbers above 21 00 ; for liquid Reynolds numbers between 6000 and 8000, providing the
vapor flow rate is great enough to obtain a Froude number above 100.
The inclusion of interfacial roughness considerations
into the Lockhart-Martinelli correlation improved the
pressure-drop prediction, as shown by McMillan et al.
(62). Among the fluids used in horizontal systems was
trichloromonofluoromethane.

Baroczy (7) modified the Lockhart-Martinelli twophase pressure drop gradient ratio, r$li2, by considering
the ratio of the two-phase gradient to the total liquid
gradient

I n terms of the mass fraction (quality) vapor or gas

This two-phase friction multiplier has been correlated

for substances of a wide range of properties, in terms of
a property index ( p and p are viscosity and density,
respectively)

with quality as the correlating parameter. T h e author

also presents a method for finding the two-phase pressure
drop for changes in flow geometry, such as contractionexpansion, sharp-edged orifices, and other velocity-head
related elements.
Entrance effects and flow-transition effects for the slugflow regime were considered by Moissis and Griffith (64)
in their description of the density distribution. The
pressure drop is calculated to a first approximation for
the final 20 pipe diameters.
For work in which the critical pressure or above is
liable to be encountered for homogeneous, two-phase
flow, for appreciable AP, Paige (66) has presented three
methods of calculating the pressure drop with a flashing
liquid. Based on the use of average mixture densities,
and starting with the mechanical energy equation, the
prediction of the pressure profile along the line is possible.
T h e amount of effort being expended on two-phase
flow is of an order of magnitude that allows us only to
indulge in a selected bibliography. The game of comparison quickly gets to be an infinitum of cornbinations.
For example, Hughmark (43) has shown the similarity
of form between the work of Lamb and White (57) and
Hughmark and Pressburg (47). Pressure-drop expressions derived from a momentum balance result in a drag
coefficient form. Energy balance derived expressions
take on the lost work form. Hughmark applies the latter
to data for horizontal, vertical upward, and vertical
downward flow for isothermal systems. Gill et al. (30)
compare favorably with Lockhart-Martinelli for vertical
upward flow of air-water.
Conclusions

The standard of comparison seems to have been established by Lockhart-Martinelli. There must be some
satisfaction in having produced the most often quoted,
compared, and modified work in the field. The Lockhart-Martinelli standard appears not only in pressuredrop correlations, but also in two-phase coefficient correlations.
There are several design methods currently available :
the classic local coefficient approach utilizing average
conditions and properties in the two-phase region, the
VOL. 6 2

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DECEMBER 1 9 7 0

81

statistical or empirical approach, and the more sophisticated method of Fair. T h e first is dangerous for the
serious designer. Realistically and traditionally, the
designer has functioned in the realm of experience and
expedience. He, therefore, tends toward the second or
empirical approach, which is highly useful for repeat
routine work, but suffers from the limitation of producing
questionable results when extrapolated beyond the conditions of the original data. Sufficient material is now
available to produce a satisfactory iriethod of design, if
one remembers that investigations into areas such as flow
control are still incomplete. The more theoretical approach overcoines the extrapolation limitation, but demands more effort to successfully set up the calculating
procedure. The ubiquitous piper seems to be demanding his due for the pleasure of flexibility.

REF E R ENC ES
(1 j Anderson, G . H . and hlantzourdnis, B. G.. "T>\o-Ph;isc (G'is-Liquid) I'low
Phenomena," Chem. Eng. S - L ~12
. , (Z),109-126 (1960).
(2) h n d c r s o n : R . J. a n d Russcll, T . 'IV. F., "Dcsigning for T s o - P h a b c Floi*," P a r t
Yorh), 139-44 ( D e i . 6,1965).
ind Russcll,T. 'IV. F.. "Dcsigning lor Tuo-I'hdsc Florc," I'.iri
11, zbid., 99-104 (Dcc. 20,1965).
(4) Anderson, R . J. a n d Russcll, T. I V . F., "Designing for 'Two-l'htiic Flow," P x t
111, i h d . . 87-90 (Jan. 3,1966).
(5) Bakcr. O.,
"Design of Pipclincs for Simultaneous Flow of Oil a n d Gas," 011 Gas
J . , 53 ( 1 2 ) , 185-195 (JuI) 1954).
(6) Bankoff. S. G . : "\!ari,rble Density Single Fluid h l o d r l for T\r.o-l'h,tic Flov with
Particular licicrcncc to Stedm-TVatcr Tlo\v," 7'rans. AS'.ifL', 265-272 (1960,.
( 7 ) Barocrv C. J., "A Syatem,itic Corrcl.ition for Two-Ph.ise I'ressurc Drop,"
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