The Westerschelde Tunnel

15:00
Pagina 2
Colophon
Editors:
Final editing:
Co-ordination:
Illustrations:
Ing. J. Heijboer*
Ir. J. van den Hoonaard**
Ing. F.W.J. van de Linde**
G.J. Kleefmann, Rotterdam
Ir. P.H.M.J. Langendijk**
Drs. H.A.C. Derksen-Zijm**
Ing. M. Roepius**
Drs. J. Blom and Dr. G. Seijger***
Ministry of Transport, Public Works and Water Management,
Geo-Information and ICT Department, Delft
Duo-Foto/Wim Kooyman, Heikant
Rothuizen van Doorn 't Hooft, Middelburg
Kombinatie Middelplaat Westerschelde V.O.F., Terneuzen
N.V. Westerscheldetunnel
Civil Engineering Division, Directorate-General
for Public Works and Water Management
*** A.A. Balkema Publishers
19-11-2003
*
**
Prelims_standard.qxd
Authors (chapter): N.V. Westerscheldetunnel:

Ing. D. Grevink (18), Ing. J. Heijboer (2, 12, 17), J. van Houte (2), Mr. L.C. Makkinga (17)
Civil Engineering Division, Directorate-General for Public Works and Water
Management:
Drs. H.A.C. Derksen-Zijm (1), Ing. P. Fournier (15), Ir. J. van den Hoonaard (3, 6),
Ing. G. Kooijman (2, 3, 8, 13), Ing. F.W.J. van de Linde (14, 18),
Ir. N.M. Naaktgeboren (13), Ing. M. Roepius (11), Ir. E.J. Sonke (9, 10, 11, 12),
Ing. J.P.M. Verhoef (15), Ing. J.D. Vlasblom (10,12), Ing. J. de Vries (6),
Ir. G.M. Wolsink (5), Ir. E.W. Worm (4)
Zeeland Department, Directorate General for Public Works and Water
Management, Middelburg:
Ir. T.J. Boon (2), Ing. C.L. Rockx (16)
Kombinatie Middelplaat Westerschelde V.O.F., Terneuzen:
Ing. H. Weigl (13), Dr. Ing. M. Thewes (14), Dipl.-Ing. H. Seidel (3)
TEC Tunnel Engineering Consultants, Veenendaal:
Ir. R.J. van Beek (9, 13)
GeoDelft, Delft:
Ir. M.Th. van Staveren MBA (7,8)
Noordhoek Diving, Zierikzee:
J.A. Stouten (11)
Proces Projectmanagers B.V. P2, Rossum:
Ir. H. Glas (3, 12)
TNO Bouw, Delft:
Ir. A.J.M. Siemes (6)
IBAS ICT, Houten:
N.C. Nass MIM RI (15)
CIT-group, Goes:
Mr. L.A. Smid (17)
BAK Consultants, Delft:
J. Bredenoord (17)
Copyright 2004 Swets & Zeitlinger B.V., Lisse, The Netherlands
19-11-2003
15:00
Pagina 3
The Westerschelde
Tunnel
Approaching Limits
J. Heijboer1, J. van den Hoonaard2 and F.W.J. van de Linde2

1
2
N.V. Westerscheldetunnel
Civil Engineering Division, Directorate-General for Public Works and Water Management
A.A. BALKEMA PUBLISHERS / LISSE / ABINGDON / EXTON (PA) / TOKYO
19-11-2003
English Translation:
Design:
Typesetting:
Printing:
Binding:
15:00
Pagina 4
TransL Vertaalbureau, L. van Gerrevink-Genee & M. van Gerrevink, Warmond

M.E.E. Bourgonjen, A.A. Balkema Publishers, Lisse
Charon Tec Pvt. Ltd. Chennai, India
Gorter, Steenwijk, The Netherlands
Callenbach, Nijkerk, The Netherlands

All rights reserved. No part of this publication or the information contained herein may be
reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic,
mechanical, by photocopying, recording or otherwise, without written prior permission from the
publishers.
Although all care is taken to ensure the integrity and quality of this publication and the information
herein, no responsibility is assumed by the publishers nor the author for any damage to property or
persons as a result of operation or use of this publication and/or the information contained herein.
Published by: A.A. Balkema Publishers, a member of Swets & Zeitlinger Publishers
www.balkema.nl
ISBN 90 5809 597 5
19-11-2003
15:00
Pagina 5
PARTNERS IN THE REALISATION OF THE WESTERSCHELDE TUNNEL

Ministry of Transport, Public Works and Water Management, The Hague, NL
Directorate-General for Public Works and
Water Management, Civil Engineering
Division, Utrecht, NL
Water Management, Zeeland Department, Middelburg, NL
Ministry of Finance, The Hague, NL
Province of Zeeland, NL
N.V. Westerscheldetunnel, Goes, NL
City of Borsele, NL
City of Goes, NL
City of Terneuzen, NL
Waterschap Zeeuwse Eilanden, Goes, NL
Waterschap Zeeuwsch-Vlaanderen, Terneuzen, NL
Zeeland Seaports, Terneuzen
Arcadis B.V., Arnhem, NL
Koninklijke BAM-NBM Beton- en Industriebouw B.V., Bunnik, NL
Bravenboer & Scheers B.V., Terneuzen, NL
Brckner Grundbau GmbH, Essen, D
CIT-Group, Goes, NL
Croon Electrotechniek B.V., Rotterdam, NL
De Lange Beton, Waalwijk, NL
Dibora GmbH, Germendorf, D
Efkon AG, Graz, A
SA. Franki Construct N.V., Lige, B
19-11-2003
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Pagina 6
GEA Grenobloise dElectronique et dAutomatismes, Meylan, F

GeoDelft, Delft, NL
Grontmij GeoGroep, Terneuzen, NL
Heijmans N.V., Rosmalen, NL
Herrenknecht AG, Schwanau, D
Hillebrand Konstruktiebedrijf B.V., Middelburg, NL
IBAS ICT B.V., Houten, NL
Jobse en Bos Architecten, Rotterdam, NL
KMW Kombinatie Middelplaat Westerschelde V.O.F., Terneuzen, NL
F. Koch B.V. Raadgevend Ingenieursburo, Goes, NL
Lamsonair B.V., Zeist, NL
Raadgevend Ingenieursbureau Lievense B.V., Breda, NL
Mabuwat B.V., Zwijndrecht, NL
Martens en Van Oord, Oosterhout, NL
Nebest, Groot-Ammers, NL
Noordhoek Diving Company B.V., Zierikzee, NL
Proces Projectmanagers B.V., P2, Rossum, NL
Philipp Holzmann GmbH, Neu Isenburg, D
Rothuizen van Doorn t Hooft, Goes, NL
RPS BAK Consultants, Delft, NL
TBI Beton- en Waterbouw Voormolen B.V., Rotterdam, NL
TBI Beton- en Waterbouw Haverkort B.V., Apeldoorn, NL
TEC Tunnel Engineering Consultants, Veenendaal, NL
TNO Building and Construction Research, Delft, NL
Vogel B.V., Zwijndrecht, NL
Ing.-Bro Dipl.-Ing. H. Vssing GmbH, Dsseldorf, D
Wayss & Freytag Ingenieurbau AG, Frankfurt am Main, D
Wolter & Dros Groep, Amersfoort, NL
19-11-2003
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Pagina 7
Table of contents
Foreword
Explanation of Dutch terms
1. A Pioneering Mega Project: General Project Description
ix
xi
1
2. The Westerschelde Tunnel: History and Background
11
3. The Design of the Westerschelde Tunnel in a Nutshell
25
4. Safety
37
5. The Protection of the Westerschelde Tunnel Against Fire
51
6. A Life Span of at Least 100 Years
63
7. Geotechnical Circumstances
75
8. Access Ramps: Design and Implementation
87
9. The Tunnel Lining
103
10. Tunnel Boring Machines
123
11. The Boring and Tunnelling Process
143
12. Separation Plant and Boring Spoil
177
13. Cross Connections
189
14. Civil Fitting Out and Logistical Process
211
15. Tunnel Installations
229
16. Aesthetic Aspects
251
17. The Contract and Project Management
261
18. Maintenance Aspects
279
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Foreword
After the Westerschelde Tunnel was opened in March 2003, the last 'islands' in
the Dutch province of Zeeland became linked to one another by permanent
cross-river connections. The realisation of this important traffic tunnel was a
long and challenging project. This book deals with many aspects of the course
taken by this project. The emphasis here is not in the first place on the decadeslong history leading to the realisation, but rather on the design and construction
of the Westerschelde Tunnel, as it took place since late 1995/early 1996.
The designers and builders are proud of what was eventually achieved: a
product of high quality that was realised within the agreed amount of time
while only minimally exceeding the costs! After all, the Westerschelde Tunnel is
a unique project: a bored tunnel 6600 metres in length, consisting of two tubes
of more than 11 metres diameter each, with its deepest point at about 60 metres
below sea level. The geological conditions were very difficult: a relatively soft
soil consisting of sand and clay with an extraordinary composition.
Although the book also pays attention to the approach roads and the included
viaducts, the toll square, etc., emphasis is nevertheless mainly on the bored
tunnel. The 18 chapters deal with various aspects of the design and construction. Next to a general description of the design, much attention is paid to
all facets that contributed to attaining an extremely high standard of safety. The
efforts made to guarantee a life span of 100 years are described, as well as the
maintenance necessary to achieve this during the operational phase. Several
chapters elucidate the boring process further, paying much attention to the
operation of the boring machines and the problems the builders experienced
during the implementation. The many tunnel installations, the controlling system and the test trajectory that was necessary to prove its proper operation,
also receive attention. Aside from technology, however, the book also deals
with the experience with the Design, Build and Maintenance contract and with
the aesthetic sides of the design.
In particular, the authors have tried to make clear that many problems in the
design and setbacks during the construction had to be overcome before the tunnel could be opened to the traffic. The intention of the editors has therefore been
in the first place to pass on the experience gained, which could also be of interest
to other workers. Although technology is emphasised and the book has been
written primarily for those interested in the construction of large infrastructural
projects, the contents are also very interesting for non-technical readers.
We hope the editors of this book have succeeded in carrying out their intention!
Ir. J. v.d. Hoonaard

Project Manager Westerschelde Tunnel
Ing. J. Heijboer
Technical Director NV Westerscheldetunnel
19-11-2003
15:00
Pagina 11
Explanation of Dutch terms

NAP
In the Netherlands the altitude of structures is recorded in relation to NAP
(Normaal Amsterdams Peil). In English this is also called AOD (Amsterdam
Ordnance Datum). In this book the reference NAP has been used.
WESTERSCHELDE
The stretch of water referred to in the Netherlands as the Westerschelde, has
been translated in some maps as Western Scheldt. For ease of reference to
most maps, the term Westerschelde has been used.
PAS VAN TERNEUZEN

For ease of reference to most maps, the term Pas van Terneuzen has been used
which is synonymous with the Narrows of Terneuzen
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1 A PIONEERING MEGA PROJECT:

GENERAL PROJECT DESCRIPTION
H.A.C. Derksen-Zijm
Contents of this chapter:

Tour de force, a pioneering project
Geology
Boring machines
Route
The many advantages of the bored tunnels
Long history
Government as a shareholder in the NV
Planning and costs
Collection of tolls
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T h e We s t e r s c h e l d e Tu n n e l
Introduction
The Westerschelde Tunnel is of great value to the Netherlands and the rest
of the Belgian hinterland as a permanent river crossing between Central
Zeeland and the mainland of Zeeuwsch-Vlaanderen. It forms the final link in
a chain of permanent river crossings between the various islands of
Zeeland. The bored tunnel has a length of 6.6 kilometres and runs from
Ellewoutsdijk (Zuid-Beveland) to Terneuzen (Zeeuwsch-Vlaanderen). After
coming into operation in March 2003, the two ferry connections KruiningenPerkpolder and Vlissingen-Breskens were a thing of the past, and the
crossing has become a lot faster. By opting for a (bored) tunnel, the shipping
through the Westerschelde to and from Antwerp remained uninterrupted,
even during construction.
Fig. 1.1
The Netherlands in
Europe
London
Netherlands
Paris
Berlin
Madrid
Rome
Fig. 1.2
Location of the
Westerschelde Tunnel
in the Netherlands
North Sea
Amsterdam
Westerschelde
Tunnel
NL
Rotterdam
D
Zuid-Beveland
Westerschelde
Zeeuwsch-Vlaanderen
Essen
Dsseldorf
Antwerp
B
Brussels
Cologne
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A Pioneering Mega Project
Tour de force, a pioneering project

In many respects the construction of the Westerschelde Tunnel was a pioneering project. Due to the length of 6,600 metres, the large diameter (the
internal diameter measures 10.10 metres) and the extremely deep positioning
(up to 60 metres NAP) in combination with the complex geotechnical circumstances, the tunnel by European standards is quite unique. Exceptional
too, is that during the boring process the civil fitting out of the tunnel was
started directly behind the tunnel boring machines. This was also a reason
why the logistics of the project were a tremendous challenge.
Extremely stringent safety requirements resulted, amongst other things, in
the construction of 26 cross connections between both main tunnel tubes,
in which use was made of freezing technology. This technology had not previously been used in the Netherlands on such an enormous scale and
applied under such extreme conditions.
For the construction of the Westerschelde Tunnel, trendsetting research was
carried out into the life span of the tunnel wall and the fire-resistance by
means of heat-resistant cladding. In the Netherlands there were no standards as yet for bored tunnels. The necessary experience of boring into soft
soil (clay and sand) had already been gained elsewhere in Europe but, aside
from the Danish Strebaelt Tunnel, a bored tunnel of this magnitude had
not previously been realised in soft soil in Europe.
Fig. 1.3
The finished tunnel
Geology
The Westerschelde is 55 kilometres long and the width varies from
1.5 kilometres to 5.5 kilometres. It is a tidal river with an average tidal variance of 4.5 metres. The bed of the river continually changes due to the sand
transportation as a result of the tidal current which causes erosion and
sedimentation. For a large part the tunnel is bored through Boom clay. Its
layer thickness varies from approximately 8 metres under the main fairway
to approximately 38 metres under Middelplaat. Below the Boom clay there
is sand, the so-called Berg sands.
Above the clay deposit the sand and clay deposits alternate in various
compositions and thicknesses. From recent sea sand and clayish sand
to extremely tight glauconitic sand. At the main fairway, the Pas van
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Terneuzen, the deposits above the Boom clay are practically missing. This
fairway is maintained across a width of 750 metres at a depth of 20.5 metres
below NAP.
NAP (Amsterdam
Ordnance Datum)
Zeeuwsch-Vlaanderen
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
Fig. 1.4
The Westerschelde
Tunnel crosses
through different soil
deposits
Middelplaat
Pas van
Terneuzen
Zuid-Beveland
Everingen
Recent sea sand

Sand containing clay
Bored tunnel
Glauconitic sand
Boom clay
6,600 m
Berg sands
Boring machines
The tunnel was bored across its full length of 6,600 metres. For this, two boring machines were designed and manufactured by the company Herrenknecht
in Germany. For the circumstances in the Netherlands, basically two boring
methods are eligible: the slurry shield method and the earth pressure balance
shield method, mostly referred to as EPB. The slurry shield has a broad spectrum of applications and can be applied not only in cohesionless, permeable
sandy soils, in principle it can also be applied in cohesive, poorly permeable
Fig. 1.5
One of the two tunnel
boring machines in
the factory at
Herrenknecht
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clay. Primarily the EPB shield is suitable for boring through cohesive, poorly
permeable clay. Due to both soil types being present at the Westerschelde
Tunnel, the application of a slurry shield was most obvious.
The bentonite slurry, that became available during the boring of the tunnel
tubes has been given an environmentally hygienic and economically justified
purpose. The bentonite slurry consisted of fine and coarse sand, glauconitic
sand and stiff clay, which mixed with each other during the boring in the
transition areas and were supplemented with the supportive fluid (water
and bentonite). In the separation plant the bentonite was recovered from
the mixture as much as possible, and reused in the boring process. Further,
the possibilities were examined to reuse the cuttings. For the sand and clay
this was considered as being an interesting option. The material that was
not eligible for reuse, was spread over the Westerschelde.
Route
The entire Westerschelde Tunnel project encompassed the realisation of
a bored tunnel with access ramps, access roads at Zuid-Beveland and at
Zeeuwsch-Vlaanderen, a toll square at Zuid-Beveland and viaducts to safely
cross roads, waterways and railways. The route of the access roads, the N62,
starts at the northern end at the A58 between Goes and Middelburg and ends
in Zeeuwsch-Vlaanderen with a connection onto the N61. The entire length
measures approximately 22 kilometres. For the time being the tunnel access
roads have mainly been carried out as single carriageways with a driving
lane of 3.50 metres wide per driving direction. However, in the design, consideration has been taken into account of a possible broadening into a highway.
This will probably be the case approximately fifteen years after being put
into operation, dependent on the increase of the traffic. It is expected that in
the first few years an average of 12,000 vehicles per day will make use of
the tunnel.
Middelburg
A58
N254
Goes
N254
Bergen op Zoom
Vlissingen
Toll square
Kruiningen
Borssele
Westerschelde
Everingen
Ellewoutsdijk
Perk polder
Breskens
Middelplaat
Dow
N61
Hoek
Westerschelde Tunnell
Pas van Terneuzen
Terneuzen
N61
Sas van Gent
The many advantages of the bored tunnels

There are a multitude of advantages to the bored tunnel. As a 24-hour connection, a permanent connection is guaranteed, the travelling time through
Fig. 1.6
The route of the
and approach roads
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Fig. 1.7
Ferry between
Vlissingen and
Breskens
Fig. 1.8
The Westerschelde at
the tunnel location
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the tunnel only takes five minutes. After the opening of the tunnel the
two ferry services crossing over the Westerschelde were discontinued.
Before that, these caused an annual loss of about 27 million euro to the
business sector in Zeeland due to the waiting times. For the government
too, the tunnel means a saving on costs in the long run. By continuing the
ferries, the government would have had to provide a contribution to the
operating expenses of about 24 million euro annually, for years to
come. No consideration had yet been taken into account of the substantial
costs for the maintenance intensive ferry harbours, mooring facilities and
ferry squares and the replacement costs for the purchase of new boats.
Now, after putting the tunnel into operation, the construction costs are
being paid back over a period of thirty years and only the maintenance and
management expenses remain. Besides, the tunnel creates new opportunities for the regional and national economy, in which the social importance
of a better accessibility counts; the shipping experiences no hindrance and
the landscape and the nature are affected as little as possible.
Long history
The permanent river crossing under the Westerschelde has an extremely
long history of initiatives and preparation. Benefit, necessity, choice of route
and particularly the financing of this mega project were subjects of discussions for many years. An initiative by the Provincial Council of Zeeland at
the end of the 1980s resulted in the determining of the route and a European
tender resulted in an offer by the contractor Kombinatie Middelplaat
Westerschelde (KMW). Then at the beginning of the 1990s, the Province set
out to find public, private or public/private financiers. The results thereof
eventually led to the fact that the council of ministers agreed to the establishing of a public limited company called NV Westerscheldetunnel in 1995.
This NV was given the task to realise the river crossing and to take care of
the financing and operations. In 1996 the Minister of Transport, Public Works
and Water Management on behalf of the NV, signed the Design-BuildMaintenance Contract with the combination of contractors.
Government as a shareholder in the NV

The private structure of the company NV Westerscheldetunnel is quite
exceptional, with the government (95%) and the Province of Zeeland (5%) as
shareholders. This NV was not only responsible for the construction of the
tunnel and access roads, but also for the technical management, maintenance and operation of the river crossing for a period of 30 years. The
Westerschelde Tunnel Act also makes it possible to charge toll fees in those
30 years with which the costs of the tunnel are recouped within thirty years.
The Directorate-General for Public Works and Water Management Zeeland
Department and the Civil Engineering Division of the Directorate-General
for Public Works and Water Management supported the NV during the construction of the tunnel respectively in the spatial fitting-in planning, land
acquisition and permits, and the supervision of the design and construction
processes. The Kombinatie Middelplaat Westerschelde (KMW) designed and
constructed the tunnel and will maintain it for the first 10 years. KMW is
made up of six construction companies: BAM Infrabouw BV, Heijmans NV,
Voormolen Bouw BV (all from the Netherlands), the Belgian company Franki
NV and the German companies Philipp Holzmann AG (until 2002) and Wayss
& Freytag AG.
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Planning and costs

The contract between the commissioning party NV Westerscheldetunnel
and the contractor Kombinatie Middelplaat Westerschelde was signed
on 29th June 1996. Since 15th July 1996 the official commencement date
for the implementation of the contract the client began with the details of
the necessary planning procedures, the land acquisitions and the obtaining
of the various permits. The contractor started with the further elaboration of
the design and the construction planning of the actual implementation.
The construction phase began at the end of November 1997 with the construction of the southern access ramp at Terneuzen, which also acts as the
starting shaft for both of the tunnel boring machines. The originally planned
delivery date was 15th November 2002. However, the scope extension in
connection with the taking of extra safety precautions as well as problems in
the field of land acquisition, soon led to a new delivery date: 15th March 2003.
Fig. 1.9
Time schedule for the
construction of the
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
Construction site south

Commencement of implementation
Access ramp south
Tunnel boring process
Cross connections
Cellars
Heat-resistant cladding
Technical installations
Other fitting out work of the tunnel
Construction site north
Caisson
Access ramp north
Roads and engineering structures north
Roads and engineering structures south
Office building
Toll square
Completion
Demobilization
In the spring of 1999, KMW started the assembly of these boring machines.
The actual boring process commenced in July 1999; a start was made on the
easterly tunnel tube, two months later this was followed by the westerly tube.
The access roads were worked on simultaneously to the boring of the tunnel: at the end of 1998 the construction of the access road at Zuid-Beveland
was started, followed by that at Zeeuwsch-Vlaanderen in May 2000.
Due to a number of technical setbacks during the boring in the period July
1999 to mid 2000, it looked as if the delivery date of 15th March 2003 would
not be achieved and that the project would overrun by almost a year. During
consultations between the commissioning party and the contractor, a new
delivery date of 14th November 2003 was agreed. Part of this agreement
was that KMW was also stimulated (financially) to take acceleration measures which had to make it possible to be finished before 14th November
2003. By eventually achieving a time gain of 8 months, KMW amply succeeded in putting the tunnel into operation on 14th March 2003; one day
prior to the original delivery date. KMW achieved this time gain by starting
with the fitting out at an earlier stage than usual and by putting in a lot of
extra equipment and manpower both during the boring process and the fitting out. In order to make this possible, a lot of attention was paid to the
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logistics of the construction process. In addition, all the installations which

were originally provided in the northern arrival shaft or caisson, were
housed in an extra building at the access ramp causing a time gain of a few
months for the fitting out of the caisson.
The project budget amounted to about 750 million euro excluding VAT.
Aside from the direct construction costs (approximately 635 million euro),
this amount also includes the costs associated with the land acquisition,
permits, spatial fitting-in planning, personnel and consultancies, accommodation and insurances. The eventual budget spent is only about 6% higher
than originally estimated, an exceptional achievement for such a huge infrastructural project. Together with the operating costs (225 million euro) and
the maintenance (300 million euro) the total amount of expenses for the
crossing amounts to 1.3 billion euro, for the period until 2033.
Collection of tolls
The design of the toll square was tested in a simulating study of various traffic and logistical aspects. This was contributory for determining the required
number of toll booths and the differing payment systems. In the study, consideration was also taken into account of busy (tourist) traffic intensities in
which the traffic could jam up at a certain stage. The study provided a wealth
of information which has lead to an optimization of the original design of the
toll square. Paying the toll occurs by means of cash, a credit card, a chipper
or with an electronic identification and payment system, the so-called T-tag.
With aT-tag the tunnel user passes the barrier gates without stopping. The
system has a transponder provided with an electronic code situated on
the inside of the windscreen of a vehicle. At the entrance to the toll portal
the code is read electronically by the reading device under the portal. This
code is transmitted to a computer which checks if the number exists and if
there is sufficient credit available on the subscribers Westerschelde Tunnel
account. If this is the case, then the barrier gate is opened, the traffic light is
set to green and the subscribers credit available is reduced by the toll tariff.
The tariffs for a single pass as at 14th March 2003, amount to:
4,00 for passenger vehicles and motor cycles
6,00 for passenger vehicles with trailer
15,00 for trucks shorter than 12 metres and higher than 2.50 metres
20,00 for trucks longer than 12 metres and higher than 2.50 metres
Fig. 1.10
Artists impression of
toll square
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Fig. 1.11
Payment can be made
in various ways at toll
square
A subscribers discount of 25% is applicable.

After the operating period of 30 years, the NV transfers the tunnel with
access roads to the government for a nominal amount. From that time
onwards, the tunnel may be used free of charge.
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2 THE WESTERSCHELDE TUNNEL:

HISTORY AND BACKGROUND
T.J. Boon, J. van Houte, G. Kooijman and J. Heijboer

Aiming for a permanent river connection: the period 19301986
A new start the route at Terneuzen: 19861995
Private financing halts, government decides: 19951996
The company NV Westerscheldetunnel explained in more detail
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Introduction
As a shipping route, the Westerschelde is the lifeline of Antwerp, and the
unhindered passage to the harbours has also always been high on the
agenda in Belgium. Simultaneously, the Westerschelde forms a natural
barrier between Zuid-Beveland and the southerly positioned ZeeuwschVlaanderen which borders with Belgium. Zeeuwsch-Vlaanderen was the
last section of Zeelands wealth of islands which, apart from the route
across Belgian soil, and until the completion of the tunnel in March 2003,
was only accessible by ship. The tunnel under the Westerschelde broke
through the isolation and formed the final link in the chain of dams and
bridges between the various Zeeland islands.
Why did it have to take up to the beginning of the 21st century before it
had come to this?
Aiming for a permanent river connection:

the period 19301986
Already way back in 1931, the businessmen in Zeeland noticed the disadvantages of the inadequate ferry connections. They commissioned an outline
plan for a tunnel under the Westerschelde. It was a design for an immersed
tunnel between Baarland and Terneuzen. After this first outline plan things
remained quiet for a while. Only the Zeeuwsch-Vlaanderen Chamber of Commerce repeatedly pointed out the inadequate ferry connections. A lot of
water would still flow through the Westerschelde before all the technical and
particularly political barriers had been overcome.
Fig. 2.1
Over the years many
different variations
were presented for a
permanent cross river
connection, several of
which are shown here
Delta Works increase the accessibility

The closing of the Westerschelde became topical when, after the flood disaster in 1953, the Delta Plan was drawn up. For the people and countryside
of Zeeland, the step-by-step closure of the sea gaps between the islands
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History and Background
13
provided a better protection against floods. Initially the damming of the

Westerschelde was also considered, but after the Belgians had exerted pressure, the idea soon disappeared. Although the Delta Plan was particularly
designed to protect the south-western Netherlands from the sea, it also
gave the Zeelanders a great opportunity to improve the accessibility of
Zeeland by constructing through-roads on top of the new crossings between
the islands. Where crossings were missing in the Delta Plan, the Province of
Zeeland tried their best to construct them themselves and to finance them
by means of charging tolls, as happened with the Zeeland Bridge across the
Oosterschelde. However, the bridging of the Westerschelde was extremely
expensive. In this the government, who provided an annual contribution for
the operations of the ferries, was needed as financier. Intensive lobbying
was started to convince the government that the construction of a permanent river crossing was of national importance. At that time, the successive
Ministers of Transport, Public Works and Water Management did not consider a permanent river crossing expedient; on the one hand because of the
high costs and on the other hand, because there was still no clarity about
the traffic development as a result of the Delta Plan.
Area with potential

In 1963 however, with a study on the basis of traffic prognoses, it was
proven that a permanent crossing was cost-effective; it would provide the
central economical development axis from north to south. The Randstad,
western Belgium and the north-west of France would be linked by it. In
response to the study, the Minister of Transport, Public Works and Water
Management extended his co-operation in the undertaking of a study into
the best route. This provided six routes for a bridge connection and four for
a bridge/tunnel connection. The routes at the Belgian border were soon
rejected due to their unfavourable positioning. The remaining routes were
concentrated on:
a location lying to the east near Kruiningen. If this route was selected, the
ferry connection Vlissingen-Breskens could not be discontinued;
a central route near Terneuzen in which only a cycle/pedestrian ferry
would be needed in Vlissingen.
Veersegat Dam
Europoort
Rotterdam
The Hague
Rotterdam
Rotterdam
Zeeland Bridge
Oo
ste
rsc
he
lde
Vlissingen
Kruiningen
Ferry
Ferry
Borsele
Breskens
Westerschelde
ine connec
Goes
R .W.
58
Bergen op Zoom
Schelde-Rh
Middelburg
tion
Antwerp
Perkpolder
Oostburg
Terneuzen
Hulst
Axel
Belgium
Fig. 2.2
Different routes were
presented
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Page 14
a westerly positioned route, towards Vlissingen. If this route was

selected, the ferry connection Kruiningen-Perkpolder could not be
discontinued.
At all the locations except at Vlissingen, it involved a more or less stable
shallow section in the Westerschelde which made combinations of tunnels,
dams and bridges possible.
Bridge-tunnel combination at Kruiningen-Perkpolder

The Ministry for Transport, Public Works and Water Management managed to
postpone the route selection by four years. In the spring of 1968 the contracting party Combinatie Westerschelde (CWS) the constructor of the Zeeland
Bridge presented a plan for the financing, construction and operation of a
toll connection between Kruiningen and Perkpolder for 230 to 275 million
euro with a planned design and construction time of 6 to 8 years. As a result
of this plan and the completion of the route studies, the Minister of
Transport, Public Works and Water Management was more or less forced to
take a decision and stated his preference for the route between KruiningenPerkpolder. This route was shorter and therefore cheaper than the preferred
route by the Province between Terneuzen and Ellewoutsdijk. Construction
would be able to commence in 1973.
The design by CWS consisted of an immersed tunnel measuring 1,980
metres (12 elements of 165 metres) under the northerly fairway, an artificial
island with a harbour and construction dock for the tunnel elements on
the shallows of Ossenisse, and a double box bridge measuring 1,290
metres long with a span of 160 metres over the southern branch-fairway.
The design was ready in 1972 but it appeared to be too expensive and that
is why the Directorate-General for Public Works and Water Management
undertook an optimisation adaptation. In this, the box bridge was replaced
Cable gallery
2,500
1,250
150
3,500
100
150
4,500
10,200
Fig. 2.3a
Cross section of
immersed tunnel near
KruiningenPerkpolder
(distances/dimensions
in millimetres)
3,500
900
11,200
1,250
11,200
25,800
Fig. 2.3b
Longitudinal section
of immersed tunnel
near KruiningenPerkpolder
in metres)
Immersed tunnel 1,572 m
South
6.50
11.00
ahsl2.23
msl
alsl1.93
TE-9
TE-1
13.88
20.50
TE-2
TE-10
28.00
TE-3
TE-4
TE-5
40.81
North
TE-6
TE-8
TE-7
40.30
13.88
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15
Fig. 2.4
A bridge as part of the
river crossing
Fig. 2.5
A bridge as part of the
river crossing
by a suspension bridge with a length of 1,400 metres and a main span of

810 metres.
Further delay
However, implementation of the plan just never came about: politics appeared
to be a factor which was (too) uncertain. The period 1972 up to the end of the
1980s were marked by highs and lows. Sometimes very little seemed
to obstruct the realisation of the river crossing, and then again sometimes
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the opinion was that the project had no priority; was there no consensus
about the financing structure or did the economic tide flow in the opposite
direction?
A new start the route at Terneuzen:

19861995
A variation of the
bridge-dam-tunnel
crossing taken from
the reference
design (distances/
dimensions in metres)
Fig. 2.6
With the completion of the Delta Works (in 1986) which was a major
improvement of the north-south connections between the Zeeland islands
and South Holland islands, the plea for the construction of the missing link
across the Westerschelde however, became more pressing.
In the late 1980s the Province of Zeeland stated their preference for the
present central route, which runs from Terneuzen (Zeeuwsch-Vlaanderen) to
Ellewoutsdijk (Zuid-Beveland). Due to this more central positioning, both
ferry connections could be discontinued. In order to finance the project, the
province considered the private sector. The reference-design in those years,
as it did in 1972, looked a lot like the tunnel-island-bridge concept of the
resund Link in Denmark and encompassed an immersed tunnel under
the main fairway, a dam over the tide-land section of the Westerschelde
(Middelplaat) and a bridge across the branch-fairway on the northern side.
Incorporated in the design were both linked cable-stayed bridges and
suspension bridges, all with multiple main spans, as well as a suspension
bridge with a single main span.
9.00
Sea-side
0.50
1:20
5.25
1:20
River-side
6.70
1:3
1:40
1:40
5.25
1:4
1:4
10 m
0.50
1:20
10 m
113.50 m
400 m
Navigation channel
45.00
Headroom 43.00
385 m
1,050 m
385 m
Side span
Main span
Side span
2,047 m
Total length
New insights
At the time that the reference design for the tunnel-dam-bridge river crossing was almost ready in mid 1991, new ideas were being considered. The
idea of the river crossing being constructed as a bored twin-tubed tunnel
across the full width of the Westerschelde kept hogging the limelight and
looked more and more like a feasible option. A reason for the optimism,
amongst other things, was the results of a study into the costs of a variety
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of bored tunnels for a number of large infrastructural projects in the

Netherlands. For financial reasons earlier bored tunnel designs were only
considered as feasible with a single tube. However, from a safety point of
view such tunnels were not acceptable.
The boring of a tunnel became more attractive because there were also a
number of major objections for the tunnel-dam-bridge combination:
the harbour at Antwerp could claim a substantial amount for the compensation of the direct and indirect financial damages as a result of the
blocking of shipping during the immersion operations and its preparations (dredging activities);
the impact on the environment and the landscape, particularly the dambridge section, was more and more a subject of discussions. The bottom
of the bridge across the branch-fairway would be positioned at approximately 40 metres NAP;
the technical implementation of the immersed tunnel would take place
under extreme circumstances (the enormous depth and the soil conditions
at the spot of the channel to be dredged, the tide and the current) and was
therefore not without risk.
Based on the above, it was also decided to draw up a reference-design for a
twin-tubed bored tunnel across the full width of the Westerschelde. The matter was urgent, because the tendering procedure would soon be started.
Due to the short period in which it had to be concluded, the referencedesign therefore had a general outline character.
Reference design: bored tunnel

In respect of the tunnel-dam-bridge crossing, the horizontal alignment of
the bored tunnel could be relocated into a direction which was more northsouth; there was no need to cross the Pas van Terneuzen at right angles anymore. Although the local circumstances had obviously not changed, it was
necessary to carry out extra soil investigations in order to gain more insight
into the deeply positioned soil deposits in which the boring had to take
place. That is why extra drillings down to a depth of 70 metres below sea
level were carried out and the future boring route was subjected to seismic
investigation.
In the reference-design by the Civil Engineering Division of the DirectorateGeneral for Public Works and Water Management, the cross section of the
tunnel consisted of twin tubes with an outer diameter of 12.98 metres, in
which the tunnel wall had a thickness of 0.65 metres. The interior would contain, amongst other things:
a road surface on a concrete sheet with central support;
electrical equipment cellars situated below the road surface spaced 1,000
metres apart and a pump cellar at the deepest point of the tunnel;
facilities such as heat-resistant cladding so as to realise the same level of
safety as in an immersed tunnel;
in the reference design, the two tunnel tubes were connected to each
other by cross connections every 500 metres. The electrical equipment
cellars were accessible from the cross connections. In order to gain access
to the pump cellars, separate annexes were provided.
A separate longitudinal escape corridor with emergency doors 100 metres
centre-to-centre, and a cable gallery above it.
To a major extent the vertical alignment of the bored tunnel was determined by the necessity of adequate soil covering above the tunnel which
had to measure about the same as the size of the tunnel diameter. The bed
17
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Page 18
Fig. 2.7
Reference design of
bored tunnel
in millimetres)
12,980
13,000
12,980
Cable
gallery
150
3,500
100
3,500
150
Escape
corridor
4,500
09080-02.qxd
Cross connection 500 m
of the Westerschelde moves and therefore a minimum value had to be

assumed for the design-life span-duration of 100 years. This deepest position (the so-called lowest enclosed) is determined on the basis of measurements during the period 1955 to 1990. Considering the fact that the
position of the bedding was managed by maintenance dredging over the
past decades, it is highly unlikely that in the future larger fluctuations will
occur in the bedding position. It was therefore justified to take this period of
35 years as a point of reference. In order not to be confronted with unpleasant surprises, a safety margin of 2 metres was maintained. Together with
a maximum slope of 4.5%, this led to a maximum depth of more than
50 metres (crest level of the tunnel) under the average water level located
at the Pas vanTerneuzen and 35 metres below Everingen.
In order to keep the depth of the starting and receiving shafts as shallow as
possible for the required bed covering, use could be made of surrounding
dykes that would be constructed. With this the length of the tunnel was also
determined at 6,474 metres.
Commencement of tendering procedure

In 1991 the Province of Zeeland requested companies to participate in the
designing and tendering for the crossing, including access roads. Of the six
parties who reacted, two did not comply with the conditions set, the remaining
four were invited to submit their design and tender. Two parties responded to
the invitation: Kombinatie Middelplaat Westerschelde (KMW) and the
Konsortium Westerschelde Oeververbinding (KWOV). They started with their
designs in the spring of 1992. The fundamental details and the reference limiting conditions were used as a guide for this purpose; the reference design
bored tunnel had been completed so late, that this was not issued to the contractors so as not to frustrate their design processes. At the end of 1992 it
appeared that they had both set their sights on a bored tunnel under the
Westerschelde across the entire width, in which in a general sense, the designs
by KMW and KWOV were comparable. Aside from that, KMW came with an
alternative plan which consisted of two bored tunnels under the fairways with
a dam in-between on Middelplaat. The three designs were evaluated and compared on the basis of a so-called multi-criteria analysis. Eventually the main
design by KMW came up trumps because of the best price/quality ratio.
Original KMW design

The original design by KMW provided for a bored tunnel which consisted
of twin tubes with an outer diameter of 12.30 metres and a thickness of the
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19
lining being 0.45 metres. An important difference to the reference design

was the road surface which was not based on a supportive concrete sheet,
but on a backfill of sand-cement stabilisation. Besides, the length of the tunnel was shortened to 6,315 metres. This was possible by reducing the soil
covering to 12 metres and by stabilising the bedding of the Westerschelde
by means of placing a stable threshold up to 32.50 metres NAP on the
bedding of the Westerschelde at the position of the Pas van Terneuzen. The
design also provided for the fixation of the bedding on the northern side of
Everingen.
12,300
11,400
450
13,000
450
450
12,300
11,400
450
150
3,500
100
150
3,500
Escape
corridor
4,500
Cable gallery
Cross connection
500 m
Design is too expensive; alternatives are necessary

Although the offer by KMW was realistic and substantially lower than the
offer by KWOV, the price had to be reduced by at least 70 million euro
in order to make the project financially feasible as a toll charging tunnel.
Since the optimization of the design (on costs) only led to marginal cost
effects, the parties involved decided to develop an alternative and costreducing design. Of the developed alternatives, the following were considered feasible: a larger tunnel with a single tube and an alternative
which involved two smaller tubes.
Tunnel with 1 tube

The outer diameter of the tunnel with 1 tube measured 13.50 metres,
whereas the lining was about 0.50 metres thick. The design provided for a
road on two levels, one for each driving direction. In order not to have to
bore too great a diameter, the structure gauge was reduced from 4.50 metres
to 4.20 metres. The width of the left-hand driving lane in the design was also
narrowed from 3.50 to 2.75 metres. Only passenger vehicles would be permitted to make use of this narrower driving lane.
Twin-tubed tunnel with a smaller diameter

The second alternative consisted of a tunnel with two tubes with an outer
diameter of 11 metres and a lining with a thickness of 0.45 metres. The
choice for the smaller diameter, as a result of the expungency of the
separate longitudinal escape corridor with cable gallery, made it possible to
disregard the construction of a stable threshold on the bedding of the
Westerschelde at the position of the Pas van Terneuzen. This design also
provided for the construction of cross connections every 500 metres. This
distance remained 500 metres based on the probabilistic calculations.
Fig. 2.8
Original design
by KMW
in millimetres)
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Fig. 2.9
Alternative of
bored tunnel with a
single tube (distances/
dimensions in
millimetres)
13,500
450
450
12,600
150
100
3,500
2,750
150
Escape
corridor
4,200
Cable
gallery
12,000
11,000
450
10,100
150
450
100
3,500
11,000
450
150
10,100
450
4,500
Fig. 2.10
Bored tunnel with twin
tubes with a small
diameter
in millimetres)
3,500
Cross connection 500 m

(250 m)
Cable gallery
Private financing halts, government decides:

19951996
The alternative of the smaller twin-tubed tunnel meant a substantial cost
reduction in respect of the original design and was further elaborated upon.
Yet the project threatened to come to a halt again: the private financiers
set in view of the possible risks such as a lesser number of vehicle passes
than expected, or lower toll tariffs than desired high demands on the yield
insofar as they were prepared to take over risks.
The government therefore had to make a choice regarding the initiative to
construct, either to take it on themselves or to continue contributing towards
the operation of the ferries. Continuation including replacement of the ferries would cost the government about 24 million euro per annum for years
to come, and that is not even counting the maintenance costs of the ferry
harbours and the replacement of the ferries. On the other hand there was
the prospect that the construction costs of the tunnel would have been
paid back after 30 years through an income from toll charges, and then only
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management and maintenance costs would remain. In the long run it meant
that the construction of the tunnel would be cost-saving for the government. Besides, a tunnel connection is faster and more reliable than a ferry
connection: by constructing the tunnel, new opportunities could also be
created on a social and economic level. This consideration led to the decision
by the council of ministers on 29th September 1995 to take over all the rights
and obligations from the province and to take care of the financing of
the crossing themselves. To this end, a public limited company (NV) was
established with the government (95%) and the Province of Zeeland (5%) as
shareholders.
Having this structure, the NV Westerscheldetunnel pays the invested capital
back with interest over a period of thirty years. The NVs income consists of
toll charges (40%) and subsidies (60%). The largest provider of subsidies is
the government, who will supply more or less the same amount of money
to the tunnel during the operating period of 30 years, than it would have
spent on the operations of the ferry crossings. The establishment of an NV
was also advantageous because the VAT could be claimed back with which
the investment costs could be reduced.
Present-day value of the

investments in
millions of euro
Investment to be recouped in 30 years

91
0
91
2001 2006 2011 2016 2021
182
273
364
455
546
Definite go ahead: undersigning the contract

By the end of June 1996 they were finally ready: the Lower House ratified
the cabinets decision on the 27th of June and two days later, the Minister
of Transport, Public Works and Water Management on behalf of the NV
Westerscheldetunnel which was being established, signed the contract with
the Kombinatie Middelplaat Westerschelde for the design, the construction
and the 10 year maintenance of the tunnel. KMW was made up by six companies: BAM Infrabouw BV, Heijmans NV, Voormolen Bouw BV (all from the
Netherlands), the Belgian company Franki NV and the German companies
Philipp Holzmann AG (until 2002) and Wayss & Freytag AG.
The contract with KMW was based on the design, build and maintenance
concept. The responsibility for the design, the construction and the boring
process was therefore entirely vested in the contractor with the exception of damages due to extreme risks such as earth quakes. The NV
Westerscheldetunnel is finally responsible for a period of thirty years
for the construction, technical management, maintenance and operation
of the tunnel. The Directorate-General for Public Works and Water
Management Zeeland Department and the Civil Engineering Division of
the Directorate-General for Public Works and Water Management supported
the NV in the coming about of the crossing. The Zeeland Department in
the field of spatial planning, land acquisition and permits, and the Civil
Engineering Division of the Directorate-General for Public Works and Water
Management with regard to the supervision of the design and construction
processes.
Fig. 2.11
Investments to be
recouped
21
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The company NV Westerscheldetunnel

explained in more detail
The fact that it did not appear to be possible to finance the tunnel privately
and the idea that the government would be in a better position to bear the
risks than the province (procedural risks and operating risks; the risks for the
design, boring and construction are contractually vested in the contractor),
was the most important reason for the government to take over the provinces
initiative. Thus, in principle, the government decided to provide the financing
for the Westerschelde Tunnel itself. Besides, by employing the Civil Engineering Division of the Directorate-General for Public Works and Water Management for the supervision of the design and the implementation, a sound
control of the project was possible.
Fig. 2.12
Organization chart of
the company NV
Westerscheldetunnel
Province of Zeeland
(5% shares)
Board of Commissioners
Government
(95% shares)
NV Westerscheldetunnel
(Client)
Water Management, Zeeland Department
(Spatial Planning, Land Acquisition and
Issuing of Permits)
Civil Engineering Division, DirectorateGeneral for Public Works and

Water Management
(Design and Construction
Consultant and Supervisor)
KMW
(Contractor)
Brief: the project must not affect the national budget

The brief was however, that the financing of the project was not allowed to
affect the national budget.The establishment of an NV as a financing structure
lends itself to this: the government lends money to a private company and
receives shares in return.The balance sheet thus has an account with a nil balance. The money which the government lends to the NV is also invested in
infrastructure, whereby the loan is repaid via income from charging tolls. Toll
charging is not a government matter but for a private company and therefore
the establishment of a governmental NV was obvious. By establishing an NV
for the financing of the project, the construction of the Westerschelde Tunnel
could also be kept outside the governments Long Term Programme for
Infrastructure and Transport (MIT). By including the project which cost more
than 680 million euro as part of the MIT, this would have meant that all kinds
of projects in the busy Randstad (central-western Netherlands) would have
had to be postponed. Besides, the priority of the infrastructure policy lies in
the lessening of the congestion problems and the sorting out of infrastructural bottle-necks. However, the construction of the Westerschelde Tunnel was
not meant to sort out a bottle-neck, but to increase the accessibility, to stimulate the economy of the Province of Zeeland and to increase the safety of the
river crossing. The project therefore had to remain isolated from the MIT and
that could happen by establishing an NV. Due to the fact that the government
took over the provinces initiative and transferred the provinces rights to the
NV, it was also avoided that the contracting party which had already been
selected, would be out of the running and a new (European) calling for
tenders would have had to be started up.
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Westerschelde Tunnel Act

Normally an NV is established by simply going to the notary and registering
at the Chamber of Commerce. For an NV in which the government is the main
shareholder, parliament must decide on this. This can occur by a notification
from the minister involved and a silent consent by parliament. In this case
parliament decided that there had to be a special Westerschelde Tunnel Act.
A number of important stipulations in the Act are:
the Act authorises the government to establish the NV;
the Act regulates that the road, albeit the property of the NV, is a public
road and not a private road;
deviating from the existing law, the Act regulates that a toll may be
charged. The starting tariff and the annual tariff increase is limited by law;
the Act regulates that province is the official authority where it concerns
the taking of traffic measures such as the introducing and/or maintaining
of a speed restriction. Implementation is vested in the NV.
The existence of the NV is limited: after 30 years the investment should have
been recouped. If that is not the case, for example because the number of
passes falls short, or when inflation is much lower during the operational
phase than during the construction phase, and an acceptable tariff increase
is not the solution, then the Act makes it possible to extend the period to
50 years.
Possible contradiction of interests NV government

The governments NV, to a certain degree, makes it possible to operate independently from the regulations and procedures applicable to the government. In this way the NV has a great deal of freedom to set up its own
organisation and to adopt an own personnel policy. That makes it possible
to work in a manner which is efficient and geared towards the own requirements. Further, the relatively big distance between the NV and the Ministry
of Transport, Public Works and Water Management is of extreme importance, a distance which makes the operation of the NV less sensitive to political influences or internal developments within the Ministry of Transport,
Public Works and Water Management. At the same time it also causes possible tensions and contradictions of interests: as a company, the NV has a
single main purpose and that is the making of profit. In view of this it is of
importance to the NV that as many vehicles as possible make use of the
tunnel. However, the government policy reflected in the Second Structure
Schedule for Traffic and Transportation (SVV-II), is geared towards the reduction of trips by the motorist.
Furthermore, the establishment of an NV called for a cultural shift: The
Directorate-General for Public Works and Water Management was employed
by the NV as a consultant, by the way without payment. The DirectorateGeneral for Public Works and Water Management has performed this task
outstandingly. The NV took the responsibility, determined the rules and took
the decisions to do something or not and how to deal with it. The party
which had always been the client, was now the consultant and that has
never happened before in the history of public works and water management. In this sense too it involved a unique structure.
23
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3 THE DESIGN OF THE

WESTERSCHELDE TUNNEL
IN A NUTSHELL
J. van den Hoonaard, G. Kooijman, H. Glas and H. Seidel

The route
The tunnel
Safety
An unfinished symphony: the 150 kV cable
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Introduction
In the previous chapter the history of the origin of the river crossing was
described as it was eventually realised. This chapter deals with the route
of the tunnel and access routes and the implemented design of the tunnel
in a nutshell. For more information about specific subjects, reference is
made to chapters that deal more extensively on the relevant subject. The
route of the river crossing starts on the southern side at the N61 in
Zeeuwsch-Vlaanderen and ends with a connection onto the N254 between
Goes and Middelburg in Zuid-Beveland. The total length measures 22 kilometres. For the time being, the roads to and from the tunnel are mainly
carried out as single lane motorways, with one driving lane per driving
direction. However, in the design and the reservation of land, consideration was taken into account. The tunnel and the access ramps
were designed as 2 2 driving lanes due to reasons of safety. In respect
of the traffic intensity, 12,000 motor vehicles per 24 hour period have
been assumed (based on figures from the former ferry crossings), and
an annual growth of 2% until 2015 and a growth of 1% per annum
thereafter.
The route
Fig. 3.1
Route of the river
crossing
A58
Goes/Zierikzee
N665
Middelburg/
Vlissingen
Bergen op Zoom
Nieuwdorp
s Heerenhoek
Borssele
We
ste
rsc
Driewegen
hel
de
Ellewoutsdijk
Everingen
Mi
dd
elp
laa
t
erneuzen
Pas van T
Terneuzen
Oostburg/
Breskens
N61
Hulst
Hoek
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Design of the Westerschelde Tunnel in a Nutshell
Zeeuwsch-Vlaanderen
The route of the channel crossing connects at the southern bank onto the N61.
The connection onto this east-west crossing in Zeeuwsch-Vlaanderen provisionally takes place via a roundabout, but in the future for an increased
amount of traffic the intention is to carry out this connection through an
overpass with viaducts. The route runs northwards west of the canal zone of
the Gent-Terneuzen canal. The positioning of the route is determined here by
the presence of the DOW Benelux industrial complex on the one side and the
locks complex of Terneuzen with lock approach and possible future extensions
on the other side. Prior to the road passing the so-called surrounding dyke
around the access ramp at a height of 6.5 metres NAP, it crosses the railway
line going to and from the DOW complex which is situated at surface level. For
this overpass intersection the road runs under the railway line a special
viaduct was constructed in the form of a cable suspended U-shaped bridge.
The surrounding dyke around the access ramp protects the tunnel against
floods from the polder located in the rear. On the other hand the dyke protects the polders on both sides of the tunnel if the tunnel should fill up. After
crossing the surrounding dyke the road declines into the tunnel access ramp
at a maximum gradient of 4.5%.
Zuid-Beveland
Coming from the tunnel, the road inclines onto the northern bank at a maximum gradient of 4.5% to pass the dyke which here too surrounds the access
ramp (6.5 metres NAP). At Zuid-Beveland the positioning of the route situated at the surface level is mainly determined by a mud flat outside the dyke
on the one side, and the culture-historically important polders in ZuidBeveland on the other side of the road. The road intersects for the most part
on the same level the railway to the Sloe area, a number of local roads and
waterways and connects onto the N254 slightly to the south of Middelburg.
Fig. 3.2
Cable suspended
U-shaped bridge
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Toll square
At the northern end of the Westerschelde Tunnel the central toll square is situated at approximately 5 kilometres from the tunnel entrance. The design of
the toll collecting system makes it possible to pay in cash, with a credit card
and automatically, by means of a so-called T-tag. For a proper processing of
traffic for the charging of toll, six lanes per driving direction were assumed.
In the design of the toll square a number of components have been included:
a building with the central operating area for the toll square/the toll collection and the tunnel operations;
a covered pedestrian bridge with stairs and lifts and a canopy structure;
an area for the passengers and drivers of buses;
the toll booths;
a car-pool area;
bus stops and the possibility for storing bicycles.
For the future, there are extension possibilities to provide a petrol station
and catering facilities. The toll square has been given a high quality
architectural image which links up to the total fitting-in in the landscaping of
the route.
Fig. 3.3
the toll square
In Chapter 16 the architectural design of the toll square is dealt with.
The tunnel
It is clear that the accent of the river crossing lies in the tunnel section under
the Westerschelde. As was evident in the previous chapter, this section
across the full length, i.e. 6,600 metres, was carried out as a bored tunnel.
Horizontal and vertical alignment

The condition of the soil in a horizontal plane did not have such deviations so
as to be determinative for the route to be chosen. With the required horizontal curves Rh 1,500 m on the northern bank and Rh 2,675 m on the southern bank, the choice was made for the shortest possible connection between
the points of accretion (a straight line positioned almost north-south).
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To a major degree the longitudinal profile of the tunnel is dictated by the

condition of the soil at the location of the Westerschelde. More about the
geotechnical circumstances can be found in Chapter 7.
Further, the vertical alignment of the tunnel was determined by the following limiting conditions:
the maximum permissible gradient of 4.5% with its associated maximum
and minimum radii of respectively 10,000 metres (crest vertical curve)
and 2,500 metres (sag vertical curve);
the minimum gradient required of approximately 0.15% with regard to the
drainage of e.g. leak water and the necessary discharge capacity of the
drains for fuel leaks, in cases of disaster with a petrol tanker;
the minimum soil covering required.
For the necessary safety measures against flotation and bursting of the tunnel,
a minimum covering of 10.5 metres was necessary. In connection with the
uncertain positioning of the river bed (current), an extra margin of 1.5 metres
was placed on top, whereby the minimum soil covering maintained amounts to
12 metres. The maximum depth positioning of the tunnel therefore lies at the
location of the Pas vanTerneuzen, at a depth of more than 60 metres below NAP.
Fig. 3.4
Representation of
alignment of the
tunnel
Pas van Terneuzen
Middelplaat
Everingen
26
2
25
24
4
5
6
10 11 12
13 14 15
16
17
18
22
19 20 21
23
The alignment as seen from the South

As seen from the south, the road declines from the dyke surrounding the
access ramp (at approximately 6.5 metres NAP), with a maximum gradient
of 4.5%, to the deepest point under the Pas van Terneuzen. Having the minimal
amount of required covering, the road surface is situated at approximately
57 metres NAP, a height difference of more than 63 metres. Here the
tunnel, having its underside at approximately 60.5 metres NAP, is situated
fully in the so-called Berg sands. The maximum water pressure under the Pas
van Terneuzen the deepest point amounts to about 6.5 bar. The alignment
then continues further with a minimal almost horizontal gradient. On the
southern side of Middelplaat, the road inclines with a gradient of approximately 3.5% to approximately 39 metres NAP (top of road surface). Here the
tunnel lies in the middle of the clay stratum (Boom clay) which is present here.
Under Middelplaat the alignment declines again at a gradient of approximately
0.33%, more or less in accordance with the course of the top of the clay stratum. In order to limit the depth positioning of the tunnel at the Everingen, the
choice was made not to follow the clay stratum as far as possible which continues to get deeper towards the north and then to go through the sandy soils
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lying on top at the maximum gradient. Due to the higher positioning, the tunnel cross section crosses the border layer between the Boom clay and the sand
lying above on the northern side of Everingen over a long distance. Under the
southern side of the Everingen, the positioning of the alignment is determined by the presence of loosely compacted sand. In this a larger soil covering is maintained. Also, due to the longer alignment which is the result of
this, the riprap discovered on the foreshore of Zuid-Beveland has been
avoided. From the deepest point under Everingen with the road surface at
approximately 47.50 metres NAP and the underside of the tunnel at approximately 51.25 metres NAP, this has resulted in a gradient of approximately
1% which turns into a maximum gradient of 4.5% until the highest point is
achieved at Zuid-Beveland (the dyke surrounding the access ramp).
By applying a permanent soil fill at the surface level above the tunnel with
the usage of the surrounding dykes the bored tunnel could be ended as
high as possible. The depth positioning of the access ramps have therefore
remained limited.
The cross section

The tunnel is carried out as a motorway and consists of twin parallel tubes
across the entire length, having two driving lanes of 3.50 metres with a redress
lane of 0.70 metres and safety barriers in each tube. In the open section of the
access ramps up to the passing of the surrounding dyke, a reservation has
been made for a so-called overtaking lane which was easy to fit in due to the
distance between the tunnel tubes which was necessary for the boring process.
Fig. 3.5
Cross section of the
tunnel with cross
connection
Section in the area of a cross connection
11.33 m
Segmental lining, t 45 cm
10.10 m
approx. 12 m
Cross connection, every 250 m

Cable trench
Steel segment
Installation basement
Cable gallery
The boring diameter of the tubes measures 11.30 metres, whereas the internal diameter is 10.10 metres. Both tubes are positioned spaced 12 metres
apart which is approximately the boring diameter. Due to this, there was no
question of influences between each other during the boring process. In
order to limit the width of the access ramps, here the distance at the ending
of the tubes was reduced to approximately 7 metres. Every 250 metres the
tunnel tubes are connected by cross connections which serve as an escape
route in cases of disaster. Originally the cross connections were spread 500
metres apart based on a probabilistic safety approach. This distance was later
reduced to 250 metres based on a deterministic approach (see Chapter 4).
The cross connections also make it possible for emergency services to reach
the location of an accident via the non-incident tube. The design and the
implementation of the cross connections are described in more detail in
Chapter 13.
The section under the road surface, as part of the boring process, was filled
with a package of stabilised sand. A drainage tube at the bottom of the tunnel
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tubes with filtering gravel around it, takes care of the necessary drainage.
Under the road surface, in each tunnel tube a continuous cable gallery which
can be walked through has been incorporated.
The primary function of the cable gallery is:
the housing of cables for the tunnel operations and possible third parties;
the housing of the fire extinguishing piping and the discharge piping of
the central pump cellars.
The cable gallery also provides access to the adjacent electrical equipment and
central pump cellars and these areas can be ventilated via the cable gallery.
The electrically powered service vehicles in the cable galleries are used for
the transportation of personnel and equipment.
The lining
The actual tunnel wall the lining is built up of tunnel rings with a length
of 2 metres in the longitudinal direction. Each tunnel tube consists of 3,300
of these rings. Then again, a single tunnel ring consists of 7 segments and a
keystone and has a thickness of 0.45 metres. Therefore 3,300 8 26,400
segments were required per tube; a total of 52,800 for both tunnel tubes.
In view of the required life span of the tunnel lining, special demands were
set on the quality of the segments. More about this in Chapter 6. The design
and the production of the lining are dealt with in Chapter 9.
Each segment is provided with a surrounding neoprene profile which
must guarantee an adequate waterproofing. The space between the excavated
section and the lining, as part of the boring process, is filled with a grout
mixture.
Where the bored section connects to the access ramps, a choice was made
for a flexible connection in a horizontal as well as in a vertical direction. The
waterproofing of this connection is ensured by a steel structure in which a
so-called omega seal has been incorporated. The sealing force in the rubber
seals of the longitudinal joints in the tunnel tube are guaranteed by permanent bolt connections across the first 30 metres.
The access ramps

Due to the various positionings of the soil deposits, the access ramps on the
southern and northern side have been constructed in different ways. The
access ramp on the southern side was constructed within an artificial
polder. This was possible due to the favourable depth location of the Boom
clay locally. Cement-bentonite walls were installed from the surface level
into the Boom clay of which some were provided with a light steel sheet piling. Here the clay stratum acted as a waterproof sealing layer.
In the thus created pit construction, the level of the water was lowered to
below the deepest construction level of the access ramp and after excavation of the construction pit, the construction of the actual approach structure
could follow. During the boring process, the southern approach also served
as a starting shaft for both of the tunnel boring machines.
On the northern side at Zuid-Beveland, use could not be made of the Boom
clay as a waterproof sealing. Here the choice was made for a pneumatically
immersed caisson measuring approximately 25 35 metres with a height
of approximately 24 metres. The remaining section of the access ramp is built
like an open concrete basin structure. Here use was made of a construction
pit consisting of anchored sheet piling and underwater concrete. The basin
structure has a foundation of (tension) piles.
Chapter 8 deals with the design and implementation of the access ramps.
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Fig. 3.6
The caisson during
immersion
The tunnel installations

The usual installations have been fitted in the tunnel, such as:
power supply;
lighting;
ventilation (tunnel and cross connections);
various pump installations;
traffic signposting and guiding;
fire extinguishing system;
emergency posts;
communication equipment.
Fig. 3.7
Cross section of a
tunnel tube
Heat-resistant
cladding
ia
et
er
11
.3
Jet-fan
Emergency post
Grout layer
Roadway
Sand-cement
backfill
Tunnel lining (0.45 m)
Cable gallery with mini vehicle
Taking into consideration the positioning, length and shape of the tunnel, a
number of facilities deviate from the usual types. For example, on both
banks the tunnel is provided with a medium-voltage connection onto the
public network. In principle, the installations for the power supply on both
banks are identical.
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In the event of failure of the power supplies at either of both banks, each power
supply has sufficient capacity to continue the tunnel operations in a safe manner without interruptions. Both public networks are independent from each
other.The chance that both power supplies would fail simultaneously has been
calculated by the power company as being less than once in a hundred years
and is thus practically negligible. Transformers and substations for the power
distribution are present in the tunnel and the end buildings.
In order to avoid total failure of installations in a single tunnel tube when
one of the two medium-voltage supplies fails, each medium-voltage supply
feeds a section of the installations in its own tunnel tube and a section of the
installations in the other tunnel tube. This has been taken into consideration
in the connecting of tunnel installations onto the substations (low-voltage
distribution board).
Lighting and ventilation

Due to the extensive length of the tunnel it is possible to reduce the lighting
level in the central section from the usual 200 Lux to 30 Lux. The transition
lighting at the entrance and exit zones are extended for this purpose in
which counter beam lighting is applied at the entrance zone. The lighting
level is increased in steps at the exit zone, from 30 Lux in the central zone via
100 Lux up to 200 Lux.
Due to the great height there is a space of approximately 2.50 metres above
the structure gauge and below the crest of the tunnel. This made it possible
to apply larger ventilators with a substantially higher yield than is commonly used.
More information about the technical installations in the tunnel are dealt
with in Chapter 15.
Safety
In the design of the Westerschelde Tunnel the safety aspect has been dealt
with extensively, on the basis of a probabilistic and a deterministic safety
consideration. It is the first time that an integral safety plan has been drawn
up, in which both for the construction as well as the operational phase,
agreements have been recorded between all the relevant parties about the
response to the question of how to act during serious incidents in the tunnel. In principle most of the tunnel installations are meant to achieve the
required tunnel safety. Aside from the commonly used facilities mentioned
before the basic package of installations additional measures have been
taken due to the specific character of the tunnel:
extra facilities to urge escape;
an extensive spectrum of communication mediums;
better recognition of emergency doors and emergency posts;
adaptations to the traffic guiding system which makes it possible to use
the non-incident tube as an escape route;
traffic dosage;
automatic (delayed) activation of the ventilation on speed drop
detection.
With all its facilities in the field of safety, the Westerschelde Tunnel is a socalled category I tunnel. This means that the tunnel is accessible to all traffic
also fuel tankers for example except for the transportation of LPG, explosives and nuclear materials. For a category I tunnel, only a small number of
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Fig. 3.8
Optimum recognition
of emergency doors to
cross connection
restrictions are applicable in respect of the permitted transportations.

Keeping this in mind, it is of importance that the structural integrity of the
tunnel remains guaranteed during a large fire in the tunnel. This means that
the lining must be able to withstand a fire lasting for 2 hours at a maximum
temperature of 1,350 C. In order to make this possible, a heat-resistant cladding has been applied onto the lining. Based on extensive fire tests and also
due to budgetary reasons, the eventual choice was made to carry out the
heat-resistant cladding in the form of a spray-mortar with a thickness of
45 mm.
Chapters 4 and 5 explain in more detail about the safety facilities and the
protection against fire in the tunnel.
An unfinished symphony: the 150 kV cable

Originally the intention was to house a high-voltage connection (150 kV) in
the WesterscheldeTunnel as a replacement of the high-voltage cables located
in the bed of the Westerschelde. The risk of disruptions to the continuity of
the energy supply as a result of the great movements of the bedding of the
Westerschelde and the busy shipping, would thus be substantially reduced.
That is why the province agreed to the regional power companys plans to
combine a pair of high-voltage cables with the traffic link-up and by housing
the 150 kV cable connection in both cable galleries.
Abandoning the cable gallery

After the assignment was granted to KMW in June 1996 for the design and
construction of the tunnel, in the first elaboration of the cable gallery, the
space available to house all the planned cables and piping however,
appeared to be exceptionally confined. The space required for the 150 kV
cable was a problem. Together with the power company, contractor and
client, a closer investigation was carried out.
It was important that the attention up until then was particularly geared
towards the danger of condensation in the cable gallery and not towards the
effects of the high-voltage cables on the temperature. The first calculation of
this heat-effect (1997) proved that the expected temperature increase would
be to such a degree, that the various installations in the electrical equipment
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Fig. 3.9
Cable gallery
cellars, which have an open connection to the cable gallery, would be negatively influenced. Indeed this problem could be solved, but that would bring
about major unforeseen expenses in connection with the cooling of the
cable gallery. Eventually it was decided to abandon the cable gallery and to
suspend the cables in the traffic space outside the structure gauge.
Fig. 3.10
Shipping on the
Westerschelde
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Costs estimation higher than expected: cut-back

In the autumn of 1998, the contracting combination provided an indicative
costs estimate for the suspended and protecting structure. The estimate
was much higher than expected, particularly because a much heavier structure appeared to be necessary than was initially presumed. In order to keep
the costs low, it was decided to cut back on the protecting structure around
the cables. Naturally this solution had to be tested regarding the requirements in the field of safety and in light of this, it was decided to carry out a
risk analysis.
Suspended structure is inadequate

The investigation soon proved that the solution used until then, which
involved a protecting structure would have been inadequate, certainly in
case of a fire. The protecting structure had been designed in the same manner as the suspended structure: if the suspended structure failed, the protecting structure would also collapse. Besides, it appeared that when only
one or some of the brackets with which the cables were suspended would
fail, it would result in a domino effect: the cables would fall down over a
very long distance. It was clear that a renewed basic design was needed and
the contracting combination set to work on it.
Induction voltage and electro-magnetic fields: extra facilities

necessary
In November of 1999, the contractor provided a quotation for the solution
which was accepted by the client, for the suspension of the 150 kV cables
without protecting structure. However, the price was still much higher than
the available budget. The contractor also provided a separate quotation for
the protection of the electrical and mechanical facilities against induction
voltage and electro-magnetic fields. Besides, the designed stops (steel cabinets) which had to prevent the cables from falling down over a long distance,
had to be provided with heat-resistant material.They would otherwise, in case
of fire, create a heat bridge towards to concrete wall and could cause spalling
towards the concrete. These complications caused a major difference in the
clients estimate.
High-voltage cable expunged

Due to the fact that, in view of the implementation planning of the entire project, the implementation would have to commence before the summer of 2000,
not enough time remained to choose a new technical solution: the housing of
the 150 kV cable connection was expunged. This resulted in the ending of a
nine year period of research, designs and consultation since the technical limiting conditions were formulated. The moral of the story: There was much more
at hand than initially could have been estimated, even by experts. Working
with high-voltage cabling is extremely specialized work. It is therefore important to chart all the relevant aspects (such as heat development, influence of
magnetic fields, suspension and suchlike) and their associated costs, at a very
early stage. If that does not happen, then the danger exists that the one suboptimum design replaces the other.
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4 SAFETY
E.W. Worm

Development of the considerations about safety in tunnels
Discussion on the level of safety for the Westerschelde Tunnel
Probabilistic approach definition framework
Scenario analysis
Explanation of the safety chain
The safety chain in practice at the Westerschelde Tunnel
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Introduction
In designing the Westerschelde Tunnel, a lot of attention was paid to the
safety aspects. The design therefore provided for a major number of
measures, of which the costs amounted to approximately 30% of the
entire construction budget. At the time that the design was already at a
well-advanced stage, intensive discussions about the level of the tunnels
safety led to an even further increase in precautions and to the setting up
of an integral safety plan. The principle of the over-all safety philosophy
which formed the brief for the design right from the start, is the so-called
safety chain. Basically the chain contains the following links:
pro-action: designing in such a manner that, the occurrence of a disaster is ruled out as far as possible;
prevention: reducing the chances and the consequences of a possible
disaster;
correction (also preparation): offers people the possibility of rescuing
themselves when there are no emergency services present as yet;
repression: take precautions which make adequate emergency assistance possible;
aftercare: ensure a proper winding up and recovery to the original situation.
Development of the considerations about

safety in tunnels
Up to about the middle of the 1990s, the development of the considerations
about safety could tag along rather gently at the rate in which new traffic
tunnels were being designed and built. In a relatively trouble-free fashion
and to the satisfaction of the various interested parties such as the emergency services, the requirements in the field of safety were met for each tunnel project.
In the initial years of tunnel construction in the Netherlands, the manner in
which the entire tunnel design was envisaged, was particularly a question of
practical insight: the emphasis in particular, lay in the taking of precautions
which were known or which were assumed as being contributory to the safety
level of the tunnel.
In the 1970s the probabilistic approach underwent major development. In
this, the safety risk in a tunnel is based on a quantitative risk analysis. The
key question to which the risk analysis must find an answer is: given a set
of facilitating safety precautions, what may still be the chance of a certain
type of accident and what consequences can be expected? This approach is
geared towards an extensive analysis of series of events and mistakes.
Discussion on the level of safety for the

In the second half of the 1990s the considerations about safety in tunnels
gained momentum; not in the least due to profound discussions about the
level of safety of the Westerschelde Tunnel, of which the design was already
at a well-advanced stage. The opinion arose that a consideration about
chances (the probabilistic approach) does say something about the expected
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Safety
39
level of safety, but does not define what actually happens or respectively should
happen, when a disaster does indeed occur. Thus it was strongly argued that,
besides the probabilistic approach with which the design of the Westerschelde
Tunnel had been started, a way of thinking had to be dealt with which was
more deterministic in nature: the scenario analysis. In this an analysis is made,
based on a limited number of described accident types, how road users bring
themselves to safety in cases of disaster and whether the emergency services
are in a position to provide assistance in an adequate manner. With this, the
scenario analysis gears itself specifically towards the correction (self-rescuing
ability) and repression links in the safety chain.
Development of
smoke, heat and
toxic substances
Intolerable climate
Tolerable climate
Detection phase
t
Reaction phase
Evacuation phase
Total available time
Aside from differences, also concurrences

The quantitative risk analysis (probabilistic approach), in fact is also a
scenario analysis with the specific characteristic that the total spectrum
of incidents is viewed in general terms and in very little detail, purely in
terms of chances and the associated quantitative consequences (number of
casualties). The fact that the discussion about the level of safety of the
Westerschelde Tunnel in the first instance, was concentrated on the differences between both approaches instead of the concurrences, is not surprising anyway: the quantitative risk analysis provides risk figures which an
emergency provider cannot use very well. Simultaneously, it is awkward for
the designer to adopt an extreme scenario as a starting point for the tunnel
design, if it is not actually realistic that such a scenario would ever become
reality. In the meantime it is clear that the one approach is not better than the
other: both will do justice to each other within an integral concept on safety.
Adjustments
In brief, there were vital criticisms from the emergency services on
the design of the Westerschelde Tunnel, in the way that it formed part of
the contract which was signed in 1996. The result was, that the design once
again had to be reconsidered critically by an independent institution, and
the level of safety was analysed in respect of a self-rescuing ability (correction) and possibilities for emergency services (repression).
Eventually after various investigations and reports the decision was made
to take additional measures valued at approximately 45 million euro. The
most important conclusion was, that the number of cross connections had
to be doubled from 13 to 26. The total number of safety precautions that were
Fig. 4.1
Relationship of the
development of a fire
and the available
evacuation time
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already provided for was valued at more than 102 million euro (included in a
contract price of 494 million euro), and was thus increased to approximately
147 million euro.
The extra measures involved:
a reduction in the distance between the cross connections from 500 to
250 metres;
wider emergency doors;
the introduction of a system in which the emergency doors open immediately in the incident tube as well as the non-incident tube;
optimization of the use of the escape possibilities;
the automatic start-up of the ventilation system on detection of an accident; though having the possibility to interrupt this start-up process;
a greater layer thickness of the heat-resistant cladding;
replacement of the New Yersey profile on the side of the road by a socalled Step barrier with which the chance of a vehicle tilting when colliding with the tunnel wall is reduced;
an overtaking prohibition for all the non-passenger vehicle traffic;
the establishing of flexible maximum speeds (80 to 100 km/h, dependent
on the traffic);
the set-up of an integral safety plan: it is the first time that an integral safety
plan has been drawn up for a mega project such as the Westerschelde
Tunnel, in which for the construction, as well as for the operational phase,
agreements have been recorded between all the relevant parties about
what to do during serious and less serious accidents in the tunnel.
Probabilistic approach definition framework

The probabilistic approach considers safety in terms of risks. In order to be
able to make a statement about safety, a large number of accident scenarios
are worked out on their chances and associated consequences. Risk can be
seen as the chance of an unwanted event in combination with the consequences of that event. An actual differentiation here, is the one between
individual risk (or localized risk) and group risk. The individual risk, shows
the chances of a person suffering a certain detrimental effect as a result of
being exposed to a risky situation (expressed in chances per annum). The
group risk, shows the chances at a single point in time, of a group being of
at least a certain size, becoming the victim of a disaster. Further, external
Fig. 4.2
Accepted societal risk
for the Westerschelde
Tunnel
Proposed standard
Likelihood (km year)
10
Gradient downward
Horizontal part
Gradient upward
101
Total tunnel
Averaged per km
102
103
Road users
104
Anyone in the
vicinity of the road
105
106
107
108
109
1
10
100
Number of fatalities
1,000
10,000
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Safety
safety (outside the tunnel) and internal safety (inside the tunnel) can be
differentiated from each other. When it concerns external safety, the limiting
value for the individual risk (the chance of a fatal accident in the vicinity of
the road as a result of an accident on that road) is set at 1/1,000,000.
The orientating value for the group risk is set at p 102/N2 per annum per km,
in which p stands for the chance and N for the number of casualties as a
result of a single accident.
Internal safety
Aside from the people in the surroundings of the tunnel, the people inside
the tunnel obviously also run a risk. Tunnels reduce the safety issue for the
environment, but internally they incite extra dangers. This particularly occurs
in situations with fire, where heat, smoke and toxic gases have very few
chances of escape, and also during explosions where major excess pressures can occur.
Similarly to the external safety, other degrees of risk can be considered
here, for which mainly the expectation value and the group risk can be
mentioned.
The expectation value shows the chances per annum for the average number of fatal victims amongst the road users as a result of tunnel-specific circumstances: fire, toxic gases, smoke and explosion. For the internal safety of
a tunnel, this degree however is barely normative: accidents with limited
consequences, carry relatively less weight than accidents which perhaps
have a small chance, but which have major consequences. The most important norm is therefore the group risk, which gives an insight into the chances
of an accident with multiple casualties at the same time. Beforehand, no orientating value had been formulated for this internal group risk. Specifically
for the Westerschelde Tunnel this standard has been set at p 101/N2 per
annum per km.
Scenario analysis
The design and the organisation are analysed within the scenario analysis for
its suitability in respect of a self-rescuing ability and providing emergency
Probabilistic approach
(quantitative risk analysis)
Deterministic approach
(scenario analysis)
As many scenarios as possible

(causes as well as consequences)
Limited number of scenarios
Working out the effects (therefore

particularly quantitatively)
Description of effects and (if possible)

quantitative elaboration
Assumptions of amongst others, chances

of failure, frequencies, consequences,
escape rates, arrival times
Taking into consideration the ranges of

escape rates, arrival times, etc.
Purpose: calculating the individual risk and

group risk. Emphasis on the searching for
possibilities to reduce the chances
Purpose: analyse accident processes

with the emphasis on self-rescuing
ability and emergency services.
Emphasis on limiting the consequences
Results in the form of quantitative degrees

of risk
Results in the form of descriptions

(qualitative) and much less quantitative
Analysis particularly leads to an optimized

package of technical facilities
Analysis particularly leads to an

optimized package of facilities
Fig. 4.3
Overview of safety
considerations
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services. From the entire spectrum of accident scenarios, this approach analyses some scenarios in fine detail in a systematic fashion. It is not the chances
and their associated consequences that are examined here, but the real accident pictures and its associated life-saving possibilities: in case of a disaster,
how do road users bring themselves to safety, how long does it take and how
long would it be allowed to take? Do they get out of the car for example, and
if so, do they walk in the right direction? Aside from this, this approach gears
itself towards the analysis of the input by the emergency services: are the
emergency services in a position to provide services in an adequate fashion?
In this, the scenario analysis gears itself specifically towards the links correction (self-rescuing ability) and repression in the safety chain.
ALARA
In any case, there is a third angle to the approach of safety which is known
as the ALARA principle (As Low As Reasonably Achievable). Generally this
principle means, that during the whole design phase and on the basis of
sound intelligence, possibilities must be sought in a practical manner to
achieve extra safety measures with a minimum amount of extra investment;
also when the tunnel has been analysed and found to be good both probabilistically and deterministically via a scenario analysis.
Explanation of the safety chain

The safety chain, which was mentioned in the introduction of this chapter,
forms the foundation of the thinking about safety, as reflected in the design
of the Westerschelde Tunnel. The first question that had to be answered was
how a tunnel (or other infrastructure) can be designed as such, that the
chance of a certain type (preferably every type, of course) of disaster and
accident is simply ruled out. Prevention is better than cure, also where it concerns safety in tunnels. Naturally this does not only concern civil engineering
design measures, but also the safety regimen to be maintained.
The moment that it is no longer gainful to use such technical (or organisational) pro-active measures in the field of safety, the next link in the chain is
re-examined: the taking of preventive measures. This concerns the organisational or design measures with which the chances of the occurrence of a
disaster as well as the consequences of the disaster, are reduced.
The third step concerns the corrective (or preparative) link within the safety
chain: when, despite pro-active and preventive measures, unsafe situations
could still occur in the tunnel, precautions should have been taken or facilities
Fig. 4.4
The bow tie model:
left of the knot we find
the accident causes
which separately or
jointly may lead to the
incident; in the right
half are the effects
arising from the
incident
Causes
Effects
Pro-action
Prevention
Correction
Repression
Incident
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Safety
43
should be present which make it possible for the people in the tunnel to bring
themselves to safety, even before the emergency services are present. In
respect of this link, the designer should pose the question as to how he can
bring about a design to optimize the self-rescuing ability.
In the event that the self-rescuing by people is inadequate a risk that cannot be ignored the providing of adequate emergency services is essential.
For that purpose repressive measures have to be taken and facilities must
be present. A design should therefore take into consideration that the location of the accident or disaster must be optimally accessible for the emergency services such as the fire brigade, ambulance or police and that there
are means present which the emergency staff are able to use.
The chain is complete with the after care link, a link which includes everything that is necessary to return to the normal situation as fast as possible.
The greatest gain lies in the first few links of the safety chain
It is important to find a good balance in the spreading of the attention across
the various links in the chain as a whole, in which not a single phase may be
neglected. However, it is essential to follow the chain from top to bottom and
to intervene as high as possible: its useless to worry about the number of fire
extinguishing pipes, if you havent first thought about pro-active or preventive measures with which the chance of (a certain type of) fire is avoided or
substantially reduced. The taking of precautions in the first links of the chain,
provides far more safety gain than precautions at the end of the chain.
The safety chain in practice at the

The pro-active link: ruling out the chances
An important decision was taken already in the plan study phase, which can
certainly be marked as being pro-active: the decision to construct a tunnel
Fig. 4.5
The Westerschelde is
the lifeline of the
harbour at Antwerp
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across the entire width of the Westerschelde. The use of the tunnel indeed
introduced a certain risk, but by discontinuing the ferry connection, theres
a greater reduction of risk: the shipping which is getting busier across the
Westerschelde is avoided.
Twin tubes: no head-on collisions
In general, the road casualties do not occur on roads that have separated
driving directions, but on roads that are not separated and the chance of a
head-on collision exists. The decision to construct twin tunnel tubes, one for
each driving direction, was therefore an extremely fundamental (pro-active)
choice, whereby roughly 90% of the potential accident chances were ruled
out in one fell swoop: under normal circumstances the chances of a headon collision in the Westerschelde Tunnel is practically ruled out. Only in
exceptional situations for example, during the undertaking of maintenance in one of the two tunnel tubes there could be two-way traffic. In order
to avoid accidents in such situations, special safety precautions have been
Fig. 4.6a and b
Head-on collisions are
almost entirely ruled
out: every driving
direction is housed in a
separate tube
(a)
(b)
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Safety
taken. Besides, maintenance activities are only carried out in the evenings
and at night, when there is an extremely low traffic flow.
Precautions have also been taken to rule out the chances of head-on collisions on the access roads that have two driving lanes: a central reservation
with a barrier gate or crash barrier separates the two traffic flows.
Aside from the prevention of head-on collisions, the accommodation of the
traffic in two tubes also has another major safety advantage (yet not proactive, but preventive): in case of fire, the smoke that is released, can be
blown out of the tunnel in the driving direction by means of the jet fans
present in the tunnel. The cars driving towards the fire can stop, but are not
enveloped in smoke because that is being blown away from them. Stranded
motorists can leave the tunnel safely. The cars on the other side of the fire
drive on and dont experience any hindrance. When the traffic from both
directions is accommodated in a single tunnel tube, such a solution is not
possible and the smoke must be discharged in another way: via a smoke
channel above the roof of the tunnel tube, for example as in the tunnels in
the alps.
Regarding the hazards of fire, applicable in the Westerschelde Tunnel for that
matter, there is a prohibition for the transportation of LPG, extremely toxic
substances, explosives and nuclear transports. These pro-active organisational precautions also eliminate certain types of accidents.
Preventive link: reducing the chances and consequences

Height detection takes place long before the entrance to the tunnel. When a
vehicle is too high, then this is indicated with a traffic light. Besides, before
the traffic drives into the tunnel which not only concerns trucks it can be
brought to a standstill by means of barrier gates. Trucks and vehicles with
trailers are prohibited to overtake in the tunnel. Only passenger vehicles
without trailers may make use of both driving lanes in the tunnel.
In the transition zone at the entrance, the cladding of the tunnel walls is
carried out in a reflective material to gently facilitate the transition from light
to dark. The level of lighting in the tunnel can be adjusted automatically or
manually. The entrance lighting is a counter beam light which takes care of
a gradual transition of the level of light from outside to the level of light
inside. Besides, the slanted ingress of light contra to the driving direction
results in good visibility (contrast) of the traffic ahead. Automatic detection
systems continually supply information about the CO content as well as the
visibility in the tunnel tubes. The tunnel is provided with a reversible longitudinal ventilation in order to ventilate the tunnel artificially, in case the
maximum allowable air pollution is exceeded in the tunnel, and to dispel
smoke and gases in cases of disaster.
The tunnel is continually monitored from a control building with a closedcircuit video system. Intercom (which is present in the main tunnel tubes as
well as the cross connections), loud speakers, telephone connections, high frequency radio communication systems (HF) and a normal radio reception of FM
transmitting stations ensure that communication is always possible with the
outside world. Besides, GSM communication is also possible in the tunnel.
The power supply for all the equipment present in the tunnel is provided
by two independent plants on either side of the Westerschelde. In the event
of a power failure on the one bank, at least half of all the systems remain
functioning normally anyway. If the plants on both banks fail simultaneously, then a temporary power plant (by means of batteries) provides power
to the most crucial sections of the tunnel. This ensures that a minimum
amount of lighting and control of the tunnel is guaranteed during the period
that is required if the situation so requires to clear the tunnel of traffic.
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Fig. 4.7
One of the jet-fans in
the tunnel during the
fitting out phase
Safety during fire

The road surface is provided with dense-graded non-porous asphaltic concrete. Extremely open-graded asphaltic concrete was not an option for the
tunnel, because this increases the so-called evaporation surface and thus
increases the risk of explosion hazards if fuel or volatile substances end up
on the road surface. The diagonal slope of the road surface ensures that the
substances such as leaking fuel flow into the gutter at the side of the road as
fast as possible. From there it is discharged to one of the two explosion-safe
storage tanks under the tunnel.
The lining has a special heat-resistant cladding to protect the concrete lining
from heating up quickly and excessive temperatures that could cause
the concrete to spall. (See Chapter 5 The protection of the Westerschelde
Tunnel against fire.) This is how the collapse of the concrete structure is
prevented.
The pump installations present in the tunnel take care of the discharging of
rainwater, fire-fighting water and dispelled substances. In the access ramps,
main pump cellars have been constructed through which the rain water from
the open access ramps is discharged. Central pump cellars at the deepest
points of the tunnel catch the leak water and suchlike that has been driven in,
and discharge it to the main pump cellars. These drain the waste water (purified if necessary) into the open water nearby. Clean water not polluted by
the road traffic is caught in separate water cellars and drained directly.
Dirty water is discharged via a purifier. Hazardous substances are temporarily stored by the pump installations and are discharged in an alternative
manner, for example, to a special reservoir outside the tunnel, in a tanker or
a tank ship. The continual excess pressure ventilation in the pump cellars
prevents hazardous explosive gases from spreading out of these cellars.
Traffic controlling
The tunnel is provided with a traffic controlling system that controls and
guides the traffic in cases of a breakdown or a disaster. With this system it is
possible to:
clear the left-hand driving lane within a matter of seconds;
block a driving lane;
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Safety
set a speed restriction;

stop the traffic;
close off the tunnel;
effectuate contra-traffic in the tunnel tubes;
prevent the cause of a traffic jam in the tunnel by admitting incoming traffic in doses.
Congestion is detected timeously via the traffic detection loops in the road
surface and the closed-circuit video system cameras. With this information,
the tunnel operators can take traffic controlling measures, for example by
setting a speed restriction via the matrix boards in the tunnel to indicate or
warn about the traffic jam or accident. A vehicle that drives too slowly or is
standing still can also be signalled by the detection loops. The control room
warns the traffic about this via the public address system and traffic control
measures.
Under the road surface there is a cable gallery and electrical equipment
cellars which are completely separated from the traffic tube. All the facilities
for the operation of the tunnel are housed in here. Due to the separation, the
carrying out of maintenance activities on the systems for the operation of
the tunnel, does not cause unsafe situations for the traffic. The ventilation
system in the cable gallery ensures there is a permanent excess pressure
so that smoke or hazardous fumes that occur during a fire in a tunnel tube,
cannot spread into the cable gallery.
Correction and repression: self-rescuing ability and providing

adequate emergency services
At every 50 metres in both tunnel tubes, there is an emergency post with
an intercom system, fire extinguishing system and other facilities. The
Fig. 4.8
Emergency post
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extinguishing system works automatically: when the nozzle is removed, the

pumps start and the system reaches an active pressure. When an emergency post is opened this is signalled in the control room, then the camera,
which is directed towards the relevant tunnel section, automatically zooms
in. The tilting outwards of a fire hose reel, the removal of a powder extinguisher and the depressing of the activating button in the emergency posts,
are treated as a fire alarm. Water from the fire hoses is mixed with a foamforming agent so that, aside from normal fires, fuel fires can also be extinguished. All areas in the tunnel and the controlling building are provided
with a fire detection system.
Cross connections
In cases of disaster, the cross connections serve as an escape route for road
users to the other tube and as an access for the emergency services. The
Fig. 4.9
The access door to a
cross connection
Fig. 4.10
The interior of a cross
connection
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Safety
49
Fig. 4.11
Fire brigade drill in the
tunnel
Fig. 4.12
Fire brigade drill in
Switzerland
escape route is clearly marked. The accesses from the tunnel tubes to the
cross connections are provided with fire-retarding smoke-resistant doors. In
the cross connections, the ventilation system ensures there is a slight excess
pressure so that no gases or smoke can enter. The clean air is inducted from
the other tunnel tube where there is no disaster. Every cross connection has
an intercom system.
The maintenance personnel can make use of a (locked) escape route from the
plant rooms under the road surface to the tunnel tube. This hatch in the roadside is unlocked only after the tunnel tube/driving lane has been cleared.
To be able to ensure that the emergency services can reach the tunnel
quickly, separate service roads have been provided to the access ramps.
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The emergency services have emergency plans which are recorded as strategy scripts. These describe exactly who acts with what means.
The tunnel control room has a direct telephone line to the central control
room of the emergency services. In cases of disaster, the tunnel operator can,
per tunnel tube, activate a pre-programmed emergency programme via an
emergency button. With this the following scenario comes about:
both tunnel tubes are closed to incoming traffic with barrier gates;
the ventilation in the disaster tube blows the smoke and possible hazardous fumes out in the driving direction;
the tunnel lighting is switched to a maximum level;
the left-hand driving lane in the tunnel tubes is marked with a cross, and
the speed of the traffic in the right-hand driving lane is reduced to
30 km/hour;
the emergency doors to the cross connections are unlocked and the ventilation in the cross connections is started up;
escape routes to the cross connections are indicated;
motorists in the non-incident tube are warned about pedestrians on the
road;
the fire extinguishing pumps start up.
The tunnel operator can always manually intervene in the emergency
programme, per individual system.
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5 THE PROTECTION OF THE

WESTERSCHELDE TUNNEL
AGAINST FIRE
G.M. Wolsink

The brief: the RWS fire curve
Factors which are dangerous for the structural integrity
Immersed tunnels versus bored tunnels
In search of a fire protection for the Westerschelde Tunnel
Taking the application of facilities into consideration
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Introduction
All traffic tunnels in the Netherlands must comply with fire safety requirements. The Ministry of Transport, Public Works and Water Management
demands that the structures must withstand a (hydrocarbon) fire for two
hours in which the temperature rises up to 1,350 C, a situation which is
reflected in the temperature-time curve for simulation of fires by the
Directorate-General for Public Works and Water Management (RWS curve).
In order to protect a structure against such a fire, the immersed tunnels in
the Netherlands are provided with a heat-resistant cladding which is approximately 27 mm thick. This cladding prevents too high an increase in the temperature of the concrete and particularly the reinforcement inside it which is
of vital importance to the strength of the structure.
For bored tunnels, thanks to the circular shape and the rather massive normal
forces present, the reinforcement is of lesser importance for the strength of
the structure in the operational phase than for immersed tunnels. Here the
reinforcement is particularly necessary to limit damage during the building-in
of the segments. In case of fire, it is therefore not so important for bored tunnels if the reinforcement maintains sufficient strength and stays put in
healthy concrete whereas this would be essential for immersed tunnels.
For bored tunnels, the criterion particularly applies, that in order to guarantee
the structural integrity, the concrete segments may not be too disintegrated
in thickness through the spalling of concrete as a result of high temperatures.
Further, the damage must be reparable in a safe manner.
The spalling factor is a phenomenon which goes hand in hand with the
quality of the concrete: the greater the density of the concrete, the more
sensitive it is to spalling. The concrete of immersed tunnels is not so sensitive to spalling because of the lower concrete quality.
In any case, at the start of the Westerschelde Tunnel project, very little
was known about the spalling factor, and that meant that a great deal of
knowledge had to be gained in a short space of time, in order to protect
the tunnel against massive fires.
The brief: the RWS fire curve

The traffic tunnels in the Netherlands where the transportation of hazardous
substances are permitted, comply with the requirement that the structural
integrity of the tunnel (wall) remains guaranteed during and after the fire of
a (petrol) tanker with a contents of approximately 45,000 litres of petrol.
Generally speaking, this means that the tunnel may not collapse, while the
damage caused can be safely repaired.The curve is related to a fire duration of
2 hours which is a consequence of the rate of heat release which is related
to the size of the pool. For such a fire, the burning load has an average
value of approximately 200 MW (with a top value of approximately 300 MW);
this scenario has led to the definition of the RWS curve.
The RWS curve is the most stringent in comparison to some other curves
such as the ISO-834 standard fire curve, the Eurocode 1 for a hydrocarbon
fire and the German RABT curve. The curve rapidly rises to a temperature
higher than 1,200 C.
In order to protect concrete structures, insulation materials can be applied.
However, many standard insulation materials in the building industry are not
resistant to temperatures above 1,200 C and would melt. It does happen
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Protection of Westerschelde Tunnel Against Fire
1400
1260
1200
1200
Temperature (C)
1000
800
600
400
867
1300
1200
1014
928
Fig. 5.1
Various fire curves
1350
1300
1068 1078
761
1200
1080
1029
1080
986
925
1
822
658
556
482
53
RWS curve
RABT curve
Hydrocarbon (EC1)
Standard (ISO-834)
200
0 3 5 10
20
30
40
50
60
70
Time (min)
80
90
100
110
120
therefore, that certain insulation materials do indeed perform well when the
other fire curves in the figure are dealt with, but they function inadequately
under the circumstances which occur during a fire in accordance with the
RWS curve. For the structural integrity of the tunnel in relation to the danger of spalling concrete it is particularly the rate at which the temperature
increases shortly after the coming about of the fire which is of importance.
Besides, the maximum temperature attained and the duration of the fire
play an important role.
Factors which are dangerous for the

structural integrity
In the period prior to the construction of the Westerschelde Tunnel the
amount of attention paid to the fire safety of tunnels (read: immersed tunnels) was confined to the reduction of the concrete strength and the tensile
strength of the reinforcement steel as a result of high temperatures. The
third factor spalling was simply not in the picture, because for immersed
tunnels, the lower concrete density hardly played any role (having been
proven in fire tests).
As a result of two fires in the Netherlands, being under a viaduct and a small
underpass, the factor was brought to the attention of the DirectorateGeneral for Public Works and Water Management and an investigation was
initiated. The potential seriousness of the phenomenon was confirmed
shortly thereafter, by a fire in the tunnel boring machine during the construction of the Great Belt Tunnel in Denmark (1994) and the fire in the Channel
Fig. 5.2
Damage to the Great
Belt Tunnel in Denmark
TBM tail
with brushes
Ring 1158
1157
1156
1155
1154
1153
130 mm
170 mm
Fire ring 1
Jack almost at the
end of the stroke
200 mm 200 mm 270 mm

4
5
6
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Fig. 5.3
Damage to the
Channel Tunnel
Tunnel (1996). In the fire of the latter, it appeared that concrete had spalled
locally over almost the entire thickness of the lining. Afterwards, at the fires
in the Mont Blanc Tunnel (1999) and the Tauern Tunnel (1999) again it was
clear that concrete can be sensitive to spalling.
The complexity of spalling behaviour

The spalling of concrete manifests itself in various degrees: sometimes it
stays limited to a local development of damage which stops after a while.
On the other end of the spectrum there is spalling behaviour with an explosive character which moreover results in a further development of damage
in time.
The sensitivity for the spalling of concrete is dependent on, amongst other
things:
the rate at which the temperature rises per unit of time;
the density of the concrete; at a greater density (correlates with higher
pressure strengths) concrete is far more sensitive to spalling. The high
concrete quality is most desirable in view of the requirement of the 100
year life span, but at the same time, it makes the concrete more sensitive
to spalling;
the compressive stresses present: the greater, the more sensitive;
the moisture content of the concrete.
The spalling factor is extremely complex. That is also why it is not possible
to predict the phenomenon on the basis of calculations with any accuracy.
That is why the perception of the phenomenon was and is mainly of a qualitative nature.
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An important aspect which plays a vital role in the spalling of concrete, is the
rapid evaporation of water present in the concrete, whereby steam-forming
occurs in the concrete. Dependent on the degree of permeability for water
vapour, high compressive stresses build up in the pores of the concrete and
tensile forces appear.
In any case, the nature of the system of pores changes considerably at an
increasing temperature and it is particularly this aspect which makes the
spalling phenomenon difficult to calculate. Further, the occurring temperature
gradients also cause tensile forces as well as minor difference in coefficients of
expansion between the composite parts of the concrete at high temperatures.
If the increasing of the temperature as a function of time remains below
a certain threshold value at a particular place in the concrete, there will be
sufficient time for the steam to escape from the concrete without causing
major tensile forces. Aside from that, dry concrete is substantially less sensitive to spalling than concrete which contains water. Although given a certain
quality of concrete, a fire curve, the size of tensile forces present, etc.
it is not known exactly, below which moisture content minor or no spalling
occurs.
The fire tests undertaken in view of the Westerschelde Tunnel project, were
carried out with concrete specimens with a natural moisture content. This
means that the specimens were sealed with plastic foil after being demoulded,
so that no water could evaporate, but also that no water could enter from outside. This provided a well defined starting point regarding moisture for the
spalling test, which justified the circumstances expected in practice: the concrete of the lining of a water-restraining tunnel will sooner become wetter than
drier in the course of time. An exception to this is perhaps formed by a relatively thin zone of 10 to 20 mm near the concrete surface on the inside of the
tunnel. However, it appears that this dry zone does not prevent the spalling of
concrete: in some of the tests carried out on behalf of the Westerschelde
Tunnel, scales measuring approximately 50 mm thick chipped off the concrete.
Intrinsic to the factor of spalling, is that important scale effects are present.
Each time, both in the laboratory and at the fire in practice, it appeared that
the spalling had advanced the most in the middle of the tunnel elements.
The damage near the edges has the tendency to lag behind a great deal. This
can be explained due to edges having a different temperature and stress
distribution than in the middle of a plate. For the carrying out of the spalling
tests this consequently meant that the specimens must be rather large.
Immersed tunnels versus bored tunnels

As already pointed out in the introduction, the function of the reinforcement
in the lining of the bored tunnels to be (or are) built in the Netherlands differ substantially from the function of the reinforcement of the concrete of
immersed tunnels. Generally this means that the perpetual functioning of
the reinforcement for immersed tunnels is essential, whereas the function
of the reinforcement for bored tunnels is limited in the final situation: the
reinforcement is particularly necessary to reduce the damage during the
building-in of the elements.
In terms of the permissible damage during and after a fire, this means that
for immersed tunnels the temperature of the reinforcement may not rise too
high and that the reinforcement must remain adherent in concrete that is
still healthy. This means that for immersed tunnels almost no spalling is
permitted. This doesnt happen either because, by comparison with bored
tunnels, a lower quality of concrete is applied. It is different for a bored
tunnel thanks to the circular shape and the rather massive normal forces
thus present. Applicable here, is particularly the criteria that the concrete
55
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Insulation
Area 0
Area 1
Area 1
Compression
Tensile
Compression
Area 2
Compression
Compression
Area 2
(a)
(b)
Area 0 Heavy duty reinforcement for the field moment (confine the temperature
of the bending reinforcement and concrete; no spalling permitted)
Area 1 Shear force reinforcement (confine the temperature of the shear force
reinforcement and concrete; minor spalling permitted)
Diagrammatic representation of the

structural behaviour in a cross section
of a bored tunnel
Area 2 Relatively little reinforcement; walls are primarily loaded on pressure

(temperatures are not of such importance; limited degree of spalling permitted)
Fig. 5.4a and b

Diagrammatic
comparison of
immersed tunnel and
bored tunnel
elements may not disintegrate in thickness too much as a result of the factor of spalling, because the structural integrity of the tunnel could otherwise
be endangered.
Characteristics of bored tunnels

For bored tunnels the safety is primarily determined by the fact whether
excessive spalling occurs or not (progressive spalling); the higher the concrete quality, so too the greater the chances of this. For bored tunnels the
concrete has a characteristic compressive strength of 55 N/mm2 or higher.
Another difference in respect of an immersed tunnel is the presence of relatively massive normal forces to which bored tunnels are subjected. These
differences (concrete quality and normal forces) cause the concrete for
a bored tunnel to be considerably more sensitive to the spalling phenomenon.
In the case of the Westerschelde Tunnel, some spalling damage is permissible
prior to the structural integrity being endangered. Yet, because of the uncertainty regarding the question whether, and if so at what depth the spalling
process stops in the lining, for safetys sake a starting point was used that,
subjected to a fire in accordance with the RWS curve, no spalling is permitted.
In search of a fire protection for the

In order to control the spalling of the concrete lining of bored tunnels, a
number of measures can be taken. An (external) heat-resistant cladding can
be applied to the concrete lining, but the concrete of the lining can also be
protected internally against spalling: either by adding polypropylene fibres
or by applying steel fibre concrete. A heat-resistant cladding ensures that
the temperatures occurring in the concrete remain below a certain critical
spall temperature. Polypropylene fibres melt during a fire causing small
channels to come about through which the occurring steam (water vapour)
can escape without causing too many tensile stresses in the concrete. The
use of steel fibres prevents the loosening concrete from falling down. The
concrete which is still affixed, albeit cracked, protects the concrete behind
from spalling.
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57
Testing of propylene fibres

The application of using polypropylene fibres in the concrete segments was
an attractive idea: it would not only prevent spalling, but would mean that
taking further measures would be superfluous after completion of the lining
of the tunnel structure. That meant that the complicated logistical (finishing)
process would undergo no extra stress due to the application of heat-resistant
cladding.
On the contracting combinations initiative it was therefore tested to see if
polypropylene fibres (with a medium-fine diameter of 60 m) could prevent
spalling. At the Braunschweig University of Technology a large-scale testing
set-up was built for this. The fibre content in the segments, which were artificially pretensioned and were subjected to a dousing of fire amounted to
2 kg/m3. The concrete did not withstand the test and the functioning of the
fibres was found to be inadequate. The prediction was that no spalling
would take place, while it appeared that a maximum spall depth of approximately 130 mm occurred. However, no spalling occurred in the combination
of a 16 mm thick heat-resistant cladding (Promatect) and polypropylene fibres.
Determining the insulation thickness of the heat-resistant

cladding
Due to the limited functioning of the fibres, it was decided to gear the attention towards a research of heat-resistant cladding. To this end, orientating
fire tests were done by TNO, Centrum voor Brandveiligheid (Centre for Fire
Research) with specimens without fibres, while a heat-resistant cladding of
23 and 27 mm Promatect was applied; it appeared to be most inadequate.
A test with a Promatect cladding layer being 44 mm thick came close to the
target: after 119 minutes and 23 seconds almost the required time of 120
minutes the segment exploded.
Fig. 5.5a
Impression of the
testing set-up by TNO.
By means of
pretensioning, a
compressive stress of
12 N/mm2 is applied,
which represents the
depth positioning of
the tunnel. The
concrete quality is B55
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Fig. 5.5b
Impression of the
testing set-up by TNO.
By means of
pretensioning, a
compressive stress of
12 N/mm2 is applied,
which represents the
depth positioning of
the tunnel. The
concrete quality is B55
Fig. 5.6
Results of heatresistant sheet
cladding tests
Thickness of cladding
Time lapse until spalling occurs
23 mm
approx. 35 minutes
27 mm
approx. 50 minutes
44 mm
approx. 119 minutes
Fig. 5.7
Damage can develop
rapidly once the
spalling has started
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Temperatures at a depth of 50 mm in the concrete

1400
Temperature (C)
1200
RWS
TK11
TK12
TK13
TK14
TK15
TK16
TK17
TK19
TK20
1000
800
600
400
200
0
0
10
20
30
Time (min)
40
50
60
Switchover from sheet material to spraying: Fendolite

Up to that point, sheet material (Promatect) was applied during the tests.
However, it is toilsome to make the sheets fit onto a base which is not flat
and for varying dimensions of the concrete segments and the joints
in-between. It appeared that a sprayed cladding was also financially more
attractive due to this. The choice was made for applying the heat-resistant
cladding by means of spraying Fendolite. This would cause no problem in
tailor-making the sheets.
Degree of moisture of the sprayed layer

In the first test with Fendolite, the spraying material appeared to be rather
wet (more than 20% m/m), causing the temperature on the partitioning surface of the insulation layer and the concrete to attain over 100 C only after
2.5 hours; the duration of the fire was even continued up to 5 hours, at
1,200 C, without there being a question of spalling. Due to the fact that it
was not initially known whether this was a realistic imitation of the real circumstances in a tunnel or not, a number of samples of sprayed cladding
were taken from two existing tunnels which had dried up in the meantime.
This proved that the natural moisture content varied between 4 and 6% m/m.
In the laboratory, the balanced moisture content of Fendolite at varying
relative moistures, was determined later; the results were approximately
the same as the abovementioned values. As the requirement, it was eventually determined that the moisture content of a heat-resistant cladding for
testing, has to be lower than or equal to 5% m/m.
Then the tests with the sprayed heat-resistant cladding were carried out, in
which the moisture content in the cladding was no higher than 5%. Of course,
after spraying the Fendolite it is extremely wet; that is why the low moisture
content had to be realised by means of drying beforehand. At the same time it
had to be avoided that the concrete would dry out, because then there would
no longer be a matter of spalling. During the first 3 hours of the fire test with
the dry Fendolite (layer thickness of 45 mm), in which the temperature constantly measured 1,200 C in the last hour, spalling only occurred on the side
edges of the specimen. The reason for this was that the connection between
the kiln and the specimen leaked, and the specimens were not insulated on
the side edges. In the following tests care was taken that the kiln displayed less
leakage and the side edges of the specimen was insulated. Damages as a
result of spalling of the side edges were therefore prevented. From this it
could also be deduced that local damage can spread sideways rather quickly.
59
Fig. 5.8
Example of the
temperature pattern of
a number of thermocouples
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Fig. 5.9
Spalling behaviour in
40 mm Fendolite
Fig. 5.10
Damage to edges due
to leaking oven
Eventually, in view of the results of the fire tests carried out, the thickness of
the sprayed Fendolite insulation layer was determined at 45 mm thick.
For safetys sake, the sprayed cladding is anchored by means of stainless
steel netting (with a total surface of approximately 240,000 m2) in the insulation and a total of 1.5 million anchor bolts.
Fastening points of equipment

After having determined the desired thickness of the heat-resistant
cladding, only one action point remained: thermal leaks caused as a result
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61
Fig. 5.11
The spraying of the
heat-resistant cladding
(Fendolite) aided by a
robot
of various steel fastenings which are anchored through the heat-resistant

cladding into the concrete of the lining. Due to the carrying out of fire tests,
in which different bolt configurations were tested, it was examined to what
extent such leaks increase the dangers of spalling. Nature appeared to be
rather mild: only at the mounting of the ventilators did spalling take place at
one of the two simultaneously tested mounting positions. Although the
phenomenon of spalling of concrete itself could not be accurately calculated,
it was possible to calculate the time-dependent heat penetration around the
ventilator mounting by means of a finite elements programme. As can clearly
be seen in the figure, the ventilator mounting forms a thermal leak. In view
of the test results, the mounting was adapted and tested. Due to the reduction
of the surface of the means of fastening and thus the degree of thermal leakage,
it appeared that the means of fastening still complies with the requirements.
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Fig. 5.12
Damage near a
mounting point
Fig. 5.13
Temperature spread
after two hours of
fire at the transition of
the insulation to the
concrete
FLO V3.03
Temperature spread
ITER 240
TEMPERATURE
Relative
TIME 7,200
GMAX 1,200
GMIN 10
Fastening of jet-fan (bolt M16)

Thickness of strip is: 12 mm
1,200
1,115
1,030
945
860
775
690
605
520
435
350
265
180
95
10
Taking the application of facilities into

consideration
Fire-resistant facilities in a tunnel represent a certain economic value. In
order to show that the investment is justified, the costs of the application
can be compared to the costs related to a fire in a tunnel without facilities in
which the structural integrity is lost. Of course, it first had to be determined
what the chances are of the occurrence of a fire during the required life span
of the tunnel, in which the structural integrity is lost.
The costs of the heat-resistant cladding can be viewed as a kind of insurance
premium to cover the consequences of a large fire. If this amount is not
spent on the heat-resistant cladding, then in terms of a marketplace point of
view, via the compounded interest factor during the life span of the tunnel,
this amount would continue to increase in value. By means of a statistical
consideration it can then be determined if the damage created due to the
absence of a heat-resistant cladding, on average could be afforded through
the growth of the insurance premium. For the Westerschelde Tunnel this is
clearly not the case.
The application of such a costs comparison for the Westerschelde Tunnel
clearly shows that the application of fire-resistant facilities in relation to the
costs and the risks, was well justified.
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6 A LIFE SPAN OF AT LEAST

100 YEARS
A.J.M. Siemes, H. De Vries and J. van den Hoonaard

Practices in the past
DuraCrete provides relief
Design proposal of segments and optimizations
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Introduction
A requirement set for the design of the Westerschelde Tunnel, is that the
tunnel must have a life span of at least 100 years. Of course this does not
mean that the tunnel would collapse after 100 years, but it does mean that
the chances of a certain limit state being exceeded after 100 years, would
be acceptably small. In the Netherlands, the requirement of a life span of
at least 100 years was first set for the Second Heinenoord Tunnel, the first
traffic tunnel bored in the soil of the Netherlands. However, it was not
explicitly determined whether that tunnel complies with this requirement.
In the case of the Westerschelde Tunnel, the requirement was proposed
again, and by making use of the European research programme DuraCrete,
it could actually be proven that the design of the tunnel complies with this
limit state.
Apart from the life span of the tunnel, calculations were also carried out in a
similar fashion for the access ramps with a concrete quality of B-35 with
blast furnace cement (CEM-III), and required concrete cover of 45 mm
(50 mm has been applied). For the outside of steel segments with an
average corrosion rate of 0.08 mm per year, a corrosion allowance of 23 mm
is calculated.
Practices in the past

Naturally there have always been requirements set in respect of the life span
of structures, at least for those sections of structures which are not simply
replaceable.
There are detailed provisions in the Regulations for Concrete Structures and
in the Regulations for Concrete Technology for concrete structures, which
must ensure that a structure actually lasts for a sufficient length of time.
These provisions are implementation rules and concern matters such as the
least amount of concrete cover required on the reinforcement, the maximum
value of the water/cement ratio and the type of cement. The concrete structures that comply with these provisions are assumed to last for a sufficient
length of time. In practice it has been proven, that some maintenance
and repairs are necessary to maintain concrete structures. The disadvantage
of the life span requirements that follow on from the mentioned concrete
regulations is that no relationship is placed between the envisaged life span
and the maintenance that will be necessary.
For the design of important concrete structures in the Netherlands, often extra
requirements are set on the life span. For the Haringvliet locks this meant
an increased concrete cover, the use of blast-furnace cement concrete, a
water/cement ratio of 0.45 at most, and the requirement to apply pretensioned concrete as much as possible. For storm-surge barriers built later,
such as the Oosterschelde and the Maeslant storm-surge barriers, the explicit
requirement of the life span was set at 200 and 100 years respectively.
However, it was rather difficult to prove that these life span requirements had
been complied with. The most important reason for this was the absence of a
generally acceptable method of determination. For the Oosterschelde stormsurge barrier, deterioration models were set up for example, from which the
expectation was assumed that the concrete cover would have to be
replaced after just more than 80 years. This section could therefore not comply with the requirement set. For the Maeslant storm-surge barrier, enlarged
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A L i f e S p a n o f a t L e a s t 1 0 0 Ye a r s
65
concrete covers were applied and it was implicitly assumed that with that,
the required 100 year life span could be achieved. When it was decided to
construct bored tunnels in the Netherlands, the life span requirement took
up a prominent position. The social benefit and the high construction costs
were the basis of this requirement.
Fig. 6.1
Storage of segments
DuraCrete provides relief

That the Westerschelde Tunnel had to last at least 100 years, was also a
requirement set for the design. However, in the contract no specification
was included in what manner this had to be proven. In other words, what
limit state could not be exceeded in 100 years and how big was the chance
allowed to be that this happened?
The ultimate limit state would obviously be exceeded if the tunnel collapsed.
Yet at an earlier stage the limitations could also be exceeded, for example in
cases of leakage or when concrete pieces fall off the tunnel wall. This could
give the users of the tunnel an unsafe feeling. In such cases its not about
the maximum (failure) limit state, but about the service limit states or usable
service limit states. Of course it is possible to repair damages and thus postpone the exceeding of limit states. However, the question is whether that is
an optimum situation in an economic sense: if the tunnel has to close every
15 years for the undertaking of maintenance and repair work, that also
means a loss of income, because during the maintenance period no tolls
can be charged.
The requirement of a life span of 100 years was also prompted by this
economic interest: the tunnel may only close when absolutely necessary,
and that is why the design had to be geared so as to limit the maintenance
substantially.
The absence of a sound method to determine the life span, and the vagueness about what limit state it concerned, has lead to extensive discussions
between the client and the contractor. Both parties decided to call in the
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assistance from the Dutch company TNO Bouw (construction) and the German
engineering company Schiessl/Raupach. These companies were closely
associated in the development of a method DuraCrete which can be used
to make firm statements about the feasibility of the desired life span. On the
basis of this method, which assumes a stochastic approach, it was possible to
prove by means of calculations, that the design of the tunnel complied with
the requirement of a life span of 100 years.
Chances of failure and acceptance

In view of the costs, it is almost impossible to design a structure in such a
manner that the chances of exceeding all the limit states over a period of
100 years, is ruled out. On the other hand, the employment of an average
life span of 100 years is not acceptable; after all, an average implies that
there is a 50% chance that no limit state will be exceeded in 100 years, as
opposed to a 50% chance that this will happen. The smaller the chance that
a limit state will be exceeded in 100 years, the further the average value for
the life span (as seen in time) lies ahead.
The requirement of a life span of at least 100 years applies for all permanent
sections of the Westerschelde Tunnel. Important elements here are the reinforced concrete access ramps, the prefabricated segments of the bored tunnel including the special steel segments in which the access doors for the
cross connections are incorporated, the rubber seals around the segments
and the cross connections. Following on to the requirements of the Buildings
Decree, there is a reliability index requirement () of 3.6 for the exceeding of
the ultimate limit state (the failing of the tunnel). This means a chance of
1/1,000,000, that the tunnel will fail within 100 years is accepted.
For the exceeding of a service limit state, has been set at 1.8. That means,
a chance of 1/100, that the service limit state will be exceeded within 100
years is accepted.
reference period of 100 years,
reliability index 3.6 for the ultimate limit state (ULS),
reliability index 1.8 for the service limit state (SLS)
Fig. 6.2
Example of a life span
spread
Probability Density
Standard Deviation
Reliability Index

0
L1
Design Service Life

Mean Service Life
Service Life
In brief, the designing for a life span of 100 years thus means: the acceptance
of only a small chance (1%) that a practicable limit state will be exceeded
within the 100 years, caused by an increase of the loads (more and heavier
traffic for example) and a decrease of the strength of the structure.The average
life span is considerably higher: around 180 years. The chance of failure the
exceeding of a limit state such as the corroding of the reinforcement steel
during that period, is however also considerably greater: 50%.
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67
The life span requirement of 100 years particularly has major consequences for
sections that cannot be inspected or maintained. The various performances
such as the bearing capacity, usability and limiting the maintenance must
have a life span spread as such, that the combined requirements in respect
of the reference period and the dependability can be complied with.
With regard to the functional aspects such as water tightness, it has been
assumed that when leakages lead to unsafe situations in which the tunnel
must be placed out of order, this concurs with the exceeding of an ultimate limit
state. If as a result of leakages emergency measures must be taken to keep
the tunnel in use, this concurs with the exceeding of a service limit state.
Fig. 6.3
Chance Pacc on the
exceeding of a limit
state function
ZRS0
Probability
S
R
R, S
0
Pacc
Z the limit state function

R is a function which describes the bearing capacity of the construction
S a function for the influence of the load
P acc acceptable chance of exceeding the limit state function Z.
Fig. 6.4
Sustainability
formulated by means
of R and S functions
and as a life span
function
R, S
(R)
(S)
X X1
100 years
Life span
Fig. 6.5
Calculation of the
failure rate in the
year X
R, S
(R)
Chance of
failure
in year X
(S)
X X1
100 years
Life span
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Fig. 6.6
Calculation of the
failure rate over all the
years provides the life
span spread
Design on the basis of a reference period

R(t)
R, S
Spread of R(t)
S(t)
Spread of S(t)
Time
Average life span
Design
life span
Pacc
Spread of life span
Life span design
Deterioration mechanisms
Within the state of the technology at that time, it was not entirely possible to
draw up a life span design for all forms of deterioration. No life span calculations could be made for example, for frost/thawing salt attack and alkalisilica reaction. In order to solve this problem, the choice was made to take
on the strategy of the avoidance of these forms of deterioration. For this,
requirements were set for the water/cement ratio, the composition of the
binding agent and the sensitivity of the aggregate for alkali-silica reaction.
The assessment by experts in respect of the expected life span were reverted
to for the rubber seals. This assessment came about on the basis of data
gathered about the composition of the rubber, the glueing together, the
available results of accelerated ageing tests and experience.
The life span calculations were made for the following limit states:
corrosion arising; corrosion can occur if there is too high a content of
chloride present in the concrete at the reinforcement, or when the concrete is carbonatated. The non-exceeding of this limit state within a period
of 100 years was normative for the design of the Westerschelde Tunnel.
depression of the cover as a result of corrosion of the reinforcement,
which could lead to serious leakages;
failure of the structure.
The following deals with the first abovementioned limit state (arising of
corrosion).
Causes of corrosion
Corrosion produces rust that forms a deposit on the reinforcement steel. The
volume of rust is greater than the volume of the original steel. This causes
stresses in the concrete which, in the long run, the material cannot withstand.
The concrete breaks and eventually this can lead to serious leakages.
Normally concrete forms a perfect protection of the reinforcement against
corrosion, whereby the basic environment avoids rust-forming.This protection
can however be countered in two ways: through penetration by chlorides
from sea water or road salt or through carbonatation in which carbon dioxide (CO2) in the air fuses with hardened cement paste in the concrete and
the alkaline environment is lost. In any case, a condition for corrosion of
concrete is, that there is an adequate supply of oxygen in the concrete and
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69
that the surface of the reinforcement is alternatively damp and dry. In cases
where both mechanisms occur simultaneously, then chloride penetration is
normative; it is of primary importance that the concrete is adequately protected against this.
xc (Joints)
Solid (Chloride contaminated)
Chloride penetration (CI)
450
xc (Outside)
Fig. 6.7
Causes of corrosion of
the reinforcement
xc (Joints)
xc (Inside)
Leakage possible
Inside (ventilated),
Exposed to CO2 and chloride contaminated
Salt fog and splash zone environment
Carbonatation (CO2)
Chloride penetration (Cl)
Fig. 6.8
Production of the
reinforcement
Chloride from ground water can penetrate into the concrete on the outside
of the tunnel. In cases of leakage it could also reach the inner side of the lining.
The access ramps and the closed section of the tunnel are also affected by
thawing salts. These thawing salts, in any case, are scattered near the
entrance and exit of the tunnel. Besides, the traffic carries the thawing salts
into the tunnel.
In the vertical direction, four zones exist in the tunnel:
an atmospheric zone which is incidentally sprayed with water containing
thawing salt (minor amounts, rapid absorption);
a splash zone which is frequently splashed with water that is spattered
by the traffic, but can also dry out (large amounts, transported through
diffusion and absorption);
a seasonal zone under the road embankment ( wet sand), which is moistened quite frequently but can also dry out (large amounts, transported
through diffusion and absorption) dependent on the degree of drainage
and the pumping regimen;
an underwater zone (below the drainpipes in the bottom of the tunnel),
which is in permanent contact with salt water; there is very little refreshment
because hardly any fresh water comes in (large amounts of salt water,
minor amounts of fresh water, transported through diffusion).
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Fig. 6.9
Basic cross section of a
bored tunnel for road
traffic indicating the
various salt
environments for the
sustainability
Zone subjected to
thawing salts
(chloride penetration)
Splash zone
Tidal zone
Underwater zone
The penetration of chloride in the concrete of the tunnel in which the critical
content at the position of the reinforcement is exceeded, can be portrayed
in a calculation model. The calculation result then provides a definite answer
about the compliance or non-compliance with the requirement of a 100 year
life span.
Design proposal of segments and optimizations

The first design proposed by the contractor did not withstand the life span
calculations and that is why the design of the segments was adjusted.
Composition of concrete
Although the clients preference was for a composition of concrete with
blast-furnace cement, the contractor eventually proposed applying Portland
cement.
This was mainly inspired by the desire to be able to demould the segments
quickly so that a higher rate of production was possible. Due to the fact that
Portland cement has a higher early strength, the application of this cement type
was desired. This desire was honoured. In order to be able to achieve a sufficiently dense concrete however, fly ash was added. This gives the concrete
a finer pore structure through which penetration by (hazardous) substances
is limited.
The eventual composition of the concrete was thus:
Portland cement (CEM-I)
310 kg/m3
fly ash
80 kg/m3
water
120 kg/m3
sand 0/2
750 kg/m3
gravel 2/8
520 kg/m3
gravel 8/16
590 kg/m3
Quality of concrete
The required concrete strength of B55 was amply achieved with the abovementioned composition and its associated additional measures: on average
one could count on a pressure strength of B65B70.
Concrete cover
The first design proposal by the contractor provided for a concrete cover of
50 mm on the inner side and outer side of the segments. However, on the
side surfaces the contractor wanted a smaller cover. By keeping the concrete cover small here, the jacking forces of the tunnel boring machines
would quickly be transferred onto the reinforcement. The smaller the cover,
the smaller the chance of damages as a result of this mechanism, but the
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greater the conflict with the requirement of a 100 year life span. At the position of the rubber seal and the dowel recess connection, the cover on the
reinforcement however, was only 20 mm. On the basis of the life span calculation it was necessary to adjust the design of the segments with regard to
the cover. The concrete cover on the inner side and outer side remained
50 mm, but on the side surfaces the cover was increased to 50 mm, with the
exception of the places for the rubber seal and the dowels and recesses.
Here a new calculation was made, in the first instance with 30 mm and when
this also appeared to be inadequate, even a concrete cover of 35 mm.
The enlargement of the concrete cover on the side surfaces of the segments
and at the positions of the genuinely critical points of the concrete dowels
and recesses, brought the design close to the required life span, but the
chances were still greater than 1% that the reinforcement could corrode within
the period of 100 years:
Carbonatation (requirement 1.8)
no problem for all covers; 8.6

Fig. 6.10
The reliability index
versus the exposure
time in the event of
penetration by chloride
up to a level whereby
corrosion comes about
3.60
Reliability index ()
3.00
2.40
1.80
1.50
1.20
0.60
0
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
Time of exposure in years
Chlorides from sea water or thawing salt (requirement 1.8)
cover 50 mm; 3.5

cover 30 mm; 0.7
cover 35 mm; 1.5
(in which a dependability (beta) of 1.8 is equal to a chance of 1/100 that the
limit state is exceeded).
Additional measures
After 100 years the adjustments would result in a reliability index of 1.5.
The design requirement was 1.8, which was not entirely complied with.
It was therefore necessary to take additional measures. In principle various
avenues were open for this, which included the application of a stainless
steel reinforcement at those sections of the segment where concrete cover
was inadequate; the fitting of a cathodic protection; or the taking of aftertreatment measures which include the hydrofobing of the concrete.
The most far-reaching measure is the application of a cathodic protection.
Due to the relatively high price tag of this solution, it was not an option for
the contractor. The use of stainless steel with which corrosion is postponed
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in time by roughly a factor 10, also met with financial objections and that is
why the choice was made to take a number of additional measures which
are explained hereunder.
After-treatment process and hydrofobing
After concreting the segments the top was finished off and covered with foil,
then the elements were transported to the hardening area. They remained
here at a temperature of approximately 40 C, for a period of 7 hours. Then
the segments were taken out of the hardening area and demoulded.
Immediately after the demoulding and the polishing-over of air bubbles and
suchlike, the surface of the segments was treated with hydrofobing gel at
the positions of the dowels and recesses. The average usage of this gel was
approximately 250 grams/m2. This was followed by the segments being
stacked with a maximum of 6 per stack and packaged with a foil. The time
between the demoulding and the covering-over with the foil took a maximum of 2 hours. Then the segments remained under this foil for a minimum
of 48 hours before they continued further along the production line.
Carrying out electrical resistance measurements

After the segments have been assembled in their definite positions in the
tunnel, the concrete of the segment is exposed to all kinds of aggressive
substances that penetrate into the concrete. During this penetration process
the most important property of the concrete is the diffusion coefficient. This
quantity factor determines at what rate an (aggressive) substance (subject
to limit states) penetrates the concrete with all its consequences. In view of
the essential meaning of the value of the chloride-diffusion coefficient on
the life span to be achieved, it was considered necessary to measure this
value. As was evident from various studies that a clear relationship exists
between the chloride-diffusion coefficient and the electrical resistance of
the concrete, this could be carried out in a simple manner on the project. For
this, out of every 500 m3 of poured concrete for about 125 segments, a sample survey was done in the form of 3 test cases (cubes) which were stored
in water for 28 days. After the 28 days, the electrical resistance of these
cubes was determined with a so-called Wennerprobe. In practice, the average as well as the characteristic value was achieved with some excess.
Effect of damages to the life span

During the building-in of the concrete segments of the bored tunnel it was
evident that damage to the elements could not be avoided entirely. Therefore
it was necessary to repair elements and sometimes to accept that damage
remained existent. In a further study it was attempted to quantify the effect
of repairs on the life span of the tunnel. That was evidently not possible
because of the absence of suitable models and material data.
The designing geared for life span and performance requires that all possible
weak spots in the design are considered critically. That applies in particular
to structures such as bored tunnels. Once the structure has been put into
operation, it is hardly possible anymore to visually inspect and carry out
repairs to an important section such as the lining. The dependability of a tunnel must therefore be based entirely on the quality of the design and the
implementation. From within the design philosophy which is generally
applied for building constructions, this would argue in favour of increasing
the reliability index . On the one hand that could be done by increasing the
quality of the design and implementation, and on the other hand, by applying
additional facilities such as cathodic protection or a monitoring system.
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73
Fig. 6.11
Repairs of damage to
segments
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7 GEOTECHNICAL CIRCUMSTANCES
M.Th. van Staveren

Geology
Soil investigation
Geotechnical interpretation
Ground water
Sticking of the Boom clay and design of the tunnel boring machines
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76
Introduction
Knowledge about the nature and the behaviour of the soil is of vital
importance in every underground construction project, and that most
certainly applies to the Westerschelde Tunnel project: the condition of the
soil has played an important role in the designing of the tunnel boring
machines, the boring process itself, the construction of the cross connections
and the construction of both access ramps. The geographical positioning
of the Westerschelde Tunnel, between Zeeuwsch-Vlaanderen and ZuidBeveland in the outermost south-western part of the Netherlands results in
a number of special geological and geotechnical aspects. A large part of the
tunnel is situated in the so-called Boom clay stratum and in the glauconitic
sand deposits. The geotechnical properties of these layers deviate from
the more familiar Holocene and Pleistocene clay and sand deposits in
the Netherlands.
In this chapter the accent lies in the exceptional soil types and their deviating behaviour. Firstly the geology of the soil layers through which the
Westerschelde Tunnel is bored is dealt with.
Then the soil investigation which was undertaken is presented. This is followed by the geotechnical interpretation of the results of this soil investigation, in this a differentiation is made between the soil layers, parameters
and ground water.
Geology
The longitudinal
profile of the tunnel
crosses through
various soil deposits
Fig. 7.1
In the history of the development of the soil in which the WesterscheldeTunnel

is constructed, taking into consideration the maximum depth of 60 metres
NAP, the geological developments since the Tertiary period, are of importance. During this period alternating marine sands and clay beds were
deposited. After the Tertiary period the geological situation during the
Quaternary period underwent major influences through the ice ages. At the
start of the Quaternary period marine sands were deposited, followed by
fluvial sands and loam.
In the Holocene, the sea played a major role in the nature of the geological
deposits, as a result of the rising of the sea level during the last 10,000
years; alternatively sand, clay and peat were deposited. Besides, influenced
by the tidal motion, erosion took place which resulted in the creation of
channels in the basin of the present Westerschelde. Locally these channels
are grooved down to the tertiary deposits.
NAP (Amsterdam
Ordnance Datum)
Zeeuwsch-Vlaanderen
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
Middelplaat
Pas van
Terneuzen
Zuid-Beveland
Everingen
Recent sea sand

Sand containing clay
Bored tunnel
Glauconitic sand
Boom clay
6,600 m
Berg sands
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Geotechnical Circumstances
Geological epoch
Quaternary
Holocene
Age
(in years)
0
Geological formation
Soil deposits
Westland Formation
Alternative clay and sand, peat

in some places
Westland Formation
Formation of Twente
Eem Formation
Predominantly loose sand, alternated

with moderately firm clay, layered
10,000
Pleistocene
Predominantly moderately firm sand,

fine, mildly siltish
2 million
Predominantly moderately firm sand,
coarse, mildly siltish
Tertiary
Pliocene
Miocene
Formation of Oosterhout
Formation of Breda
Solid glauconitic sand, mildly siltish
Formation of Rupel
(Boom clay)
Very solid Boom clay, mildly to

moderately siltish
25 million
hiatus
37 million
Oligocene
Very solid Boom clay with very thin
(2 mm) layers and lenses, mildly to
highly siltish, in some places mildly to
moderately siltish, in some places
highly siltish to clayish sand deposits
Berg sands
Solid glauconitic sand, clayish to

mildly siltish
Solid clay, mildly siltish to sandy
The tunnel trajectory crosses through the following soil deposits, from the
bottom to the top:
Berg sands; this layer consists of glauconitic sand. Glauconite is a mineral which looks somewhat like mica. The size of the grain varies from
moderately fine to moderately coarse;
Boom clay; this is a rigid, compact and heavy clay type which is not
permeable;
Formation of Breda and Oosterhout; above the Boom clay there is
another layer of glauconitic sand deposit which, however, is from a more
recent period than the Berg sands. This layer is only at the level of the
Everingen on the Boom clay. Here too the size of the grain varies from
moderately fine to moderately coarse;
The topmost layers, which are crossed through in the vicinity of both tunnel ends, consist of sand deposits, sometimes alternated with clay stratums. The sand deposits contain no glauconite. The sand varies in grain
size from extremely fine to moderate.
For the Westerschelde Tunnel project particularly the Boom clay and the
glauconitic sands were of particular importance: these mark themselves
through their exceptional geological and geotechnical properties.
Geology of the Boom clay

The Boom clay belongs to the Formation of Rupel and was deposited during
the Mid-Oligocene (Rupelian) epoch in the Tertiary period. The clay was
named after the place Boom in Belgium, where deposits of the clay were
discovered on the surface. To the north this deposit lies increasingly deeper.
The Boom clay is a detritical, marine deposit. That means that elsewhere,
eroded material was transported through water and deposited at sea.
Fig. 7.2
Geological periods
and soil deposits
77
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Besides, the Boom clay is a rhythmical deposit with a banded structure.

Clayish stratums were formed when wave motion did not reach the bed
of the sea, whereas coarser fractions were deposited in more turbulent
periods when the wave motions did reach the sea bed.
The largest section of the original Boom clay stratum was eroded at the top
at the end of the Oligocene epoch. The Boom clay still present in the trajectory of the Westerschelde Tunnel is over-consolidated and is thus far more
rigid than the original clay stratum.
Fig. 7.3
A sample
of Boom clay
60
60
70
70
11
80
80
10
90
90
9
100
100
18.00
19.00
20.00
21.00
22.00
23.00
Layering and structural characteristics of Boom clay

The Boom clay can be subdivided into five different zones. Generally, the
transitions between the layers are gradual. For the design and the construction of the Westerschelde Tunnel, the (geotechnical) subdivisions of the
Boom clay was further restricted to 2 layers. This appeared to be adequate
for the engineering and implementation.
As a result of the geological manner of coming about, the Boom clay shows
a number of structural characteristics:
fine cracks (fissures), parallel to the stratification;
(vertical) cracks;
sandy layers;
clay structures which have been pressed through the upper-lying material
vertically (diapires);
lime concretions (septaria);
concretions formed by ferric sulphides (pyrite).
The local presence of these characteristics and the degree in which they
occur are influential to the geotechnical properties such as strength, rigidity
and permeability.
Geology of the glauconitic sands

Glauconitic sand occurs in the so-called Berg sands, a formation which lies
below the Boom clay, and in the Formations of Oosterhout and Breda which
lie above the Boom clay. Glauconite is coloured green to black and is a relatively
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79
soft mineral which originates in the bed of the sea. Aside from this, glauconite grains have a low specific gravity and to a certain degree they have
flexibility and even elasticity.
Fig. 7.4
Grains of glauconitic
sand
Glauconite appears in many forms. Literature has shown that 82 structure

formulas for the mineral are known. This large variety is the result of
the various marine environments in which it is formed. The largest
portion was created from so-called faecal pellets, (excreta from organisms)
and from clay in-fills in fossilized shells. This resulted in loose irregular
round and cylindrical-shaped grains of glauconite as large as grains of
sand.
Glauconite in an oxidizing environment is an instable and erosionsensitive mineral. Erosion particularly occurs at the edges and in cracks of
the glauconite grains. In the crystal lattice, the mineral can contain swelling
layers.
Structural characteristics of glauconitic sands
As a result of the geological manner of coming about, the glauconitic sands
could show the following structural characteristics:
presence of filled-in little canals in the soil, created by organisms;
local presence of (light) cementation;
homogeneous composition of grain;
presence of phosphorite nodules.
The possible presence and frequency of these structural characteristics in
the glauconitic sands, to a greater or lesser degree, could influence the
geotechnical properties such as permeability and mechanical behaviour.
Specific geotechnical characteristics of the glauconitic sands are:
a relatively minor permeability in comparison to the permeability of the
quartz sands;
deviating mechanical behaviour in respect of quartz sands: during cone
penetration tests, it appeared that there were (extremely) high cone
resistances, a high local friction and friction rate and negative pore
pressures.
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Soil investigation
The field research was carried out in a number of phases at the position of
the boring trajectory. Field research had already been undertaken at the
time of the planning of a cross-river connection, being a combination of a
bridge-dam-immersed tunnel (in the late 1980s early 1990s). The results of
which however, did not provide a picture of the bedding at the greater
depths, which were relevant for the bored tunnel. That is why four additional
deep drillings were undertaken in combination with seismic research. This
research had an orientating character and was particularly meant to provide
an insight into the properties of the layers that lay deeper and to determine
the layer separations. On the basis of this data, the contractor set up and
carried out an extensive and detailed soil investigation contractually the
construction and boring risks were his responsibility. In his opinion, this
made sufficient geotechnical information available for the definite design
and the implementation of the bored tunnel as well as the access ramps.
Boring programme
Type
Special in-situ
measurements
Cone
penetration
tests
Fig. 7.5
Drillings and cone
penetration tests;
nature and size of the
field research
Trajectory section
Number
Period undertaken
Zeeuwsch-Vlaanderen bank
October through November 1994
33
4
2*
Westerschelde
Zuid-Beveland bank
July through September 1994

September 1994
March 1995
September 1994
* Additional drillings carried out by the Directorate-General for Public Works and
Water Management Zeeland Department
29
October 1994
Westerschelde
30
August through October 1994
Zuid-Beveland bank
September 1994
4
PM
DM
MP
October 1994
Westerschelde
August through October 1994
Zuid-Beveland bank
September 1994
PM pressiometer
DM dilatometer
MP in-situ pore permeability probe
Field research drillings and cone penetration tests

A large portion of the field research consisted of (46) drillings and (63) cone
penetration tests. Due to the rigidity of the Boom clay the drillings could be
carried out as core drillings.The depth of the drillings and cone penetration tests
varied from approximately 30 metres NAP on the banks to 65 metres NAP
in the Pas van Terneuzen and Everingen. The Boom clay and the sand deposits
under the Boom clay were continually sampled and local sampling also
took place of sand deposits above the Boom clay. The sample yields of the
core drillings were negatively influenced locally by the relatively high sand
content of the Boom clay. In total however, the sample yield appeared to be
more than adequate for the drilling descriptions and the carrying out of laboratory tests.
All cone penetration tests were carried out as so-called coil cone penetration tests which made it possible to penetrate the entire thickness of the
Boom clay stratum. Due to the great depth of water in the Pas van Terneuzen
(approximately 40 metres) the activities had to take place from a floating
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81
platform and it appeared to be extremely difficult and sometimes practically

impossible to carry out cone penetration tests. The progress of the field
research was also regularly influenced by the effects of the tide, the shipping and weather conditions.
All cone penetration tests were carried out with a piezo cone with which pore
pressures were measured and which provided the possibility of carrying out
Fig. 7.6
Research carried out
from Middelplaat
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dissipation tests. Some cone penetration tests could not be carried out to
the full extent of the desired final depth due to attaining the maximum cone
resistance, friction or gradient.
Some exceptional in-situ measurements were carried out both on the land
and on the Westerschelde. They were pressiometer tests (in pre-bored holes),
dilatometer tests and in-situ pore permeability probe tests. The rigidities
in the Boom clay and the sand deposits respectively were established from
the pressiometer and dilatometer tests.
Laboratory research
The layers and samples which had to be tested in the laboratory were determined on the basis of the interpretations of the drilling and cone penetration results. In this, various selection criteria were dealt with such as the
positioning of the layers in respect of the access ramps and the tunnel, the
variations to be expected from and within the layers, and also the geotechnical properties to be expected from the layers, both during the drilling
process and during the operational phase of the tunnel.
Fig. 7.7
Nature and size of the
laboratory research
carried out
Test
Spread of grains
Undertaken
158
Natural moisture content, volumous weights,

degrees of saturation and pore content
89
Lime content
10
Humus content
10
Plasticity index (Atterberg limits)
85
Determination of the types of clay minerals
Determination of the KAS characteristics

(the form and angularity of sand grains)
44
Direct shear test

Water content
16
16
Uniaxial strength test
82
Triaxial test (unconfined undrained and confined drained)

Oedometer test
Water content
Content of organic fragments
Specific gravity
Determination of indicative number of Poissons ratio
5
59
58
57
10
5
Specific gravity
10
Permeability of sand
10
Permeability of clay
10
Adhesion of clay
pH sand
pH clay
Clay activity
73
Mineralogy sand
10
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83
Geotechnical interpretation
The layering of the subgrade encountered was obviously based on the local
geology. Here a differentiation is made between a cohesionless and a cohesive subgrade. The Boom clay is part of the cohesive subgrade, whereas the
glauconitic sands are classified as cohesionless subgrade.
The geotechnical layering is the result of the interpretation and correlation
of all the results of the drillings, cone penetration tests and laboratory tests
carried out.
Geotechnical layering
The geotechnical layering of the non-cohesive subgrades is reflected in
Figures 7.9 and 7.10. Layer ZK1 (in which Z stands for sand and K for clay)
does not show full cohesionless behaviour because of the considerable clay
content, but being a layer containing sand as the main ingredient, it was classified as an cohesionless subgrade. The opposite applies for layer KZ1. This
involves a considerable sand content so that the layer does not show full
cohesive behaviour. However, being a layer that contains clay as the main
ingredient, KZ1 has been classified as a cohesive subgrade. The geotechnical
profile was then drawn up on the basis of the geotechnical layering.
Pas van Terneuzen

10 m
20 m
30 m
K1
KZ1
K1
KZ1
Z1
KZ1
Z1
26
20 m
ZK1
BK1
BK1
BK2
3
50 m
GZ2
BK2
4
10
12
13
14
15
16
BK2
K2
25
Z1
Cross connections
11
17
18
23
19
20
GZ1
21
24
30 m
40 m
22
GZ1
BK1
BK2
GZ2
0
10 m
Z1
Z1
ZK1
40 m
60 m
Everingen
Z1
70 m
50 m
60 m
70 m
ZeeuwschVlaanderen
Pas van Terneuzen
Axis
of
tunnel
approx. 6,600 m
Everingen
Middelplaat
In Everingen the secondary fairway at the northern end of the trajectory

the extensive soil investigation brought to light a number of erosion channels situated in the Boom clay. These channels were not identified during
the four deep drillings with the seismic research which were previously
undertaken. Due to the presence of the glauconite in the sand in the erosion
channels, the seismic reflecting image was interpreted as Boom clay. The
layer Z1 which lies above GZ1, does not contain glauconite and is therefore
interpreted in the seismic reflecting image as sand. This meant that a considerable portion of the boring trajectory was not positioned fully in the
Boom clay, but in a transition zone between Boom clay and glauconitic sand.
Furthermore, it appeared that particularly the bottom of the Boom clay contained siltish to clayish sand deposits with a thickness varying from a few
decimetres to 2 metres.These sand deposits have the character of sand lenses
and dont continue.
ZuidBeveland
Fig. 7.8
Profile and research
locations (see chart
showing geotechnical
layering for
clarification of
abbreviations)
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Geotechnical description
(in conformity with NEN 5104)
Criteria of cone
penetration tests
Matter encountered
qc
(MPa)
fr. factor
(%)
pd
ZK1
Predominantly loose SAND, alternating

with moderately solid CLAY, layered
215
0.5 1.5
?
h/o
Z1
Predominantly moderately solid SAND,

moderately fine or moderately coarse,
mildly siltish, locally with shells
5 15
0.6
GZ1
Solid GLAUCONITIC SAND, moderately fine

or moderately coarse, mildly siltish
3050
1.0 1.5
Location
(level in m-NAP)
Rubble (pieces of basalt,

maximum 50 mm)
B4 (5.05.5), B37 (19)
Rubble (pieces of brick,

maximum 60 mm)
B4 (29), B33 (29),

B35 (1821)
Small stones, concretions,

gravel, (maximum 30 mm)
B1 (25), B18 (2022),

B33 (41), B39 (19)
Highly cemented
layers (3070 mm thick)
B27 (34), B34 (34), B35 (39)
Light cemented
chunks ( 1030 mm)
In most of the drillings

(on various levels)
Very lightly cemented little

canals in the soil, created
by organisms
GZ2
Solid GLAUCONITE SAND, very fine to

moderately fine, clayish to mildly siltish,
layered (layer thickness approx. 0.52.0 m)
1030
1.0
Pyrite concretions ( 10 mm)
B29 (46), B32 (59)
Very lightly cemented little

canals in the soil, created
by organisms

(at various levels)
Hard concretions ( 1020 mm)

(at one or some levels)
qc
Cone resistance
fr. factor Friction factor
pd
Dynamic pore pressure, measured during cone penetrations (h hydrostatic, o positive pore pressures,
n negative pore pressures)
Fig. 7.9
Chart showing the geotechnical layering of
cohesionless subgrade
Chart showing the geotechnical layering of
cohesive subgrade
Fig. 7.10
Layer
Geotechnical description
(in conformity with NEN 5104)
Criteria of cone
penetration tests
Matter encountered
qc
(MPa)
fr. factor
(%)
pd
Location
(level in m-NAP)
K1
Soft CLAY, moderately to highly siltish,

PEAT locally
0.5
210
KZ1
Soft CLAY, alternating with loose SAND,

mildly siltish, very layered (layer thickness
approx. 0.1 m)
0.53
14
BK1
Very solid BOOM CLAY, mildly to

moderately siltish
45
45
o/n
BK2
K2
Very solid BOOM CLAY, moderately to

highly siltish, with very thin sand layers
and lenses (thickness 2 mm), locally
mildly to moderately siltish (like BK1),
locally with highly siltish to clayish sand
deposits (thickness 0.2 to 1.8 m, average
approx. 0.5 m), gradual transitions
Solid CLAY, mildly siltish to sandy
45
o/n
Hard concretions, often with

pyrite crystals (no HCI
reaction, 1050 mm)

(at one or some levels)
Partially of septaria, with

pyrite crystals (high HCI
reaction, 50100 mm)
B18 (38), B19 (27)
Chunk of rockfill, basalt

( 60120 mm)
B40 (39; layer on top)
Hard concretions, often with

pyrite crystals (no HCI
reaction, 1050 mm)
In a number of drillings
(on various levels (BK1))
Hard concretions, looks like

petrified wood (no HCI
reaction, 50110 mm)
B19 (50)
Cone resistance
qc
fr. factor Friction factor
Dynamic pore pressure, measured during cone penetrations (h hydrostatic, o positive pore pressures,
pd
n negative pore pressures)
Layer not attained with cone penetration tests
*
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Geotechnical parameters
The different geotechnical parameters were determined from the laboratory
results. In this a differentiation was made between index parameters, shearing strength parameters and deformation parameters. The index parameters are used for the classification of cohesionless and cohesive soil. The
shearing strength parameters and deformation parameters are of importance to the design of the access ramps and the bored tunnel.
The parameters were inputted into a database, which were then used to
establish a relationship with both the depth and the length of the trajectory.
These relationships provide an insight into the variation of the parameters
per geotechnical layer in the longitudinal direction.
Ground water
At the position of the access ramps of the tunnel three geohydrological
layers can be differentiated: the first water-bearing stratum (the layers above
the Boom clay), a water-braking layer (the Boom clay) and the second waterbearing stratum (the layers below the Boom clay). For the latter it involves
the Berg sands. The clay of Asse (layer K2) under the Berg sands, forms the
geohydrological basis of the system. Above the first water-bearing stratum
at the northerly access ramp there is still one poorly permeable Holocene
clay layer (layer K1).
On the basis of cone penetration tests with pore pressure readings, the
course of the ground water stress was charted. The glauconitic sands were
an exception to this: as a result of the mechanical (dilatancy) behaviour of
the mineral glauconite, the (negative) pore pressure readings were not representative for the prevailing hydrostatic water stresses in the layers. A
number of dissipation tests were also carried out to make it clearer as to
what the in-situ permeability of the relevant layers was. The pore pressures
measured in the first water-bearing stratum were practically hydrostatic, in
which the influence of the tide was visible under the Westerschelde and on
the banks of the Westerschelde.
From the dissipation tests and the permeability tests, it appeared that the
Boom clay can be considered as impermeable stratum in a geohydrological
sense, despite the local presence of siltish or clayish sand deposits. During
the dissipation tests in the Boom clay which lasted 15 minutes, extremely
high positive pore pressures were measured which implies an impermeable
character. During a dissipation test in an in-between sand layer in the Boom
clay which lasted for 6 hours, not a single influence from the tide was
observed, which indicates that the in-between sand layers have the character of lenses embedded in clay.
From the dissipation tests in the Berg sands it could be concluded that there
was a high permeability and a hydrostatic course of water stress. This concurs with measurements carried out previously and the permeability tests
in the laboratory. The tidal influence in the Berg sands could also be determined during a measuring in 1991 which lasted for 13 hours. The influence
of the tide is caused by a hole in the upper-lying impermeable Boom clay to
the west of the harbour of Terneuzen.
The measured potential differences at the different locations and depths
were so minor, that it could be assumed that there was no question of a
ground water movement of any importance in the bed. No specific research
was undertaken into the salt content of the ground water. On the basis of data
supplied by the TNO Ground Water Survey Department, it was assumed
that the water-bearing stratums predominantly contain brackish to salty
ground water.
85
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Fig. 7.11
The cutting wheel was
specifically optimized
for the sticking aspect
Cutting wheel
with linked spokes
Spoke with cutters

Slurry removal opening
Active centre cutter
Removable
cutters
Bore front
support plates
Sticking of the Boom clay and design of the

tunnel boring machines
Aside from the soil investigation which was carried out by GeoDelft, it was of
essential importance to the contractor to investigate the Boom clay on behalf
of the design of the tunnel boring machines. Experiences from previous boring projects had made it clear that the clay could sometimes cause problems
and delays in the boring process, because of the tendency of sticking to
(parts of) the tunnel boring machine. The clay types at the Westerschelde
Tunnel project, particularly the really clayish layer BK1 and the more siltish
layer BK2 were of interest had to be examined closer; it had to be determined
what parameters were determinative for the sticking behaviour.
As there was no knowledge readily available in this field, the contractor
decided to carry out a specific research geared towards the sticking behaviour of the clay, in which the adhesion of clay to steel could be determined.
Six different types of clay of varying mineralogical compositions and differing origins were subjected to the sticking research. On the basis of the
comparison of the results it was determined that the normal adhesion of
(clay) bed to steel, within a fluid environment is almost exclusively dependent on the content of swelling clay minerals and the consistency of the
clay bed.
The degree of sticking of the Boom clay which followed from the research,
made it clear that the use of a tunnel boring machine without specific
adaptations, could seriously be hindered through sticking, in which particularly the BK1 layer would be tricky in the boring process; in order to avoid
problems, the design of the tunnel boring machines particularly the cutting
wheel and active centre cutter, the excavation and pressure chambers, and
the area around the suction opening where the bentonite was removed
had to be optimized for this specific aspect of sticking.
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8 ACCESS RAMPS: DESIGN AND

IMPLEMENTATION
G. Kooijman and M.Th. van Staveren

Design and implementation of the southern access ramp;
construction pit within a slope
Design and implementation of the northern access ramp;
caisson and construction pit
Surrounding dykes
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Introduction
The southern and northern access ramps have both been designed and
constructed in a different manner. In Zeeuwsch-Vlaanderen, near the
southern bank of the Westerschelde, cementbentonite walls have been
installed which reach from the surface level into the Boom clay stratum.
This clay stratum which lies at approximately 25 metres NAP, forms the
(almost) watertight bottom sealing of the construction pit in which the
activities were carried out.
For the construction of the northern access ramp at Zuid-Beveland, use
could not be made of the watertight horizontal sealing of the Boom clay,
because this stratum was situated at a level which was too deep. That is
why the deepest closed section of the access ramp was constructed by
means of pneumatically immersing a caisson. The connecting open section of the access ramp was constructed within a construction pit with
anchored sheet piling and across the largest section a bottom sealing of
underwater concrete.
During the immersion of the caisson, fossilized remnants of a woolly mammoth were discovered at a depth of approximately 19 metres NAP. It concerned a lower jaw and an ulna of the Mammuthus Primigenius, which was
estimated at between 20,000 and 30,000 years old. Parts of the lower jaw
have been built-in in the first stone of the service building of the tunnel at the
toll square.
Design and implementation of the southern

access ramp; construction pit within a slope
The southern access ramp consists partly of a closed concrete box structure
with a central wall. This box is approximately 31.80 metres wide, 50 metres
long and 19.40 metres high at most. The structure served as the starting shaft
for the two tunnel boring machines, and at a later stage it was provided with
concrete internal work. Connecting onto the concrete box structure, an open
basin structure was constructed at a width of almost 30 metres and a length
of 88 metres. This (open) section was carried out in 6 sections provided with
expansion joints, of which 4 sections have a length of 12 metres and 2 sections measure 20 metres. The concrete structures have a natural foundation
and were constructed in a construction pit surrounded by cementbentonite
walls which reach down to the sealing clay stratum (Boom clay) which is situated at approximately 25 metres below the surface. In the final situation, the
Fig. 8.1
Design access ramp
south
40 m
48 m
50 m
Open basin
Closed exit
open entrance
Starting shaft
1.70 m
6.50 m
Impermeable block
Infill
Boom clay
Cementbentonite wall with steel sheet piling
18.00 m
Cement
bentonite
wall
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Access Ramps: Design & Implementation
polder thus created, also forms part of the access ramp structure. The ground
water level within the polder is maintained at 6 metres NAP by means of
drainage. The entire access ramp is surrounded by a surrounding dyke with a
construction height of 6.50 metres NAP.
Cement-bentonite walls
The cement-bentonite walls around the construction pit have a thickness of
600 mm. In the walls that have a definite function, light sheet piling has been
incorporated as an extra waterproofing.The circular shaped wall at the head of
the construction pit has no definite function. Due to the fact that the tunnel boring
machines had to bore through this, it was not provided with sheet piling.
In order to guarantee a sound waterproof connection with the Boom clay,
the bottom of the cement-bentonite wall sticks approximately 1,500 mm into
the clay stratum and thus has a length of approximately 28 metres. The
upper part of the cement-bentonite wall was designed at 1.40 metres NAP.
In this, consideration was taken into account of the possibility that the dyke
around the construction pit due to the extension of the lock approach
of Terneuzen in the future would have to act as a primary water-restraint.
The design height of 1.40 metres NAP is based on the calculated gradient
at the place of the inner foot of this future water-restraint and not on the
polder level.
Construction pit
Due to the construction pit which measures 150 metres wide, 367 metres
long and with a maximum depth at approximately 19.5 metres being constructed within a polder structure, no pressure drainage was necessary and
it was adequate to lower the water table and to drain the construction pit.
The water level within the construction pit was lowered to approximately
18.50 metres NAP (0.50 metres below the deepest excavation) by applying
five drainage trenches from the surface level, provided with a horizontal
Excavation of
construction pit
Fig. 8.2
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drainage at 5 metres NAP in combination with vertical filters down to

8.60 metres NAP. After the excavation level of 4.50 metres NAP was
achieved, ten deepwell pumps were fitted in the deepest section of the
construction pit to make further excavations possible in the dry.
Concrete work at the starting shaft; first phase

Adaptation of original design based on the calculated swell and
settlements
The presence of the Boom clay an over-consolidated soil deposit situated
at approximately 25 metres below the surface level, was of major influence
on the design of the starting shaft (sections 1 through 4). Due to the excavation of the construction pit the subgrade is relieved, which can result in the
swelling of the underlying soil deposits, in this case Boom clay. The degree
in which the swelling occurs is dependent on the geometry of the excavation, the deformation characteristics of the soil deposits, and the degree and
duration of the relief as a result of the construction pit being open. By applying a concrete structure, the soil then becomes re-loaded, whereby settlements occur. The various construction phases excavation, ground water
level reduction and construction of the concrete structure cause the load
situation to be extremely complex.
The swell and settlements of the soil to be expected at the position of the
access ramp were extensively calculated in the design phase. The results of
the calculations led to adaptations of the original design. One of the
changes concerned the connection of the concrete structure (section 1) onto
the cement-bentonite walls. In order to be able to take up the calculated
relocations, a concrete flange was applied here. An expansion joint which
was provided with a rubber expansion profile in order to be able to follow
the calculated deformations, was applied between the flange and the structural concrete of the access ramp. Aside from that, the expansion joints
between sections 1 through 4 were expunged; due to the curved course of
the deformation of the bottom of the construction pit, these expansion
joints would open up at the top end, whereby the thrust forces of the tunnel
Fig. 8.3a
Construction of
starting shaft
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Fig. 8.3b
Construction of
starting shaft
boring machines could no longer be taken up in the proper manner by the

concrete structure. The floor was carried out in a single casting session. Due
to technical implementation reasons, the walls and the roof were cast in 4
sections. The expungency of the expansion joints also led to an increase of
the reinforcement percentage in the longitudinal direction.
The relatively slim concrete structure of the closed section of the access
ramp (floor and wall thicknesses of 1,100 mm) also lead, in combination
with the abovementioned design changes, to a substantial quantity of reinforcement, increasing to approximately 300 kg/m3 in the floor. The adaptation of the mixture was necessary in order to make a justified processing of
the concrete possible.
Due to the short amount of implementation time being available for the construction of the southern access ramp normative for the starting of the boring process the choice was made for a single casting of the walls over the
full height per section. In order to avoid cracking in the walls as a result of
hydration shrinkage, the bottom sections of the walls were actively cooled.
Concrete work at the starting shaft; second phase

Dimensioning problems due to greater settlements than
expected
After both tunnel boring machines had started and the necessary structures
were removed from the starting shaft, the concrete internal work in the
starting shaft could be applied. Due to the boring process being underway
during the realisation of this concrete work, and the supply and removal of
equipment went via the access ramp, the design had a longitudinal phasing
per tunnel tube; by means of a detour the logistical process of the boring
could take place undisturbed.
The second phase concrete work encompassed the construction of a clean
water and dirty water cellar, the floors, walls and roofs of both driving tubes,
plant rooms and a stairwell/lift shaft. In order to link up this concrete internal
work to the concrete work carried out in the first phase, coupling anchors
were incorporated in the external work. During the implementation when
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the TBMs were assembled it appeared that the actual settlement was
larger than was calculated. The calculated absolute settlement, in the phase
in which the soil is re-loaded, amounted to approximately 15 to 40 mm.
However, after the completion of the concrete external work and the assembly of the tunnel boring machines the actual settlement locally appeared to
be 4 to 10 times greater (up to approximately 150 mm).
Due to the coupling system having been applied with fixed dimensions in
the concrete work in the first phase, no corrections could take place.
Fig. 8.4
The set-up of the
trailers behind the TBM
Properties of Boom clay are different to those expected

In order to chart the problem outlined above, an additional monitoring programme was carried out in which not only measurements of the concrete
structure were undertaken, but also that extensometers were placed all the
way into the Boom clay to investigate which layers were responsible for the
settlements.
On the basis of the results of this investigation, the compressible parameters of the subgrade were re-established and this showed that the sand
deposits above and below the Boom clay were more compressible than
originally assumed. It also appeared that the Boom clay locally was approximately 5 times more permeable than was originally envisaged; a property
which resulted in greater settlements per unit of time. The greater permeability could be explained by the presence of small sand deposits in
the Boom clay. These small sand deposits have a substantial influence on
the total permeability of the soil mass. Aside from that, it appeared that the
Boom clay was 2 to 3 times stiffer than previously established in the compressibility tests. It was nevertheless not necessary to adjust the design on
the basis of the deviating settlements and swelling behaviour.
The problems were solved by connecting the concrete internal work by
means of the applied coupling anchors onto the concrete external work. Yet
due to this, the internal work was positioned slightly lower than originally
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93
designed. This deeper positioning was then compensated by filling-in the

floor to the desired (design) height.
Fig. 8.5
Concrete work in the
second phase
Concrete work of connecting basin structure

Due to the water level management in the polder structure, the connecting
section of the access ramp onto the starting shaft (sections 5 through 10),
could be carried out as an open basin structure with low walls surrounded
by a green slope. To prevent a short circuit between the polluted air which
leaves the tunnel tube at the exit during the operational phase and the
clean air which goes into the tunnel at the entrance end, the exit has been
extended as a closed tube across a distance of 40 metres. For architectural
reasons, in the wide central reservation halfway across this jump, a so-called
gallery with open columned-walls at the entrance side and a closed wall with
recesses at the exit side, has been realised. The external walls of the open
access ramps have also been provided with recessed ornaments which represent the bolt connections of the bored tunnel.
Drainage
Due to the surplus water as a result of possible leakages and permeability of
the Boom clay being minor, and the permeability of the sand deposit present
being adequate enough, a limited and simple drainage system would suffice
without the occurrence of a notable local increase of the ground water level.
At both sides of the access ramp, a double drainage tube of 200 mm diameter with an encasing gravel coffer was applied along the concrete structure
across a length of 120 metres. This drainage is provided with flushing capabilities at both ends. At the connection to the water cellar an inspection pit has
also been constructed which is accessible from the surface level.
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Starting provisions
The boring process started from the southern access ramp in which the concrete external work (sections 1 through 4) acted as the starting shaft. To
make the start possible, the following facilities had to be applied during and
after the completion of the concrete work:
a shield cradle for the assembly of the tunnel boring machine one for
each machine;
steel platforms for the assembly of the trailer carriages and platform
carriages.
In connection with the enormous length of the entire boring train about
195 metres this construction had to be assembled on the embankment.
blind rings and casing rings in the northern end wall and an impermeable
block on the outside of it, in order to make the boring through this wall
possible. The impermeable block was carried out as a filling of sandcement mortar (B5) applied layer by layer, within the total filling-in of the
construction pit;
a steel thrust framework. The framework is fitted in the floor and the roof
at the location of section 2;
facilities for the anchoring of the blind rings.
Fig. 8.6
A section of the boring
machine (being
assembled) on the
shield cradle
Design and implementation of the northern

access ramp; caisson and construction pit
At the northern bank the minimum construction depth required for the first
section of the access ramp (the receiving shaft of the tunnel boring machines)
was approximately 18 metres NAP. Given the circumstances, it was not economical to build a concrete structure at this depth within an anchored sheet
pile pit with tension piles and underwater concrete. That is why the choice
was made for a pneumatic caisson to be immersed from the surface level.
After receiving the tunnel boring machine, the construction was provided
with a concrete internal work.
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95
The caisson a closed concrete box structure which is provided with a central wall has a width of 34.60 metres, a length of 25 metres and a height of
24.10 metres. An open basin structure with a width of 29 metres and a length
of 260.50 metres connects onto the receiving shaft. This basin is carried out
in 15 sections with expansion joints with a length varying from 10 metres to
20 metres. The basin structure is built in a construction pit within anchored
sheet pile walls. At the 10 deepest sections, the bottom sealing consists of a
floor made of underwater concrete. At the remaining sections within the sheet
piling, drainage was applied in which use was made of a poorly permeable,
sand-containing clay stratum at approximately 7 to 9 metres NAP.
The entire access ramp is surrounded by a surrounding dyke with a construction height of 6.50 metres NAP.
25 m
43 m
160 m
Closed exit
open entrance
Impermeable block
Infill
Caisson
Open basin
6.50 m
2.50 m
Tensile piles
20.70 m Diaphragm wall
Sheet piling
Adapting the building of the caisson first phase

Initially the idea was that the caisson could be built at the surface level. To
this end, the soft covering layer (clay and peat) present down to approximately 4.50 metres below the surface had to be replaced by a ground
improvement consisting of sand. As a result of the higher rising height
in the aquiferous layers under this pack (in the construction phase up to
1 metre NAP, and thus approximately 1.50 metres above the existing surface), the building of the caisson could not have been realised without
drainage or an enclosing dyke. That is why the choice was eventually made
for the construction of a construction pit in which the soft deposits could be
excavated. By making use of a water-braking layer situated approximately
8 metres NAP the drainage remained extremely limited. Due to this the
construction level of the caisson was also reduced by approximately 4
metres. After casting the floor of the caisson, the construction pit could be
removed.
As opposed to the receiving shaft of the access ramp south, the walls of the
caisson with a height of 16.60 metres were cast in 4 layers. An active cooling
of each casting was necessary in order to achieve a crack-free and thus
waterproof structure. The following facilities were applied for the immersion
of the caisson:
the usual immersion facilities such as:
a cutting edge and excavation chamber for the excavation under
increased air pressure;
air locks for personnel and equipment in order to gain access to the
excavation chamber;
bentonite piping located at the external walls for the reduction of the
soil friction;
Fig. 8.7
Design access ramp
north
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in the southern end wall where the tunnel boring machines were
received the blind ring openings were closed with a low-strength mortar;
in the northern end wall, the openings for the future driving tubes were
closed by means of a reinforced concrete diaphragm wall with a thickness
of 500 mm.
Fig. 8.8
Diagrammatic
representation of
immersing caisson
Divers air
lock
Discharge
of mud
Stairwell
Supply
of water
Temporary
lock walls
Discharge
of mud
Spraying
sand loose
Extracting
mud
Cutter
Fig. 8.9
Construction of
the caisson
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97
Fig. 8.10
The immersion of the
caisson
A rubber-metal joint strip has been incorporated in order to realise the

waterproof connection onto the section at the rear of the access ramp. During
the immersion, the opening was made soil-proof by means of a welded sheet.
After the caisson was placed at the right depth, the excavation chamber was
filled with grout to replace the ballast water which was placed into the caisson
during the immersion phase.
Caisson second phase

A different starting point was chosen for the coupling of the concrete internal work to the first phase concrete work than was the case at the southern
access ramp. In connection with the possible positioning deviations in the
final situation as a result of inaccuracies during the immersion, the choice
was made for a more position-independent coupling. The support occurred
by means of facing walls and supportive consoles onto which the floor would
be constructed.
For the position of the consoles, a height was taken as such, that the expected
tolerances could be taken up under the floor by means of a primary beam.
In this, some important points for attention were the transitions between
the partially fixed support on the facing wall, and the simple support on the
console.
Acceleration
The concrete internal work which encompassed the construction of a clean
water and dirty water cellar and the floors/walls/roofs of both driving tubes,
could only be carried out after the arrival and dismantling of both tunnel
boring machines. In order to limit the construction time as much as possible, a number of optimizations of the design were done during the boring
process. Thus the lift, the stairwell and the area for the technical installations
were relocated to the adjacent sections of the access ramp which were built
sooner. A completely new installations building was designed for this on the
roof of these sections (2 and 3). Aside from that, the roof of both tunnel
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Fig. 8.11
Installations building
being constructed
tubes and the closing of the openings in the roof of the caisson were carried
out with prefabricated beams.
The section of the northern access ramp which connects to the caisson, was
constructed within a construction pit with anchored sheet piling. Due to
the fact that a water-braking soil deposit was missing and large-scale and
lengthy drainage was not permitted, a bottom sealing of underwater concrete was applied in the deeply situated compartment of the construction pit
(sections 2 through 11). This sealing, which was anchored by means of
tension piles, has a thickness which varies from 1.40 metres to 1.10 metres.
In the compartment situated higher (sections 12 through 16), a temporary
drainage had to be applied between the sheet pile walls.
After the sheet pile walls and the anchoring was applied, the deep compartment of the construction pit was excavated dry down to 4 metres NAP, in
which use was made of the water-braking deposit situated at 8 metres NAP.
Then the pit was filled with water, which had an over-value of 0.15 metres
above the rise height of the aquiferous pack, and the excavation was continued in the wet.
For the design of the pile foundation and the choice of the type of pile, the
presence of the extremely compacted glauconitic siltish sand starting at
a depth of 19 metres NAP, was important. Based on the high cone values,
a pile toe level deeper than 23 metres NAP was considered as not
implementable.
Dependent on the piling grid, the occurring tensile force and the thus associated pile toe level, prefabricated concrete piles (450 450 mm) and Vibrocomposite piles (with a diameter of 508 mm with prefabricated elements
of 320 320 mm) were used. The prefabricated concrete piles were applied in
the section situated higher, where the required piling depth into the glauconitic
sand was minor (approximately 1 metre). The Vibro-composite piles were
applied in the deep section where the driving depth measured 3 metres to
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4 metres and the section where, in order to apply the underwater concrete, a
filling layer of gravel with a thickness of at least 500 mm was needed.
Concrete work the sections which connect onto the caisson

The design of the northern access ramp is the same as the design of the
southern access ramp where it concerns the staggered entrance and exit,
the columns and wall with recesses in the central reservation and the ornaments in the outside walls.
Due to the backfill within the dyke, the northern access ramp has been carried out with high walls. Although the retaining height approximately 11
metres is not exceptional, it was difficult to comply with the set flexure
requirement for the cantilevered walls of the sections positioned deeper.
In order to overcome this problem, the cantilevered walls over the section
where the exit end is still closed, were strutted on the roof of this closed section. For each section, on either side of the expansion joint, two concrete
struts with a 0.80 metre diameter were applied. In connection with the risk
of a possible collapse of these struts, the requirement was set that they had
to be resistant against a hydrocarbon fire lasting for two hours at a maximum temperature of 1,100 C.
Taking the normal forces into consideration, the spalling of the concrete was
considered as normative. The strut was therefore carried out in a relatively
low concrete quality B35 which is less sensitive to spalling and which was
provided with a heat-resistant epoxy coating.
The structural floor of the concrete basin structure was cast without a
spread or slide layer, directly onto the underwater concrete. This has an
99
Fig. 8.12
Construction pit and
construction of basin
structure
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advantage that the connection between the tensile piles and the structural
floor is optimum. However, the disadvantage is that the underwater concrete
obstructs the hydration shrinkage in the structural floor. In order to determine the effects and the possible measures required, a temperature calculation was carried out. This showed that the underwater concrete on the
underside of the floor behaves like external reinforcements as it were,
whereby many small cracks come about. Additional measures were therefore
not necessary. At the top of the structural floor in the transverse direction,
the crack-width criterion of 0.15 mm was achieved with the normal reinforcement; in the longitudinal direction this criterion was exceeded in some
places whereby additional reinforcement was necessary.
Receiving facilities
The caisson on the northern bank served as a receiving shaft for both tunnel
boring machines. In order to make the receiving possible, a number of facilities had to be applied during and after the completion of the concrete work
1st phase:
blind ring and casing rings in the northern end wall and an impermeable
block for boring through this wall. The impermeable block, having a length
of 6 metres, was carried out as a monolithic block of low-strength mortar
(B5) within a temporary sheet pile pit which connects onto the caisson.
Firstly a layer of underwater concrete with a thickness of 1.50 metres was
cast as a bottom sealing. After the application of the impermeable block,
the temporary support of the filling of the casing rings (necessary for the
immersion of the caisson) could be removed;
as a result of experiences with boring projects in Germany, it was decided to
fill the caisson as such, that boring on the inside could occur immediately.
The filling consisted of a shield cradle (a filling of low-strength mortar (B2)
with a thickness of approximately 4 metres), with a stepped filling of the
same low-strength mortar on top, of which the dimensions were as such,
that the tunnel boring machines could bore into this block completely with a
minor supportive pressure. Further, the caisson was filled again with water.
Fig. 8.13
Arrival of TBM in the
receiving shaft
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Surrounding dykes
Around the northern access ramp at Zuid-Beveland as well as the southern
access ramp at Zeeuwsch-Vlaanderen, a so-called surrounding dyke has
been constructed. This surrounding dyke has a water-restraining function.
This avoids a polder being flooded in the event that the tunnel would collapse and fill up with water as a result of a disaster. On the other hand, it prevents the tunnel from filling up, and may possibly act as a siphon the
moment that the polder outside the surrounding dyke becomes flooded.
For the surrounding dyke, the degree of stability is of importance in the construction phase as well as in the operational phase of the tunnel. However,
a surrounding dyke is not a primary water-restraint, but only functions in the
event of a disaster. Simultaneously, a surrounding dyke is also not a standard secondary water-restraint; after all, a surrounding dyke must be able to
restrain water on both sides of the dyke. This meant that for the design of
the surrounding dykes, no standard design method was at hand. A design
according to a primary water-restraint would cause an unnecessarily heavy
dyke, whereas a design in conformity with a secondary water-restraint would
be too optimistic.
The brief was that the degree of the surrounding dykes safety had to contribute to the safety level against flooding, which was stipulated in the Flood
Defences Act. The tunnel, including the surrounding dyke, was thus considered as an engineering structure in the existing water-restraint. For the surrounding dyke of the access ramp at Zuid-Beveland this means a permissible
chance of failure of 1/400,000 per annum for the operational phase.
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9 THE TUNNEL LINING

R. van Beek and E.J. Sonke

The design of the lining
Briefs
Geometry of the segments
Model
Loads
Segment production and dimensional issues
Production process
Quality assurance
Dimensional problems
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Introduction
During the boring process, the lining (tunnel wall) is built up of segmented
tunnel rings inside the tail of the tunnel boring machine. The tunnel rings,
which were designed as interlocking hinged rings, were constructed from
seven segments with a weight of approximately 10,000 kg and a keystone
with a weight of 1,750 kg. The segments fit together to make a watertight
seal by means of rubber (neoprene) seals. Each ring has an external diameter
of 11 metres and an internal diameter of 10.10 metres. A ring is 2 meters wide
in the longitudinal direction. In order to be able to make bends and follow
the alignment, left-hand as well as right-hand rings were made. It was
extremely important to produce the segments with the greatest possible
care to be able to guarantee the required accuracy (dimensions) and quality
of the concrete. The combination of high water and soil pressures and the
thrust forces of the TBM on the segments required the concrete strength
to be at least B55.
This chapter will first of all discuss the design of the lining. Secondly, the
manufacturing of the segments will be dealt with and finally the problems
with dimensions which occurred during their manufacture.
The design of the lining

Briefs
The primary function of the lining is to withstand soil and water pressures
during the construction stage and during use. When a bored tunnel is being
constructed, the lining also has to absorb the reactive pressures (jacking
pressures) of the tunnel boring machine (TBM) and withstand the pressures
of the grout injected at the tail void of the TBM. This grout injection is necessary to fill up the space (tail void) which arises because the TBM has a larger
diameter than the tunnel ring put in place. A relatively slim structure such as
a bored tunnel has a special interaction with the surrounding ground: on the
one hand the ground exerts a load on the tunnel and on the other hand the
ground contributes to the strength and stiffness of the structure. Furthermore,
the loads are also dependant on deformations of the lining.
The wall of both tunnel tubes is built up of concrete rings, which in turn consist of prefabricated segments, also called Tbbinge. During the construction of the tunnel, the erector placed these segments at the required position
2,022.5
11,000
1,977.5
Fig. 9.1
Diagrammatic
representation of the
construction of a
tunnel ring
Boring direction
Boring direction
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T h e Tu n n e l L i n i n g
105
inside the tunnel boring machine in a stretching bond until a ring was
formed. Each ring has an internal diameter of 10.10 metres and is 2 metres
wide (in the axial direction). The joint between two rings is called the ring
joint. Due to the difference in the position of the hinged expansion joints the
rings situated next to each other will deform differently. These deformation
differences are limited by mutually interlinking the rings by means of a concrete dowel-recess joint (Nocke-Topf joint). This connection is loaded on
radial forces. In order to guarantee that the tunnel is watertight, a rubber seal
is fitted round the segments. Due to the segments being pressed against
each other, the seal also becomes compressed and the water pressure, with
a maximum of 6.5 bar due to the depth, can be withstood.
Design calculation values
The bored tunnel was constructed in both sand and clay layers. This meant
that the design of the lining had to take into account any rises in groundwater in the sand layers as a result of the tide. The following table gives the
values used in the design calculations for the parameters of the various soil
layers. GZ stands for glauconitic sand and BK stands for Boom clay.
Layer
Type
(kN/m3)
Z1
Sand
19
GZ1
Sand
20
BK1
Clay
20
150
BK2
Clay
20
100
GZ2
Sand
20
15
cu (kPa)
c (kPa)
()
K0
E (MPa)
32.5
0.5
40
10
30
0.50.8
80
20
22.5
0.60.8
40
1020
27.5
0.60.8
40
10
30
0.50.8
100
It was especially the horizontal soil pressure coefficient (K0) and the modulus of elasticity (E) that were important for the ring calculations. The horizontal soil pressure coefficient gives the relationship between the vertical and
horizontal soil pressures. If the vertical soil pressure is much higher compared
to the horizontal one, the tunnel tube will deform in an oval shape. As a result
of this, the soil above and below the tunnel tube relieves; the soil pressure
becomes active and therefore decreases.The soil at the sides however is under
pressure and increases due to passive behaviour. The differences between the
soil pressures around the tunnel ring decreases as a consequence, which
results in a reduction of the bending moment. A higher horizontal soil pressure
coefficient is better for the moment distribution curve in the rings because the
soil load on the ring is more evenly distributed.
The stiffness of the soil can be expressed in the modulus of elasticity (Eoed).
Compared with other bored tunnels in the Netherlands, the soil in which the
Westerschelde Tunnel was bored, with a minimum Eoed of 40 MPa, was not
really considered to be soft.
It was assumed in the design of the segments that the salt content of the
water would be comparable to that of sea water. This resulted in a specific
gravity of the water with a maximum of 10.3 kN/m3.
Requirements set on the design of the lining
Requirements were of course set on the design of the lining. So the calculation had to be carried out according to the technology available at that time
and various types of load had to be taken into account. In addition to the
structural behaviour due to soil and water pressures, the possibility of collisions, fire and explosions and the possibility of a ship sinking next to or
above the tunnel tubes were also taken into account. These loads play a role
during the phase when the tunnel is in use. Yet, perhaps even more important, are the loads on the segments that occur when constructing the tunnel
Fig. 9.2
Calculation values of
parameters for design
calculations
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tubes: the construction loads, in which particularly the maximum occurring

jacking forces and/or grout pressures can be normative.
Furthermore, the requirement of a life span of 100 years was set on the tunnel as a whole and therefore also on the segments from which the lining
is constructed and the tunnel wall has to be able to withstand a hydrocarbon fire with a maximum temperature of 1,350 C for a period of two hours
(RWS curve).
Evidently the design had to fulfil (geometric) requirements which arose from
the boring process.
Geometry of the segments

The choice of the dimensions of the segment is determined by a variety of
interrelated factors.
In general, the width of a segment (in the longitudinal direction) is chosen to
be as wide as possible with the aim of optimising the speed at which the tunnel boring machine advances. The width is determined by factors including:
the maximum possible length of the jacks;
the space available for transporting and placing the segments;
the maximum weight that can be lifted by the erector.
The length (along the circumference) of a segment is determined by the
number of segments that a complete ring is subdivided into. This is affected
by the following factors:
the space available for transporting and placing the segments and the
capacity of the erector;
the structural behaviour in the elements.
The thickness of the segments is determined by the following aspects:
the structural behaviour in the segments in relation to the chosen length
and width;
the magnitude of the jacking forces that the TBM exerts on the segments
and the degree in which this is distributed by the jacking shoe;
the detailing of the joints in connection with the sealing and the transfer
of forces between the segments;
the way in which the segments are interlinked.
In the case of the Westerschelde Tunnel, a tunnel ring consists of a total of
7 segments and a wedge-shaped keystone, all of which are 0.45 metres thick.
Five of the 7 segments all have the same dimensions. These segments are
called the A stones. The other 2 segments (B and C stones) complete the ring,
together with the closing stone (the keystone) which is placed between the
B and C stones. The B and C stones are each others mirror image and are different from the A stones because the length of the circumference at the front
Fig. 9.3
The geometry of a
segment (A-stone)
Recesses
Ring joint
Recesses
(Temporary)
bolt
connection
Nut for
sealing section
Dowels
Kaubit/triplex
plates
Longitudinal joint
Dowels
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of the segment (where the jacks push against the segments) is smaller than
at the back (where the segment is placed up against the already completed
tunnel rings).This difference in length between the front and back is necessary
to be able to put the wedge-shaped keystone in position.
The segments, which weigh approximately 10,000 kg, are 2 metres wide in
the longitudinal direction with a circumference length of about 4.5 metres.
In order to be able to make bends during boring and to give the tunnel the
required alignment, the segments are conically shaped by varying the width
of the ring around the circumference by 45 mm. Left and right-hand rings
were used to be able to place the keystones in the top half of the tunnel ring
as far as possible.
C
Fig. 9.4
Diagrammatic
representation of a
tunnel ring
K
B
A1
A5
A2
A4
A3
Fig. 9.5
Diagrammatic
representation of
conical rings
Seal
A single rubber seal is fitted round the whole circumference of the segments. Similarly to the concrete and the reinforcement used in the lining,
this seal also has to fulfil the set requirement of a life span of 100 years and
this means that it must be able to guarantee watertightness under a pressure of 6.5 bar for this whole period. Since the material with which the seal
was made slackens over time during the life span a total relaxation of
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47% was assumed it was designed to withstand a water pressure of 13 bar.

Watertightness cannot be shown in a calculation and therefore it is common
to prove the seals in a test set-up. Generally the section is only tested in a steel
mould. However, for the watertightness it is also of great importance that the
concrete around the rubber seal remains intact. This was also investigated in
the testing of the seals which were fitted in the lining of the Westerschelde
Tunnel: the test was carried out in a concrete set-up with the aim of testing
both the seal and by testing the possible shearing behaviour (spalling) of the
concrete behind the seal. During the tests, the seal was tested for watertightness with the minimum pressure stress present. This minimum pressure
stress occurs at a maximum joint opening and a maximum shift between
2 lining elements. The testing of spalling occurred at a maximum pressure
stress, thus at a minimum joint opening and without shifting.
Ring joint
The tunnel rings are interlinked by a Nocke-Topf joint (concrete dowelrecess) joint. On the side of the segments on which the tunnel boring
machine pushes with the aid of jacks, two recesses are located each at a 14
distance from the ends in the segment circumference. The concrete dowels
are located on the other side of the segment, which is placed against the earlier completed tunnel ring, at the same positions on the circumference. This
concrete dowel-recess joint increases the stiffness of the structure and is
intended to reduce the differential displacements between the tunnel rings
by taking up the radial forces. If the rings move in relation to each other
(greatly exaggerated this would be escaping from the tube shape) the transfer of forces which is associated with this, occurs through the concrete
dowels and recesses. A ring that deforms gets support from the adjacent
rings by means of the coupling and therefore the mutual deformations
can remain limited. This is important because too large a movement of the
rings in respect of each other has an adverse effect on the watertightness
of the lining; the rubber seals would no longer butt up against each other
properly.
Further optimization of the geometry of the concrete dowel-recess joint has
resulted in the concrete dowel being located deeply into the recess. The surfaces of the recess have a differentiated gradient with the result that when the
segment is in the correct position, the concrete dowels are located right down
into the deepest part of the recess. This detailing has a positive effect on the
distribution of forces in the recess, because the force is applied so deeply
that the reinforcement contributes (indirectly) to the shearing capacity.
Longitudinal joints
The longitudinal joints form the connections between the segments within
a ring. These joints are designed as a concrete hinge with a certain rotational
capacity. The longitudinal joint of the keystone is an exception to this and
has a tongue and groove joint to affix this segment during the building-in
and grouting. Due to the parallel joint surfaces of the keystone, this could
otherwise shift as a result of the major radial grout forces if no normal forces
have developed as yet.
Bolt connections
The segments were pushed against each other by the jacks which pushed
the TBM forwards during the boring so that the seals in the ring joints were
compressed. In the first place this occurred in the longitudinal joints by the
erector force and in the final phase, by the ring compressive force caused by
the external load on the ring. In order to absorb any relief of pressure on the
joints, during the construction phase, temporary bolt connections were
fitted in the joints on each segment: 4 on the ring joint side and 2 on the
longitudinal joint side.
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Fig. 9.6
The application of the
temporary bolt
connections
The pre-tensioning of the lining in the longitudinal direction is not guaranteed in the starting and receiving shafts. That is why a permanent bolt
connection was chosen over a length of 30 metres (15 rings). It was calculated that after this distance the friction of the soil around the tunnel would
be high enough to keep the lining pre-tensioned and thus to compress the
rubber seals sufficiently. Due to the fact that the tunnel is required to have a
100 year life span, the permanent bolts were made of stainless steel.
Concrete and reinforcement
The forces acting on the lining, which were governed by the forces in the
construction stage, made it necessary to use reinforcement. In order to
determine the bending reinforcement in the tangential direction, the bending force and normal force were evaluated. The favourable effect of the
normal force could be taken into account. For all combinations of (possibly
occurring) loads, it appeared that the chosen minimum reinforcement
(10100 inside and outside) was applicable throughout.
A high normal compressive force is present on all joint surfaces (ring and
longitudinal joints). This made it necessary to apply splitting reinforcement.
This reinforcement should be applied at the longitudinal joints to withstand
the high normal compressive force of the ring and at the ring joints to withstand the enormous thrust force of the TBM.
Concrete covering and life span
The design of the segments assumed a concrete grade of B55. The mesh
reinforcement consists of ribbed concrete reinforcing steel. In view of the
life span requirement, on the basis of a probabilistic point of view, a 50 mm
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thick covering of concrete on the reinforcement was required. An exception

to this was the concrete covering at the concrete dowels and recesses,
where the concrete covering was reduced to 35 mm locally. With this, the
effectiveness of the reinforcement close to the surface played an important
role. It is better from the structural point of view to restrict the thickness of the
concrete covering at the concrete dowels for the redistribution of the forces
in the concrete dowel. As a result of the requirement set on the life span, it
was, however, desirable to keep the covering of concrete over the reinforcement as thick as possible: the thicker the covering, the better the reinforcement is protected against corrosion.
It is clear that the structural safety and the requirements in respect of life
span have conflicting design conditions concerning the concrete covering
on the reinforcement. Due to the fact that in the enlargement of the covering at the concrete dowel-recess the chance of cracking was great likewise
with a negative effect on the life span the choice was made here for a
covering of 35 mm. As an additional measure the joint surfaces in which the
concrete dowels-recesses were situated were fully hydrofuged.
Fig. 9.7
Reinforcement
Model
ETL Duddeck model
The basic principles used for the ring calculations are those in the model
according to the Empfelungen fr Tunnelbau in Lockergestein (ETL1980),
also known as the Duddeck model. The representation in this 2-D framework analysis is confined to two interlinked rings (in fact one ring plus two
adjacent half-rings), which are supported by radially acting soil springs. The
coupling between the two rings consists of tie-bars which represent the
concrete dowels. The rings consist of the same number of curved bars
as the segments (7). The closing segment is not implemented in the ring
model. The interaction in the ring between the segments (longitudinal joint)
themselves is represented as a hinge with a restricted rotation capacity. This
makes use of the theory of Janssen (and also Mnnig/Netzel), which states
that the moment capacity depends on the rotation and the normal compressive force of the rings. This representation of the longitudinal joints
makes the rings stiffer compared with a ring with hinges. As a result, the
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moments in the ring will increase and the coupling forces in the dowels will
decrease. In addition, this gives the most realistic estimate of the compressive forces in the concrete in the concrete hinge.
In order to support the input parameters chosen stiffness and location of
tie-bars, failure of tie-bars, stiffness of the rotation hinge, longitudinal joint
and bed a parameter study was carried out, in which different values were
entered for the variables referred to.
Bedding (interaction with the ground)
A relatively slim structure as a bored tunnel has a special interaction with
the surrounding soil: on the one hand, the soil puts a load on the tunnel and
on the other hand the soil contributes to the strength and stiffness of the
structure (bed). It is very important that when the tunnel rings come to be
outside the shield because of the progress of the tunnel boring machine,
they are directly supported in their surroundings. For this purpose, the tail
void, which is the space between the outside of the shield and outside of the
lining, is filled with grout under pressure during the boring process.
If, once outside the shield, a tunnel ring deforms, the ring encounters a reactive force from the surrounding ground (and grout). The design calculations,
in accordance with the Duddeck model, assume a support in the radial direction. In the assumed representation, notwithstanding the degree of soil covering, this bed was not applied at a vertex angle of 90, except in the load
cases where vertical ovalization of the tunnel ring occurred. In those cases
the spring stiffness of the soil across the vertex angle was reduced to 50%,
whereby it was checked if the weight of the soil cover above the tunnel was
sufficient to take up the reaction forces.
Stiffness of the tie-bars
The interaction between the two rings processed in the model by means of
so-called tie-bars representing the concrete dowels (Nocke-Topf joint) of the
segment. The stiffness of these tie-bars can be very decisive for the distribution of forces in the rings. High stiffness results in more interaction
(higher coupling forces) and lower ring forces.
A parameter study carried out also shows that the location and the number
of couplings have an effect on the distribution of forces. On the basis of this
parameter study the location and the number of tie-bars were chosen as
such, that the calculated coupling forces, based on experiences (and later
verified by shearing tests) of the physically possible dimensions of the
concrete dowel-recess could be included.
Loads
A large number of load factors and combinations of these were taken
into consideration when carrying out the calculations. A distinction was
made between loads which are the result of constructing the tunnel (construction stage loads) and loads which (could) play a role during the stage
of usage.
Overall safety factors were used for the combinations of load factors
instead of partial factors, especially due to the high degree of complexity.
The magnitude of the overall factor depends on the degree of probability of
a particular combination occurring.
Load due to dead weight, soil and water pressures
The basic loads for all combinations are the result of the dead weight of the
ring (based on segment thickness excluding grout) and the water and grain
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Fig. 9.8
Load factors
Construction stage
Final stage
Normal use
1.7
Normal use temperature ( a)
1.5
a trailer
1.5
Grout pressures (directly behind the TBM)
1.5
a construction traffic
1.5
a passage of TBM construction traffic
1.1
Normal use (including traffic)
1.7
Normal use (including traffic) temperature ( b)
1.5
b collision
1.1
b explosion
1.1
b sunken ship
1.5
pressures. For the grain pressures, a distinction is made between vertical

and horizontal grain pressures. These are combined into radially acting
grain pressures. The vertical grain pressure under the tunnel ring is determined by means of the vertical equilibrium taking the basic loads.
A separate study showed whether or not the tangential bed and the tangential grain pressure is taken into consideration has hardly any effect on the
results, given the relatively stiff subgrade around the Westerschelde Tunnel
(40 MPa or higher).
Temperature
In the design calculations a temperature gradient across the thickness of the
lining of T 20 C was included. In general it can be stated that the load
due to temperature and temperature differences have a limited effect on the
distribution of forces.
Load caused by internal structures and traffic load
Loads that are the result of parts of the tunnel structure, such as cable gallery
elements, sand-cement stabilisation and road construction were taken into
account for the construction stage. In addition, the construction traffic
(including the trailers of the tunnel boring machine and the arriving and
departing trains) also had to be taken into account during the construction
stage, whereas the structure is loaded by road traffic in the stage of usage.
Special loads in the final stage
The possibility of accidental loads occurring in the form of fire and explosion, collisions and a ship sinking above or next to the tunnel were taken
into account in the design of the lining. The design calculations showed that
it is particularly the asymmetrical loads (for example as a result of a ship
sinking, but also as a result of the possible extension of the outer harbour of
Terneuzen), which are governing for the reinforcement and the coupling forces.
In addition, a higher ratio between horizontal and vertical loads produces
greater forces and moments, primarily determined by the value of the horizontal soil pressure coefficient, the depth of the tunnel and the magnitude of
the water pressure.
(Special) loads during the construction stage
The main loads which occurred during the construction stage, consisted of
the enormous jacking forces which were put on the segments to thrust the
boring machine forward. In addition, an important point requiring attention
was the load as a result of the grouting (under pressure) of the tail void; the
space between the external diameter of the shield and the outside of the
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lining. These loads for example, had a major effect on the forces to which
the concrete dowels of the segments were exposed.
Combinations of special load factors were also included in the calculations,
such as lifting up and transporting the segments. In view of the start and finish of the boring process where the tunnel tubes lie close to each other
consideration has also been taken into account with a disaster load as a
result of an operational defect of the passing TBM on the already finished
parallel tube. In this, for the finished tube in which the backfill is also present, the bed across the adjacent side collapsed totally resulting in a lack of
support on that side.
Fig. 9.9
The jacks of the TBM
apply an enormous
thrust force onto the
segments
Flexible connection with starting shaft

After the commencement of the boring process, the TBM was located in a dry
construction pit for the first 60 metres. The boring through of the cementbentonite screen (60 metres after the start) formed a special load scenario in
the longitudinal direction. As soon as the TBM had bored through the
cement-bentonite wall (a watertight screen), the tunnel is subjected to
ground water. At this location, from the one surface to the other in the
longitudinal direction, the tunnel was partly not loaded and partly loaded
by the water pressure. This special load case resulted in (temporary) high
ring-interaction loads on the concrete dowels of the segments.
After the watertight connection of the bored tunnel with the starting shaft
had been completed, the dry pit (a temporary man-made polder) was inundated. The latter could possibly also have consequences for the displacement of the tunnel with respect to the starting shaft. On the one hand,
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because the tunnel could experience floatation and on the other hand, due
to the swelling properties of Boom clay under the tunnel. Since it was not
clear beforehand whether and to what extent differences of settlement
could arise between the two structures, a flexible connection was required
here. The bored tunnel was therefore connected to the starting shaft with an
Omega seal to make a watertight seal whilst not obstructing the vertical displacement of the bored tunnel. Also at the end shaft a similar construction
was applied in order to take up possible settlement differences between the
bored tunnel and the caisson.
The point for attention here was the impermeable block for the starting shaft
(which consisted of a sand-cement stabilisation and was approximately
8 metres long) in which the first part of the bored tunnel lies. In order to
make some movement of the impermeable block possible with respect to
the starting shaft, the front wall of the starting shaft was coated with bitumen before installing the impermeable block.
Segment production and dimensional issues
Diagrammatic
overview of concrete
factory (building II);
at building I the
reinforcement is
prepared for use
Fig. 9.10
Introduction
The production of a total of nearly 53,000 segments which were required for
the construction of the Westerschelde Tunnel, took place immediately next
to the southern access (also the starting shaft of the boring machines) in a
factory set up by the contractor (Betonwarenfabriek Terneuzen [Factory for
concrete products] BFT). In a make or buy study carried out by the contractor, the arguments that the segments became directly available for the
boring process and that less transportations and storages would be necessary, and the chance of damages was thus smaller, were of overriding
importance to carry out the production under own control.
Next to the self-evident fact that the pre-fabricated segments had to fulfil
the design requirements, production requirements also played a role which
were more of a logistical nature: the speed of production had to keep
pace with the progress of the boring process; otherwise this process would
come to a standstill in the most extreme case. This meant that at the planned
average progress of the boring machines of 12 metres a day (6 rings)
including repair time and other delays, the required production would be
96 segments a day. At a boring rate of 16 metres a day, the number of segments required was even 128.
This production requirement, based on this last boring rate, determined to
a large degree the layout of the production process of the concrete factory.
The factory had two production lines, one for left-hand rings and one for
right-hand rings. Each line had a maximum production capacity of 64 segments a day and had 48 moulds.
Offices
of Terneu
ze
Building II
n Concre
te Factor
E
D C
Building II
B
A G
J
D C
H
I
I
A G
Building I
A. Cleaning, greasing and building-in of parts

B. Building-in reinforcement
C. Checking on closure of formwork and
concrete covering
D. Casting and compacting concrete
E. Finishing off the top of mould and covering with foil
F. Heated hardening chamber
G. Demoulded and provided with an identification number
H. Undertaking of small repairs if necessary
I. 48 hours interim storage under plastic
J. Cosmetic finishing-off and glueing of sealing section
K. Storage on open site, 28 days after the production date
the elements can be used for tunnel construction
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115
Production process
Carrousel system
The production of the segments took place in a so-called carrousel system, in
which the segment in the making went round and passed through various
stages before the segment was labelled finished product. Broadly speaking, the segments passed the following stations:
the production process started with cleaning the formwork and removing
bits of hard concrete and other matter. Points requiring special attention
were the positions of the joints and the protection of the formwork in the
corners and at the bottom of the mould.
the personnel fitted the mould with built-in parts such as anchors, plastic
screw casings and suchlike and put the mould faces in mould oil. After
this, the reinforcement cage was mounted in the formwork, including
special spacer blocks which would ensure the required covering of concrete on the reinforcement.
at the next station, the concrete was cast in layers. Due to the curved surface of the segments, a special scribe (upper formwork) was required,
which in view of the large surface area of the segments consisted of two
parts which were closed separately.
after the concrete had been cast, the segment was taken to the heated
hardening room. The segment stayed there for at least 8 hours until it
had reached a compressive strength force of 19 N/mm2 required for the
demoulding.
after demoulding, the segment, which was covered with a protective foil,
went into storage for a period of at least 48 hours. The foil was necessary
to prevent effects from the outside as much as possible: the development
of the concrete strength had to take place under the most favourable possible conditions and the foil protected the surface from drying out.
The segment subsequently came on to the finishing line. This was where it
was looked at to see whether there were any holes, damage or air bubbles
Fig. 9.11
The concrete factory
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and the segment underwent a cosmetic treatment. After this, the surface of
the segments in the area of the concrete dowels and recesses was treated
with a hydrofobing gel. The next step was to install various fittings on the
segment, such as the kaubit plates for securing the jacking forces onto the
segments. This kaubit was very quickly replaced by plywood plates due to
the large amount of damage that occurred during the construction of the
rings (see Chapter 11 The Boring and Tunnelling Process). The seal was also
attached to the segment here: an adhesive was sprayed manually into the
opening for the seal after which the section was pushed into the opening.
Then a machine pushed against the section for 15 minutes, after which the
segment was ready to be stored outside. The concrete reached the required
strength after 28 days so that it was then suitable for use as a lining.
Fig. 9.12
Manual cosmetic
finishing-off of the
segments
Production of the reinforcement

The production of the reinforcement took place in a building next to the concrete factory. The components for the reinforcement cages were delivered
already pre-bent and cut to size. It was very important, certainly in view
of aspects regarding the life span, that the reinforcement had the correct
dimensions: too large a reinforcement cage would be at the expense of the
concrete covering, with the result that the steel would be more easily
exposed to corrosion. The reinforcement cages were therefore made in a
mould so that the final concrete covering would always be the minimum
thickness required in the design. The reinforcement cages were welded
together in a building next to the concrete factory and transported by monorail to the concrete factory and subsequently mounted in the formwork.
Adaptations
Adaptations were very soon carried out in the production of the segments
to be able to optimize the finishing of the surface. It was noted that the concrete sagged a little after being cast and this sometimes resulted in raised
edges on the joint faces of the segments. This could cause problems when
the rings were constructed. In addition, the surface was often rough. This
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was not desirable either, because the segments had to be as smooth as possible on the outside, for example to prevent wear and tear to the brush seal
during boring as much as possible. Initially, several people were constantly
busy with smoothing out the concrete and filling in small holes; a labour
intensive and therefore expensive business. The contractor therefore
decided to develop a machine which smoothed the concrete and further
compacted it in 15 minutes.
Quality assurance
Electronic data system (DRS)
In the production of 52,800 segments, keeping a quality assurance system
up to date on paper would take up an unmanageably large volume. The
contractor therefore decided to record most of the quality assurance in an
electronic data system (DRS).
Each employee at each workstation had a checklist of tasks which he had to
carry out before he could give the next production process the go-ahead. As
soon as the employee had finished these, he used a laser pen to scan, in
sequence, the bar code of the formwork, the future bar code of the segment,
the bar code of the activity and his personal bar code. This recorded that
person X at time Y had finished activity Z for segment A. This DRS system
also made it possible to make links between the reinforcement cages produced, times of casting and demoulding, and the first dimensional check.
The DRS therefore gave a complete picture of the coming about of a tunnel
segment. In addition, this system made it relatively easy to select specific
segments, for example, one of the segments which was damaged and
rejected during the building-in, could be replaced quickly. The DRS therefore
made a databank available in which the life story of each segment, including
specific quality data and identification numbers, was recorded.
Dimensional check
Particularly in view of the enormous jacking forces which the segments had
to be able to absorb during the tunnel construction process, very strict
requirements were set on the dimensions of the segments: with respect to
flatness, a tolerance requirement applied of 0.3 mm, while the angle tolerances were set at 0.04. Deviations in the dimensions could all too quickly
result in undesirable concentrations of forces which could subsequently
result in damage.
It is self-evident therefore that the check on the dimensions of the segments
formed an essential part of the quality assurance. The dimensions of segments are usually checked manually with the aid of templates. An important
objection to this is that human errors can easily occur, certainly when enormous numbers of segments are involved in which a high degree of accuracy
is required. Aside from that, taking measurements manually involves a lot
of time and money. The contractor therefore developed a perfectly operating 3-D photogrammetrical measuring system, with which it was possible
to determine the dimensions of the segments and the deviations from this
relatively quickly and with great accuracy.
Operation of the system
In order to measure a segment or formwork, adaptors were first fitted;
clamps with reflection stickers on them each with its own specific reflection.
Then reference standards were placed on and next to the segment. These
standards were also fitted with reflection stickers and were calibrated to the
dimensions. Step three consisted of photographing the segment from various positions relative to the segment. About 40 photographs were taken in
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Fig. 9.13
Dimensional check
a quarter of an hour. A computer scanned these photographs and processed

the data. After that, the calculation of the co-ordinates of the stickers could
begin, using the reference standards. Since the exact dimensions of these
standards were known, it could be calculated from which position the photograph had been made.
The calculation resulted in a mass of points with known x, y and z coordinates. The checking of the correct dimensions then took place by carrying out a best-fit calculation on the mass of points with respect to the design
dimensions.
This dimensional checking system made it possible to monitor the geometry of the segments to an accuracy of 0.1 mm with a tolerance requirement
of 0.3 mm.
Dimensional problems
Damages during building-in of tunnel rings and investigation into
geometry of the segments
On 9th November 1999, the tunnel construction process was brought to a halt.
The client was of the opinion that a structural damage pattern had developed
in building the segments into a tunnel ring (also see Chapter 11 The Boring
and Tunnelling Process). The cause of the damage had to be investigated.
It had already been noted during the careful building in of the segments
that a nicely built in segment twisted as soon as the jacks started to exert a
force. This was a signal that there could be something wrong with the basic
geometry of the segments. In order to gain more clarity about this, the
geometry was studied in great detail. The results of this investigation, which
became available some time later, made it clear that there was a fundamental problem with the dimensions of the segments: the basic geometry was
wrong. This problem is recorded as the 11 mm problem.
Aside from this, deviations that were bigger than the tolerance were observed
in the longitudinal joints. This deformation arose as a result of a problem
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with the formwork during production. Finally, a third problem concerned the
occurrence of cracks in the base frame of the formwork which as a result
became less stiff and slightly deformed.
The 11 mm problem
The 11 mm problem gets its name from the fact that the combined length of
the B, C and K stones was short by 11 mm around the circumference: the B and
C stones were each 4 mm too short, whereas the keystone was 3 mm too
short. Since for each type of segment special moulds were used, it was clear
that the respective formwork did not have the correct dimensions.
How was it possible that by using a checking system, intended to record
deviations of tenths of millimetres, could pass over an error of 11 mm? The
answer is just as simple as it is humiliating: the system did not notice the
error because it was designed on the basis of the same (incorrect) information that also lay at the foundation of the design of the formwork. The measuring system in other words had exactly the same error as the formwork
with which the segments deviated from the design.
As soon as the formwork and the checking system were ready, it could not
be concluded otherwise than that the formwork was good and that the
measuring system also worked.
This meant that segment production could start in August 1998 with the formwork and a measuring system both of which were designed on the basis
of the same incorrect interpretation of the drawings of the segments, a
fundamental error: the measuring system and the formwork should have
been developed separately.
Fig. 9.14
Checking the
dimensions
Deformation of the longitudinal joints

A large number of segments appeared to be curved at the longitudinal
joints. During the construction of the rings, this could result in cracks forming in the concrete because undesirable concentrations of forces occur
when the joints are not optimally flat. The curving was the result of tightening a bolt connection too much when closing the formwork. The formwork
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Fig. 9.15
Segment formwork
did not appear to be dimensioned for this and the occurrence of banana
joints was the result.
Loss of stiffness of formwork due to cracks
Another problem with the formwork was the formation of cracks in the base
frame with the result that the formwork lost stiffness, a problem though that
was connected to the type of concrete. Due to the life span, the client set
high requirements on the concrete and had a preference for using blastfurnace cement. This material creates a high density and has good resistance to the penetration of chlorides. The contractor, however, chose to use
Portland cement which reaches its strength quickly, so that the segments
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can be demoulded quickly and made a larger production of segments per

unit of time possible. The use of Portland cement, however, resulted in a
slightly more porous concrete and to counteract this, fly ash was added. In
order to compact this very dry mixture properly, it was necessary to supply
a lot of energy with the result that the formwork started to vibrate excessively. It appeared that the formwork was not completely resistant to this:
cracks appeared in the base frame and the formwork lost its original shape
to a limited extent.
Solution
The solution to the three problems together required an improved design
for the formwork. The idea was that the 11 mm problem could be solved by
making the keystone slightly larger. This meant that it was not necessary to
adapt the formwork for the B and C stones.
A company not previously involved in the project was given the assignment
to adapt the formwork of the keystone in such a way that larger stones could
be made with it. In addition, all the other formwork, together with the original drawings, went to this company in order to solve the problem of the
loss of stiffness and the deformation of the longitudinal joints. The dimensions of these segments, did not have to be altered. However, because the
company noted that the B and C stones had not been made in accordance
with the original drawings, the measurements of the formwork for these
segments were also adapted. The result was that the formwork for the B and
C stones came back as they had been designed to be, whereas the new
formwork for the adapted keystone was now too big to make the tunnel ring
complete together with the B and C stones. Eventually, this formwork was
also made like the original and the problem was solved.
No delay in boring process because of problem with segment production
In April 2000, the first new formwork was available and the segment production could be restarted. The fact that the production had been at a standstill for several months, however, had little effect on the progress of the
boring process. The boring and construction of one of the tunnel tubes had
been stopped due to problems with the boring process. Since the boring
process was running at half speed, the segment production which was of
course under pressure also got some breathing space.
The problems with the deformations of the boring shield (see also Chapter 11
The Boring and Tunnelling Process) also had an effect on the pace of construction and associated with this the desired production rate of the segments.
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10 TUNNEL BORING MACHINES

J.D. Vlasblom and E.J. Sonke

Choice of type of boring shield
The design of the TBM; problems with sticking clay
Main bearing seal
Relationship between depth and design of the TBM
Propulsion of the TBM and installation of the tunnel ring segments
Design and fitting out of trailers relationship with boring process
related fitting out
Controlling the tunnel boring machine
Start and finish of tunnel boring machines
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Introduction
The shield of a tunnel boring machine (TBM) consists of a steel cylinder
with a front part, a middle section and a tail section. The front part consists of the pressure section with the cutting wheel, the excavation chamber and the working chamber. The partition between the excavating and
working chamber, which do have an open connection to each other, is
formed by the submerged wall.
The front part of the TBM is sealed off from the tail section by a steel partition, the pressure wall. The cylinder has an open structure at the tail section (or tail seal) which is where the lining is constructed from segments.
The soil and water pressures of the environment are present on the
outside of the shield and pressure wall. Inside the TBM and the tunnel
are normal atmospheric conditions. Due to the great depth (maximum
of 60 m), the shield and the pressure wall of the Westerschelde Tunnel
TBMs had to be designed for a maximum pressure difference of 8.5 bars,
including a safety margin. In order to construct the Westerschelde Tunnel,
two boring machines were built which were named after two sisters who
had previously owned the land where the boring was started: Sara (the
eastern TBM) and Neeltje Suzanna (the western TBM).
Choice of type of boring shield

In principle two types of shield are suitable for boring into the soil of the
Netherlands: the slurry shield and the Earth Pressure Balanced shield (EPB).
In addition, it is also possible to use a mixed shield boring machine. A mixed
shield can be converted and can be used either as a slurry shield or as an
EPB shield.
For the boring of the Westerschelde Tunnel, after a thorough consideration
of all the advantages and disadvantages of the various methods, the choice
was made to use the slurry shield method. An EPB shield as such, is very
suitable for boring in clay, but at the same time it is less suitable for excavating sand judging by the technology available at the time the tunnel was
designed. In addition, only a few EPB machines were built with such a large
diameter (more than 11.30 metres). Furthermore, EPB shields had never been
used to bore at such great depths and the corresponding soil and water
pressures which were involved when constructing the Westerschelde
Tunnel.
The main reason for not using the mixed shield was the loss of time that
would be entailed in converting a slurry shield into an EPB shield.
Decisive factors to be considered in making the choice are as follows:
the slurry shield method enables the high soil and water pressures to be
better controlled;
the excavation chamber of a slurry shield machine is accessible to divers
who have to carry out inspections and repairs;
the risk of wear and tear is less when using a slurry shield than when
using an EPB machine;
the power to be installed is considerably higher in an EPB machine;
by choosing one type of machine and not a convertible mixed shield
machine, it is possible to optimize the cutting wheel, the excavation
chamber and other parts of the shield to prevent clay sticking to the
machine. Compromises could be involved in the case of a convertible
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Tu n n e l B o r i n g M a c h i n e s
125
machine; in the case of slurry shield method, no time is lost due to carrying out converting activities as is the case when using a mixed shield
machine. Besides, choosing one system makes optimization of the logistical process possible.
Special starting points of the design

Sara and Neeltje Suzanna did not in principle differ very much from the
standard slurry shield machine, which for example was used to construct
the first bored traffic tunnel in the Netherlands, the Second Heinenoord
Tunnel. The features that made these machines special were as follows:
the fact that both tunnel boring machines were designed to be able to
bore at extremely great depths (deepest point: 60 metres NAP);
the enormous length of the entire bore train about 195 metres (boring
shield plus trailer and platform carriage, which made it possible to start
the civil part of the tunnel fitting out during the boring;
optimization of the design to prevent Boom clay from sticking to (parts of)
the shield;
the basic principle that a single tunnel tube had to be bored with one
machine along the full length of 6.6 km;
the chosen slurry shield is of the so called Hydro Shield type, so with an
extra diving wall and pressure chamber.
Details of the tunnel boring machine

The tunnel boring machine was designed and manufactured by the company M. Herrenknecht in Schwanau, Germany. It took about fifteen months
to manufacture a TBM. The installation of a TBM at the site in Zeeland
took about three months. The TBM is designed for a maximum progress of
12 rings, 24 metres a day.
Main principles of tunnel boring machines

The function of a tunnel boring machine is to excavate the hole for the
tunnel tube and then to position tunnel ring segments from which the wall
Fig. 10.1
3D-impression of the
boring machine
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Data TBM
Description
Units
Quantity
Main dimensions
Shield diameter/plate thickness
front
middle
tail
Length of TBM
Overall length
Weight of TBM
Total weight including total back-up
Total installed power
Work pressure
m/mm
m/mm
m/mm
m
m
t
t
kW
bar
11.340/90
11.325/60
11.310/70
12.185
195
1,200
2,000
5,000
8.5
Cutting wheel
Type
Direction of rotation
Axial shift
Axial rotation
Cutting teeth
Overcutters
Rotation speed
Main bearing type
Bearing life
Type of seals
Number of seals
Drive motors (hydraulic)
Power
Torque
nominal at 240 bar
maximal at 280 bar
Instant penetration rate
no
no/kW
kW
6-spoke with cast steel rim

reversible
400
50
64
24
2 stages 02 and 04
3 row roller
27,300
grease fed neoprene lip seals
4 maze
12/200
2.400
MNm
MNm
mm/min
12.90
15.05
76
Diameter
Axial shift
Cutting teeth
Rotation speed
m
mm
no
rpm
reversible, independent
from main cutting wheel
2.320
150
26
2 stages 02 and 04
Supporting plates
Number of plates/jacks per plate
Maximum support force
no
kN/100 m2
5/3
75
no/MN
/MN
56/1,850
/2,000
MN
103,600
112,000
2.80
mm
mm
no
no
rpm
hours

Direction of rotation
Main thrust
Main thrust of jack
nominal at 300 bar
maximal at 325 bar
Total thrust
nominal at 300 bar
maximal at 325 bar
Stroke
Erector
Type
Capacity
tangential
axial
radial
Torque
hydraulic
with vacuum plate
kN
kNm
240
30
200
900
no
bar
grease fed
steel brush wire
4
10
M3/h
mm
1,8002,000
DN 450-400
no/mm
no/mm
no/mm
no/mm
no/rpm
no/rpm
6/DN 150
2/DN 200
3/DN 150
6/DN 50
2/36
2/36
Tail seal
Type
Seal rows
Capacity
Bentonite supply and discharge system
Capacity
Supply-and discharge tube
Injection points
tangential in excavation chamber
axial in excavation chamber
around roller crusher in pressure chamber
active centre cutter
Agitator
Roller-crusher
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127
Fig. 10.2
One of the two TBMs at
the Herrenknecht
factory
(lining) of the tunnel is constructed. This has to be done in such a way that
the tunnel is directly well supported by being embedded in the surrounding
ground. In addition, the tunnel builders who are present in the TBM as well
as in the tunnel must be able to work under safe conditions.
All the primary functions required for the boring process are housed within
the shield of the boring machine. The boring shield consists of two main
parts which are connected to each other with bolts and welded joints: the
front part with the cutting wheel (cutting disk), main frame and thrust gear;
and the tail section with the seal onto the completed tunnel section.
The front part consists of a cylindrical steel housing fitted with two partitions: the submerged wall and the pressure wall. The pressure wall forms
the partition between the part under (high) pressure and the part that
is directly connected to the outside air. The submerged wall is located
in-between the pressure wall and the cutting wheel, which divides the pressurized part of the shield into a working chamber and an excavation chamber.
The excavation chamber the part between the cutting wheel and the submerged wall is filled with bentonite slurry and is directly connected to the
working chamber between the submerged wall and the pressure wall. This
working chamber is partly filled with bentonite slurry and partly with air
under pressure. The submerged wall has a lockable opening at the bottom
for discharging the excavated soil mixed with the bentonite slurry from the
excavation chamber.
As mentioned above, there is a large air bubble at the top of the working
chamber. By regulating the air pressure in this chamber, the pressure on
the bentonite suspension can also be regulated and with this the supportive
pressure on the excavation front. In addition, this air chamber which is
characteristic of the slurry shield method fulfils an alarm function in the
event of leakages at the excavating front.
At the top of the front part, air locks are located in the pressure wall, through
which divers can reach the pressurized part of the boring machine, for example to carry out inspections and maintenance activities on the cutting wheel.
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128
Fig. 10.3
The installation of the
TBMs took 3 months
Diagrammatic
drawing of a TBM
Fig. 10.4
11550
Cutting
wheel
Lining
Shield
2
1 Submerged wall
Segment
11340
3 Hydraulic jacks
Erector
4 Removal of bentonite
slurry
5 Supply of bentonite
suspension
6 Air lock
5
1
2 Tail seal
4
3
7 Pressure wall
8 Air cushion
2
Trailer
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Stability of the excavation front

It is extremely important that a stable excavation front is created during the
boring process and therefore a supportive fluid is used which seals off the
excavation front. This supportive fluid consists of a mixture of water and bentonite, the density of which is slightly higher than that of water. The origin of
bentonite is tuff, but due to geological transformations and natural chemical
processes, a mineral mixture was formed, the main component of which is
montmorillonite. When suspending a quantity of these clay particles in water,
the particles touch each other at the corners and sides and become slightly
sticky, which produces a sort of gel. This gel has thixotropic properties: which
means that when an external force is applied, the suspension behaves like a
liquid but when this force is removed, it behaves like a solid. These thixotropic
properties make the suspension suitable to be used as a supportive fluid for
the boring method used. The mixture in the excavating chamber is kept under
a slightly higher pressure than the surrounding soil and water pressure. As a
result, the supportive fluid penetrates into the pores of the soil and forms a
watertight and supportive layer. Together with the excess pressure in the
excavating chamber which is fitted with an air chamber that is able to absorb
fluctuations in pressure, this is how a stable excavation front is created. During
boring, the excavated soil is mixed with the supportive fluid in the excavation chamber. This mixture (boring spoil) is pumped out of the excavation
chamber through the opening in the submerged wall between the excavation
chamber and the working chamber and discharged to a separating system on
the construction site. The bentonite therefore also fulfils the role of a transportation medium for the excavated soil. A third function of the bentonite suspension is to reduce friction when excavating the soil.
The design of the TBM; problems with

sticking clay
A very important geotechnical aspect which has been given a lot of attention in the design of the boring machines, was the established tendency
of Boom clay to stick to the steel of (parts of) the shield and the cutting
wheel.
Research showed that the boring process would be seriously affected by
this if the machines used were not specifically designed to cope with this
sticking problem. In most extreme cases this could result in the cutting
wheel getting jammed. Divers would have to go frequently to the front to
clean the disk with all the delays this involved.
The design of the TBMs, in particular the cutting wheel, the excavation and
working chambers, and the area around the suction opening, which removes
the bentonite-soil mixture, therefore had to be optimized with respect to this
specific aspect of sticking to prevent problems from arising.
Experimenting with the bentonite supply

One of the optimizations concerned playing with the bentonite supply. In a
standard slurry shield boring machine, all the bentonite is supplied in
the pressure chamber. The design of Neeltje Suzanna and Sara, however,
provided the possibility of either pumping each desired part of the total
bentonite supply directly into the excavation chamber as required or to add it
normally. The bentonite could be added through various injection openings
in the cutting wheel, on the pressure wall and also in the shield. By playing
with the supply, a stream of bentonite could be created which prevented the
clay from sticking to the machine.
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Agitators and roller-crusher

Furthermore, the design also paid a lot of attention in taking measures to
keep the danger of the suction opening getting blocked as low as possible.
To this end, the design provided for a number of machines set up in front of
this opening which had to keep the lumps of clay in motion and make them
smaller. First of all, two horizontally revolving agitators mixed the lumps
of clay with bentonite and also prevented large quantities of clay and other
particles from forming a deposit in the pressure chamber. The bentonite
slurry then came between two vertically rotating toothed cylinders, the
Fig. 10.5a
Frontal view of TBM;
the agitators and
crushers are situated
behind the opening for
the slurry disposal
Cutting wheel
with linked spokes
Spoke with
cutters
Slurry removal
opening
Fig. 10.5b
Frontal view of TBM;
the agitators and
crushers are situated
behind the opening for
the slurry disposal
Removable
cutters
Bore front
support plates
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so-called roller-crushers (Walzenbrechers). These served to reduce the last

lumps into workable dimensions. These crushers were not intended to prevent sticking in the excavation chamber, but they were certainly able to prevent large lumps of clay from getting into the outlet pipe which could also
cause blockages and the associated delay.
Design of the cutting wheel

A cutting wheel is mounted at the front of a TBM. This cutting wheel scrapes
the soil loose and mixes it with the added bentonite suspension into a slurry
which can then be pumped out. Keeping in mind the sticking problem, the
cutting wheels of the boring machines used in the Westerschelde Tunnel did
not escape special treatment, since right from the start of the design
process, the properties of Boom clay played a very important role in the
design. In the preliminary design, for example, it was assumed that optimization could perhaps be achieved by letting the cutting wheel revolve in
one direction. Drawings of the cutting wheel from that time, still provide
written proof of this: the digging teeth only being on one side of the spokes
of the cutting disk. Revolving the cutting wheel in one direction then made
it possible to optimize everything in the excavation chamber with respect to
the design and the method of adding bentonite to prevent sticking.
Revolving in one direction was abandoned when the design of the boring
machines was worked out in greater detail, because it would also entail a
big risk since wear and tear on the cutting teeth is much greater and besides
this, any circumferential rotation of the boring machine is not easily corrected
by reversing the rotation. The basic principle of the design, however, still
stands: as many as possible beautiful round slender shapes and as few as
possible hidden corners where clay could be deposited.
The cutting wheel was constructed from a cast steel core, which was connected to the driving mechanism, and six spokes welded to the core fitted
with a total of 64 digging teeth (cutters). A cast steel rim on the perimeter
linked the spokes with each other. The replaceable teeth on the spokes were
positioned in such a way that it was possible to work the whole excavation
front twice in one revolution of the wheel. The spokes were designed as a
hollow box structure and constructed with a trapezial cross section, the wide
sides of which are at the front where the cutters are mounted. The aim of the
whole design was to make the flow of the soil as optimal as possible while
the discharge of the soil to the suction opening was obstructed as little as
possible. Two coulters vanes mounted on the inside of the cutting wheel
had to ensure that no material is deposited at the bottom of the shield.
In order to reduce friction of the shield with the surrounding soil, the
drill hole is excavated with the aid of special digging teeth over cutters which
was slightly larger than the outside diameter of the boring shield. Making
curves, however, required an even larger diameter and in order to achieve this,
the whole driving mechanism with cutting wheel could be shifted and tilted
with respect to the boring shield with the aid of steering cylinders.
The extra space created as a result between the boring shield and the surroundings was filled with bentonite suspension. Within the space of this
slot, the TBM was then able to push off against the last tunnel section placed
to create the required bend.
An independent active centre cutter

When a cutting wheel revolves, the cutting rate at the centre of the machine
is extremely low. In view of the tendency of Boom clay to stick, the danger
of clumping and the associated stagnation of the boring process would be
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Fig. 10.6
3D-impression of the
cutting wheel
too great. In addition, very large forces would operate on this closed steel
part of the cutting wheel.
In order to overcome this problem, the design of the TBM provided for a second machine with a small diameter in the centre of the large cutting wheel.
This so-called active centre cutter was fitted with its own coil circuit and had
the task of drilling out and removing the soil in the centre of the excavation
front to prevent clumping. The active centre cutter worked independently of
the large cutting wheel and could revolve much faster but also slower, going
in the same or the opposite direction to the large cutting wheel. Furthermore, it was possible to move the active centre cutter in the axial direction with respect to the cutting wheel.
The cutting wheel was driven by the driving mechanism which could be
tilted in its entirety by means of a ball joint and sliding sleeves and could
be moved in the axial direction supported by bearings in the steel structure
between the submerged wall and the pressure wall. This made it possible to
tilt the cutting wheel and to move it forwards. The axial force was transferred
to the main frame through three groups of hydraulic steering cylinders.
Main bearing seal

The seal of the main bearing between the rotating part of the driving mechanism, to which the cutting wheel is attached, and the stationary part of
the unit is an essential (and vulnerable) part of a tunnel boring machine. The
bearing not only makes it possible for the cutting wheel to rotate smoothly,
it must also be watertight and must be able to stem and reduce the prevailing soil and water pressures at the excavation front. The main bearing seal
of the boring machines used for the Westerschelde Tunnel had a robust construction and consisted of a number of small chambers which were separated from each other by neoprene lip seals. In the first chamber, the
so-called labyrinth, grease was constantly pumped under a higher pressure
than the one prevailing in the working chamber, so that there was a constant
loss of a certain amount of grease. This was not only important to lubricate
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the main bearing but it also prevented an influx of slurry or another material
coming from the working chamber getting into the main bearing. In principle, the next two chambers filled with oil fulfilled the same function. The
chamber next to the oil chambers, the so-called leakage chamber, was
empty. As samples could be taken from all the chambers, any material
found in this chamber was a major indication that the seal was not working
properly.
The main bearing seal was adjustable in the axial direction in the event that
grooves indicating wear and tear arose which required repairing. An important
condition for carrying out repairs was that this had to be done under atmospheric conditions.
Aspects of the TBM design related to diving activities

The design of tunnel boring machines had to take into account repairs and
maintenance activities to be carried out by divers in the high pressure part
of the boring machine. Divers are therefore intensively involved in the design
of TBMs at a very early stage.
In order to make diving work possible, it was first necessary to make provisions in the form of air locks to bring the divers under pressure and to give
them access to the part of the machine under pressure. In addition, special
(saturation) diving techniques had to be used for working at great depths,
in which the divers remain under pressure for a longer time. This meant that
special accommodation was required for them: a pressure cabin outside the
tunnel which was fitted out for a stay of 28 days at a pressure of 4 bar. The
divers then had to travel by train in a transport unit the pressure
shuttle to the TBM, where the shuttle was coupled to one of the air locks.
This was of great importance for the design of the tunnel boring machines:
the whole train behind the shield of the TBM the trailers and platform
carriages as well as the logistical system had to take into account the possible
comings and goings of the shuttle.
Fig. 10.7
The pressure shuttle
for the transportation
of divers situated
under the platform
carriages of the TBM
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Supporting plates
In order to increase the safety of the divers while carrying out their work, five
supporting plates could be placed in between the stationary spokes in front
of the excavation front with the aid of hydraulic cylinders, which created
a protection against a possible unstable excavation front. The supporting
plates had to stay clear of the excavation front so that in the event of a backward motion the bentonite cake, which makes a substantial contribution to
the stability of the excavation front, would be prevented from being damaged.
Working space
Repairs could for example consist of replacing the digging teeth. They were
therefore designed in such a way that most of the teeth could be replaced
from behind the cutting wheel; it was not necessary for a diver to get right
in front of the cutting wheel. An exception to this was the teeth of the active
centre cutter. In order to create workspace for the divers, the TBM was able
to bore 0.4 metres forwards with respect to the standard boring position, so as
to then withdraw the cutting disk. Thus creating a workspace of 0.4 metres.
Tail seal
The seal of the space between the inside of the boring shield and the
outside of the lining being installed within the shield is an important aspect
in the tunnel boring process. When making bends, for example variations
arose in the size of this so-called air space and the standard tail seal had to
be able to follow these variations flexibly at all times and be able to absorb
the soil, water and grout pressures prevailing outside. Naturally, the watertightness was also the first requirement.
Grout injection
Grout is pumped behind the tail seal under high pressure, through pipes
welded into the housing of the shield, into the space between the outside surface of the shield and the external surface of the tunnel rings. It is extremely
important to fill this so-called tail slot immediately. It is not only important to
prevent the surrounding soil from distorting as much as possible, it is even
more important to provide the completed tunnel section with bedding immediately. If this is not done and the tunnel is not supported by the surrounding
soil, in the worst case the tunnel could collapse.
Steel brush seal with grease chambers
Initially the manufacturer of the TBM proposed using a seal consisting of
three rows of steel brushes. The rows of brushes in this type of seal are
attached to the inside of the shield and press against the completed tunnel
section. The spaces between the brushes, the chambers, are filled with
grease under pressure. The proposal made by the manufacturer of the TBM
was examined critically at the design stage, in which especially the question
was asked as to whether the seal under the given circumstances the enormously high pressures of soil and water would be safe enough, and whether
temporary solutions could be found in the event of leakages. It was decided
to have a steel brush seal with an extra row of brushes and an extra grease
chamber. The choice of this solution was mainly prompted by the assumption that a steel brush will not suddenly collapse, as can be the case with a
rubber seal. The idea was that by using steel brushes it could be seen
whether the seal was functioning optimally or not based on the grease consumption or the occurrence of small leakages. Having three chambers
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Fig. 10.8
Diagrammatic
tail seal and grout
injection
1
475
475
475
450
2000
1 Shield
2 Lining
3 Steel brushes
4 Grease chambers
(measurements in mm)
should make it possible to reduce the pressure and in addition to carry out
repairs safely if any leaks should occur.
Relationship between depth and design of

the TBM
General
It has already been pointed out above that the boring machines had to be suitable to bore at great depths the deepest point of the boring route was
60 metres NAP. First of all, the depth had to be translated in the design into
the dimensioning of the boring shield: high soil and water pressures prevail at
great depths and the steel shield had to be able to withstand this sufficiently.
In addition, other features of the machines used also make it clear that they
were designed to be able to bore at great depths: built-in facilities for diving
work and the way in which the tail seal has been constructed.
Propulsion of the TBM and installation of the

tunnel ring segments
Discontinuous boring process
During the boring of the Westerschelde Tunnel, the boring shield was propelled linearly by means of 28 pairs of hydraulic jacks which were subdivided into 7 control groups. A spherical bearing transferred the reactive
force from these cylinders onto the main frame and the housing of the boring shield. The jacks thrust against the completed concrete tunnel section
which was last installed.
The boring and the subsequent construction of the lining can be characterised as a discontinuous process. First, a length of 2 metres was bored, in
which the jacks were gradually extended. Then the boring stopped and several
pairs of jacks were retracted. Subsequently, a new tunnel segment could be
moved into the space created in this way.
The segments supplied by train and put on to one of the trailers in temporary storage were transferred by crane to the segment erector within the
shield of the TBM. The function of the segment erector was to pick up the
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Fig. 10.9
The building-in of a
segment using the
erector
tunnel segments with the aid of a vacuum plate and then to put these segments in the right position up against the completed tunnel section. After
putting a segment into position, the retracted cylinders extended out again
until they encountered a reactive force on the last tunnel ring segment
which was installed. In this way, it was possible to build up a new tunnel
ring of segments. The first element to be placed was the segment in the middle at the bottom or at the side, after which the segments on the right and
left of this first element followed. The last to be put into position was the
closing stone (the keystone) placed in the middle at the top. After completing the tunnel ring, all the cylinders were put under pressure again in the
retracted position and the next 2 metres could be bored.
Design and fitting out of trailers relationship

with boring process related fitting out
The construction time available for the whole Westerschelde Tunnel project
of about 5.5 years, was of great importance for designing and fitting out the
whole bore train. In order to make it possible to not only bore the tunnel but
also to fit it out within this period, required an approach that in any case was
special and unusual for that time: the structural work and the civil fitting out
work of the tunnel had to take place to some extent at the same time. This
required a sophisticated logistical process in which the design and the fitting out of the whole bore train (the whole of the TBM, trailer and platform
carriage) played a crucial role.
Trailer
Several trailers were located behind the TBM which were pulled along by
the TBM. The length of the whole bore train was about 195 metres. All the
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auxiliary equipment required to enable the boring process to progress

properly was assembled on or in these trailers. The first two trailers consisted of a welded frame made of steel sections. They were coupled horizontally by means of a differential to the TBM and to each other. These
hinged couplings were necessary to guarantee the required flexibility when
making horizontal and vertical bends. The dead load was transferred vertically by sets of wheels on the concrete lining. In order to transfer this load
on the concrete as optimally as possible, the sets of wheels were located
under the trailers in a radial tunnel direction. In addition, the design of a
bogie frame made it possible for the load to be equally distributed over several wheels. The treads of the wheels were made of a synthetic material and
the profile of the treads followed the radius of the inner diameter of the tunnel. From previous experiences with tunnel boring machines, it was shown
that trailers in some cases had the tendency to creep up against the lining
during the progress of the boring process. In order to prevent this, all the
trailers were fitted with bogies adjustable in the longitudinal direction.
Logistical freedom and parallel works

Space had to be available behind the TBM in the completed tunnel section
for amongst other things, the delivery of tunnel ring segments by train,
the delivery of pipes and grout mortar, and the arrival and departure of personnel during the boring process. In addition, immediately after the TBM
had passed through, the backfill on which the roadway would be situated
and the cable gallery incorporated in it, was constructed.
In order to prevent the complexity of the logistical process from causing
problems, the trailers behind the first two were designed as a number of
platform carriages with hinged couplings. The platform of these carriages
was at the same level as that of the upper decks of the first two trailers. The
use of sufficient numbers and lengths of all the carriages resulted in a certain degree of logistical freedom which made it possible to carry out several
tasks at the same time without them obstructing each other.
Fig. 10.10
Laying the cable
gallery and backfill
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Ventilation
A properly operating artificial air ventilation system was a prerequisite to be
able to carry out the construction work, because there were dozens of people
working in the tunnel and, until the receiving shaft was reached, there
was almost a complete lack of natural ventilation. For this purpose, a fresh
air channel was laid from ground level right through to the backmost platform carriage. The fresh air pipe ended on these carriages in a fan to which
an extendible bellows structure (Lutenspeicher) was connected which was
able to follow the movement of the TBM over dozens of metres. A fixed
ventilation pipe ran forwards from this place over the trailers to the first
trailer. The air was able to flow out freely from here so that there was an air
current created in the direction of the tunnel entrance. As well as serving as
a supply of respiratory air, the ventilation system also served to discharge
the heat generated by all the technical processes. If this had not occurred,
unacceptably high temperatures in the boring machine and the tunnel
would have been the result.
Fig. 10.11
Tunnel entrance with
fresh air piping
Power supply
All the mechanical processes in theTBM were carried out electro-hydraulically
and/or electro-mechanically; this gave the highest output and caused the least
discomfort for the personnel. Only heat was released as a result of the output.
The power required was supplied by a 10 kV medium-voltage cable through
the tunnel which terminated on a reel on the backmost platform carriage. The
power was transported from here via the transformer station to the main distribution panels and then to the various junction boxes for the various driving
motors. The only exception was the drive of the tunnel train for the delivery
and removal of materials and the transportation of personnel. A dieselelectric drive with a special facility for exhaust gases was chosen for this.
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Controlling the tunnel boring machine

General
The control system of the TBM consisted of software and a few hardware
components. The system made it possible for the operator to determine
the position, to chart a course and to steer the TBM at any time desired. If the
TBM therefore deviated for whatever reason from the theoretical alignment
(DTA Designed Tunnel Axis), the limited steering possibilities of the TBM
had to be taken into account when calculating the correction course. The
correction course therefore had to be geared to the use of the left and right
hand rings (tapered segments) and the steering possibilities of the TBM.
Operating system
A laser total station a servo-controlled laser theodolite and the target plate
(ELS) formed the basic components of the total control system. A target
plate (ELS electronic laser system) is a small box with a light-sensitive
plate built up of a large number of light-sensitive cells and a prism attached
onto the box.This device is used to make the distance measurements: the laser
theodolite aims a beam at the prism which gives the distance in respect of
the theodolite.
The ELS also contains a rotation meter and an inclinometer. By determining
the angle between the laser beam and the light-sensitive plate, the degree
of yaw (movement in the horizontal plane on the vertical axis) was calculated. The exact spot where the laser located the target plate was recorded
by means of the light-sensitive plate. The software contained programmes
for processing the measurement data as well as a programme for fitting in
the tunnel rings.
The total system roughly worked according to the method in which first of
all the position and direction of the TBM was determined and then the actual
position (X,Y, Z) was compared with the theoretical alignment (DTA). Three
co-ordinate systems were of importance here:
the RD system (X,Y, Z), this is the Dutch co-ordinate system;
a local system;
a system in the TBM which described factors including the inclination and
the degree of circumferential rotation and yaw.
Ellewoutsdijk
Circumferential
Laser
rotation
beam
Laser theodolite
ELS
Inclination
Designed Tu
nnel
Axis (DTA)
Terneuzen
Mirror
Yaw
X
Tunnel
TBM
max. 80 m
Z
Determining direction of tunnel-boring maching (TBM)
ELS Electronic Laser System Laser target plate
DTA
Designed Tunnel Axis
Inclination
Y-axis rotation
Circumferential rotation
X-axis rotation
Yaw
Z-axis rotation
Fig. 10.12
Diagrammatic
operating system for
determining the
direction
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Calculating the subsequent course

After determining the position, the next step was to calculate the subsequent course and to determine the sequence of the rings to be built in
(left or right). When calculating a correction course, it was not only important to take into account the geometry of the rings, but also the (limited)
possibilities of steering the TBM. When plotting the correction course, the
TBM was put back tangentially to the theoretical alignment. The radius of
the correction curve always had to be smaller than the radius of the theoretical alignment because otherwise the TBM would run off the required
alignment.
Ring building: making a proposed sequence
Based on the course to be followed, the programme proposed the type
of ring (left or right) which would qualify for being put in position first.
The foreman driller could deviate from this if the situation so required.
Steering the TBM
The position of the TBM was constantly displayed on the screen. Based on
the information available to him, the operator of the TBM was able to steer
the machine in the correct direction. This was achieved by varying the pressures on the thrust jacks around the circumference of the ring last built;
pressing harder on the right-hand side means bending to the left and vice
versa.
Start and finish of tunnel boring machines

Start of the boring process
The boring of the tunnel commenced from the starting shaft in Terneuzen.
Prior to this, an opening had to be made in the shaft wall. In order to prevent
soil (not water, because the starting shaft was excavated in a polder) from
getting into the shaft as a result of this at the start of the boring process, a
structure was required behind the shaft wall that would firstly hold back the
soil and secondly could be bored through.
Creating this so-called impermeable block can be done in several ways,
for example as in the case of the starting shaft in Terneuzen by applying
sand-cement stabilization layer by layer. The impermeable block makes it
possible to make the transition from an unloaded atmospheric situation to
a loaded situation.
The TBM was put in position in the starting shaft on the so-called shield cradle in front of the hole in the wall with the tunnel openings. A temporary
structure, the starting frame, was installed at the back, which transfers the
propulsion forces of the TBM to the surroundings at the start phase. Before
the boring started, two auxiliary rings, the so-called blind rings, were built
between the TBM and the starting frame. After checking the whole set
up, the jacks gradually extended until all the clearance had been taken up and
the boring machine slid into the supporting ring at the tunnel opening. After
the first two metres had been bored into the impermeable block, the jacks
were retracted in pairs and the next blind ring was built. As soon as the back
of the TBM had reached the supporting ring at the tunnel opening, the construction of the first permanent tunnel ring could finally take place. Then an
inflatable seal fitted into the supporting ring at the tunnel opening was
inflated and filled with grout to seal the supporting ring at the tunnel opening to the tunnel rings. The filling of the tail slot with grout took place inside
the impermeable block.
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Arrival in the receiving shaft; 2040 mm clearance

The boring and tunnel building process ended when the TBM arrived in the
receiving shaft. However, first of all, the transition had to be made from a
loaded situation in the ground to an unloaded atmospheric situation in the
receiving shaft.
Fig. 10.13
Arrival of the TBM in
the receiving shaft
In the southern end wall of the pneumatically submerged caisson that

served as the receiving shaft on the northern riverbank, two round openings
were located which, just like in the starting shaft, served as the wall with the
tunnel openings for the boring machines. In front of this end wall, an impermeable block consisting of low strength mortar was located which was
made inside a temporary construction pit. Behind this (seen from the direction of boring) the caisson with the wall with the tunnel openings, had to be
in the right position before the TBM arrived. Since the accuracy of positioning a pneumatic caisson is not very great, a different solution was applied
for the arrival of the TBM than that of the starting shaft. The diameter in the
wall with the tunnel openings was for example considerably larger than the
exterior diameter of the TBM.
This was thus able to pass by with a large clearance. The space behind the
wall with the tunnel openings in the caisson was filled with a layer of stabilized sand, which functioned as a shield cradle. The rest of the space was
filled with sand.
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11 THE BORING AND TUNNELLING

PROCESS
E.J. Sonke, M. Roepius and J.A. Stouten

Boring through the impermeable block; a toilsome course
Lunging and sinking of boring shields
Adaptation of the grout composition
Excavation front instabilities
Shield deformations of the westerly and easterly TBMs
Leakages due to the bentonite valve breaking off (westerly TBM)
Problems with the tail seal west
Disaster with the tail seal east
Ring construction and damages
Repairing the seal of the main bearing
Wear and tear of the cutting teeth in glauconitic sand
Diving activities
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Introduction
At the time that the Westerschelde Tunnel project started, not much knowledge had been gained about boring techniques under the soils of the
Netherlands. The first bored traffic tunnel the Second Heinenoord Tunnel
was not even completed at the time. During the preparations however, lessons could be learnt from the experience gained in the construction of this
tunnel, also because a similar type of boring shield was used here. Yet there
could be no question about copying the solutions: the circumstances during
the boring of the Westerschelde Tunnel were of a totally different order. For
instance:
the length to be bored being 6,600 metres;
the tremendous depth at which activities had to take place (more than
60 metres NAP) and the associated massive ground and water pressures;
the large diameter of the tunnel tubes;
the use of 2 tunnel boring machines, in parallel drives;
the soil conditions which are quite unusual for the Netherlands;
the necessity to construct cross connections;
the complex logistics as a result of the simultaneous boring and (civil)
fitting out of the tunnel.
Briefly: these were circumstances which not only made the construction
of the Westerschelde Tunnel an unprecedented and unique project for the
Netherlands, but also for Europe. The unprecedented and revelatory character also involves a certain degree of uncertainty: during the implementation, situations could occur of which the possible eventuality was not known
beforehand.
In this chapter, a number of experiences gained during the boring of the
twin tubes of the Westerschelde Tunnel are briefly dwelled upon.
Boring through the impermeable block;

a toilsome course
Originally it was assumed that the eastern tunnel boring machine Sara
was the first heading for Zuid-Beveland would only need a few days
for boring through the impermeable block. It happened differently to what
was envisaged: shortly after commencement stagnation occurred, which
eventually resulted in a delay of some weeks. The cutters appeared to be
worn out.
The impermeable block, which was made at the front end of the starting
shaft, consisted of a layer by layer compacted sand-cement stabilization within
the construction pit. In the seven month period prior to the commencement
of the boring this layer had attained a greater strength than was intended.
Besides, it appeared that the impermeable block was built up of relatively
fine material. Due to this the cutting teeth of the cutting wheel were not able
to break coarser sections out of the block, in other words, it was more a matter of grinding the impermeable block than excavating, and that resulted in
serious wear and tear of the cutting teeth. The contractor found the solution
to the problem by using cutting teeth with claws which could excavate
larger pieces. The switching of the cutting teeth happened in the excavation
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T h e B o r i n g a n d Tu n n e l l i n g P r o c e s s
Fig. 11.1
Wear and tear of
cutting teeth
chamber under normal atmospheric circumstances: after all, the TBM was
still in the impermeable block.
After 60 metres of boring, it was necessary, to switch the impermeable block
teeth back to the original type, because they were not suitable to bore into
the Boom clay.
For the second tunnel boring machine which started up a few months later,
the alternative teeth were applied immediately.
Lunging and sinking of boring shields

After the impermeable block had been bored through, the TBM could no
longer use the artificial support and had to find a new balance in the soft
soil. The moment the easterly machine left the sand-cement stabilization, it
had lost its balance for a while: the shield fell as it were, out of the impermeable block and lunged forward. Aside from a deviation of the intended
course, this lunge resulted in a great deal of damage to the second ring. The
boring process was halted to investigate the cause. It appeared that, during
the lunge, the back of the shield had pressed the ring which was placed last
inwards. The penultimate ring could not take up this movement and the
associated forces which caused the damage. The westerly machine did not
lunge forward, but after penetrating the impermeable block, it sank backwards. It appeared to be difficult to get the TBM under control for the first
12 rings (24 metres) and the result was that the shield sank another 100 mm
further.
The lunging and sinking of the boring machines eventually meant that in
combination with the larger than expected settlements at the starting shaft
and a later fall of one of the machines.
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Fig. 11.2
Graphical
lunging and sinking
of the boring
machines
(metres)
Position of TBM east ring 120
0
5
0
20
10
15
(mm)
40
20
25
1
5
9
13
17
60
30
2
6
10
14
18
3
7
11
15
19
35
40
45
50
4
8
12
16
20
80
100
120
(a)
140
(metres)
Position of TBM west ring 120
0
5
0
50
(mm)
100
150
10
15
20
1
6
11
16
25
2
7
12
17
30
3
8
13
18
4
9
14
19
35
40
45
50
5
10
15
20
200
250
(b)
300
Adaptation of the grout composition

The multiple stagnancy of the easterly boring machine during the starting
phase of the boring process meant, in combination with the hot summer,
that the grouting had often hardened in the piping causing it to be clogged
up. The result was that much time was lost in the cleaning of the piping.
In order to tackle the problem, there was a rapid switch to an adaptation of
the grout mixture: instead of 120 kg/m3 only 60 kg/m3 of cement was added.
Thereafter, on closer examination, it also appeared that by replacing the
cement by fly-ash, that the bedding of the tunnel would not be endangered.
Research
Aside from the prevention of settlements, the most important function of
the grouting of the tail void the space between the outer diameter of the
shield and the outer diameter of the tunnel rings is the creation of bedding. A tunnel under construction must, in order not to collapse, have direct
support (bedding) so that the tunnel ring segments in respect of each other
have as little room for movement as possible.
The research into possibly another composition of the grout mixture, was
therefore geared towards whether the use of cement was necessary for the
creation of the bedding. More specifically: was it possible without the application of cement, to prevent the grout mixture around the tunnel from flowing away or running off, whereby the bedding would go lost?
From the research and the tests done, it appeared that it was not so much the
compressive strength of the grout that was of importance, but the parameter
which determines whether the mixture would runoff was sufficiently high
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enough to counter the relocation of the ring in the grout. Aside from that, the
research showed that it was not so much the compressive strength of the
grout that was of importance, but particularly the shear resistance.
Due to the high pressure, the water would press out of the grout into the
soil, resulting in an increase in the shear resistance. By attaining the required
shear resistance, the grout could no longer flow away and the bedding was
also guaranteed. During the further construction process cement was only
added to the grout at the position of the cross connections, so as to create
an extra safety precaution here for the connection of the frozen soil to the
tunnel tubes.
Excavation front instabilities

Instability at cement-bentonite wall
After having bored approximately 60 metres, the easterly machine reached
the cement-bentonite diaphragm wall around the southerly access ramp.
This was the time to switch the alternative teeth which were used for the
boring through of the impermeable block to the original type of cutting
teeth; an operation this time round, which had to take place under increased
pressure by employing diving personnel.
After the first team of divers had carried out their work on the cutting wheel,
a second team made preparations to enter the pressurized section of the
TBM. Precisely at that moment, an instability occurred at the excavation
front: the supportive pressure fell away and the excavation front collapsed
consequentially followed by the soil and ground water flowing into the
machine. At the surface level a huge crater was the result. Obviously the
tooth-switching activities were stopped and the crater was filled to the surface level. Thereafter the working chamber and excavating chamber within
the shield were slowly filled again with bentonite suspension and the boring was resumed with the idea of switching the teeth elsewhere. Other than
at excavation front instabilities such as those which occurred at the Second
Heinenoord Tunnel, in this case it appeared that an instability as such,
did not have to lead to lengthy stagnancy. It was possible to get the cutting
wheel going by rinsing it with large quantities of bentonite. With as low a
supportive pressure as possible, the shield could then be pressed past the
bad patch.
Collapse of the excavation front due to cracks in the hard

soil layer
A second excavation front instability occurred directly after the passing of
the surrounding dyke this happened after boring about 110 metres which
once again involved the easterly machine, and the instability likewise
occurred during the preparation of a diving operation. The cause of this
instability was presumably the presence of a dense soil layer (clay) between
the TBM and the surface level. Underneath, the air built itself up which provided the supportive pressure at the excavation front during the diving
operation. The layer was eventually no longer resistant to the pressure
build-up and cracked, or burst: the supportive pressure fell away and the
excavation front collapsed. At surface level this caused a crater with a diameter of approximately 6 metres. The hole was filled in and the boring was
resumed as fast as possible.
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Fig. 11.3
Crater at the surface
as a result of
the instability of the
excavation front
Excavation front instability Neeltje Suzanna (westerly TBM)

The westerly TBM was also confronted with an instable excavation front
during the boring process. This instability occurred when the boring
machine was at its deepest point in the boring route: 60 metres NAP, under
the Pas van Terneuzen. This time the collapsing of the excavation front was
the result of a bentonite valve which had broken off the shield, whereby a
direct connection came about between the outside and the inside of the
shield: bentonite that came off the excavation front and soil and water
flowed inside under high pressure. The supportive pressure fell away and the
excavation chamber was filled with sand. This instability was also solved
rather quickly: the material in the excavation chamber was carefully rinsed
away, after which the boring process could be resumed with as low a supportive pressure as possible.
The leakage that occurred due to the bentonite valve breaking off, and its
repair however took quite some doing. This is dealt with elsewhere in this
chapter.
Shield deformations of the westerly and

easterly TBMs
A boring shield is round or at least: it should be. In May 2000 it appeared
that this was not the case anymore for both machines, and deformations of
the tail section were observed. The first indication of this was an strange
division of the air space the space between the outer diameter of the
tunnel rings and the inner diameter of the shield around the circumference. The measuring of this air space was a normal procedure during the
building-in of a ring. The division can also vary under normal circumstances,
for example, when making a bend. However, the position of the boring
machine did not show any cause for the strange division. The impression
came about that this could be caused by a dent.
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149
Progressive development
At the beginning of May 2000 a roundness measurement of the tail section
took place. From that, it appeared that for the westerly machine it involved
deformations (dents) in the order of 40 mm, whereas the deformations of
the easterly shield increased to a maximum of 50 mm.
The degree of roundness had been measured previously anyway. After a comparison of the new results to the previous data, it was noticed that the situation worsened rather quickly: it involved progressive development of the
deformations. The boring machines were situated at the deepest point of the
route and in view of the safety, activities were halted immediately.
Another argument to stop, was the possible danger that on further deformations, the shield could clasp the tunnel rings entirely at any moment. Not only
would that lead to damage of the lining, it also meant that the boring machines
would then be completely jammed.
That is why it was decided to take measures to prevent further deformations
and to investigate if the shield would break. With regard to the latter it could
be concluded rather quickly that the shield would not collapse.
R543
26
27
Location
40
1
20
25
2
3
24
20
23
40
60
22
80
100
21
20
8
9
19
10
18
17
11
16
12
15
14
13
The Colossus of Terneuzen

One of the alternatives that was developed to solve the problem of the deformations, was a so-called ring-reformer: a steel ring with a large number of
jacks around the circumference which had to be placed on the inside of the
tail shield. The idea was, that with this ring it was perhaps possible to undent
the shield. However, for an undenting operation it appeared that forces which
were too great were necessary, which would also perhaps have a negative
effect on the (steel) quality of the shield. Repair of the shield was not possible, but an option which remained plausible, was the counteracting of further
deformations. While other solutions were also investigated, the manufacturer of the TBMs (Herrenknecht) were therefore commissioned to make a
stabilization ring. The eventual result an enormous structure of approximately 80 tons nicknamed The Colossus of Terneuzen was never used
however. The reason for this was, that the investigation into other avenues
provided other prospects for managing the problem. The alternative more
about this later appeared to have a major advantage in respect of the
Colossus: less loss of time. The installation of the ring-reformer would
Fig. 11.4
Diagrammatic
shield deformations
of the westerly tunnel
boring machine
(reflected in red) at
the location of ring 543
in respect of the
assumptive position
(black)
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have resulted in an enormous delay of the boring process. The structure

would continually have to be built-in and out and with this the production
would reduce to a maximum of 1 to 2 rings per day.
Fig. 11.5
Parts of the stabilizing
ring on the site in
Terneuzen
Enormous jack forces cause a problem

At the same time as the shield deformations, there was another problem which was perhaps associated with the deformations: for the boring
Fig. 11.6
The jacks of the tunnel
boring machine
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machines which were positioned at such great depth to be able to move forward, it appeared that rather massive jack forces were necessary: the
machines used 95% of the maximum force of 112,000 kN installed, whereas
the prior expectation at about 5560% would have been enough. Although
there was no hard relationship with the deformation problem, something
clearly had to be done about this force problem. When the required force
increased even more, then the capacity would fall short and stagnancy
would be the result. Besides, a boring machine that operates at its maximum capacity is no longer in a position to be steered: if all the force is used
to push the machine straight ahead, then the making of bends in which it
is necessary that some jacks provide more force than others is no longer
possible.
Reducing friction
A commonly used method to reduce the required force is the application of
a lubricant (bentonite) between the shield and the surrounding soil, so that
the soil friction reduces during the boring. During the construction of the
boring machines bentonite piping was already fitted for this purpose.
A second possibility to reduce the friction is the boring of a hole which is
greater than the diameter of the shield. Due to this overcut, the shield has
more space to move whereby the friction can further be reduced by filling
the overcut space with bentonite suspension. Reduction of the friction then
results in a reduction of the required jack forces.
The idea was that by realising a more spacious overcut for both tunnel
boring machines, perhaps the loads on the shield and thus the deformations would also reduce. The two tunnel boring machines were provided
with fixed overcutters with an overcut of 10 mm. It was decided to enlarge
this overcut for both boring machines to 30 mm. At the locations where
the boring machines stood, no air could be used as a support pressure
medium, so the divers replaced the teeth on feeling and under extremely
high pressure (7 bar) in the bentonite slurry.
TBM Neeltje Suzanna continues

Although the deformation problem arose with both boring machines, it
seemed to be less critical at the westerly machine (Neeltje Suzanna). There
was a single large dent of approximately 45 mm at the left in the middle. The
easterly machine on the other hand, showed a freakier pattern and also a
larger maximum deformation (approximately 50 mm). After the enlargement
of the overcut the question was, what had to happen?: wait until the ringreformer was ready, or to start boring carefully using the larger overcut
whereby the shield had to be measured off after each ring was built-in. For
the westerly machine the contractor dared the latter. The idea was also that
the experiences gained with this boring machine, could help in the finding
of a solution for the more serious problems of the easterly TBM: the boring
process was resumed again after a stagnancy period of 2 months, and initially
ran its course as it should, whereby only a minimal change in the deformation
of the shield occurred.
Water jacks as an alternative for the ring-reformer

As an alternative to the ring-reformer, the idea had emerged in the meantime, to use water jacks to prevent further deformation of the shield: right
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angled and filled with water cushions which were placed longitudinally
between the last tunnel ring built and the shield, had to exert a force onto
the shield to counteract further deformations. The water jacks would be kept
in a fixed position on the inside of the shield, so that they would slide along
with the TBM during the boring, across the outside of the tunnel ring. The
forces exerted onto the outside of the shield of the TBM could then be transferred via the water jacks onto the tunnel ring.
This alternative was elaborated upon, in which a lot of attention was paid to
the calculation of the extra load that the tunnel rings would have to endure.
Aside from that, naturally implementation aspects also had to be dealt with:
how would the water jacks be built in, how much time would that take, and
what would be the resultant production rate? Eventually the choice between
this alternative and the Colossus of Terneuzen went in favour of the water
jacks. With this type of shield support the boring process in the easterly tube
was after a stagnancy period of 3 months resumed slowly and highly
controlled in which the deformations were continually monitored.
Fig. 11.7
Water cushions
Smaller rings
From the moment that the TBMs were boring upwards again and the ground
and water pressures reduced, the deformations of the shield eventually
appeared to lessen. Although, anticipating a possible worsening of the
problem, additional measures were taken prior to the restart of the boring
machines. Thus segments were produced for the construction of rings that
have a diameter which is 20 mm smaller. If the shield would deform further,
by applying the smaller rings, this would not directly lead to a clasping of
the tunnel rings. The segments were not used, for this purpose, because
application also brought on a vital objection: the greater air space which
would be the result, had to be bridged by the tail seal and the possible collapse of the seal caused too great a risk. The smaller rings produced were
later built in at a safer location.
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The production of the deviating segments in any case meant, that the entire
production line from the converting of the formwork to the eventual
re-measuring of the segments called for adaptation.
Reasonable cause: depth and glauconitic sand

It seems justified to conclude that a relationship exists between the area
where the boring machines were positioned and the coming about of deformations. Important clues for this were:
both boring machines were confronted with the problem;
the problems were at their severest at the deepest point (60 metres NAP)
when the boring machines were situated in glauconitic sand;
from the moment that the boring machines changed course upwards to
soil lying less deep and they left the glauconitic sands, the deformations
lessened.
In designing the boring machines, attention was particularly geared towards
possible sticking problems in the Boom clay. However, the problems didnt
occur in the Boom clay, but at the time that the boring machines were situated in the glauconitic sand.
A lesson to be learnt from the deformations issue is that, (multi-disciplinary)
research actually undertaken prior to such risky projects can never be too
abundant; it is traditionally known that soil always contains surprises. A
remedy is provided by a good interaction between geo-technicians, structural engineers for steel and machinery manufacturers and the taking into
consideration of ample safeties in the design of the boring machine. For
such risky projects it is of vital importance that all possible available knowledge is brought together.
Leakages due to the bentonite valve breaking

off (westerly TBM)
In the boring shield various injection openings were applied with which the
bentonite suspension could be injected around the shield. This bentonite
served as a lubricant to reduce the friction between the shield and the soil,
and thus also reducing the required jack forces for forward propulsion.
From the time of the coming about of the shield deformations, these injection points have all been used.
After the shield was measured off to establish the development of the deformation after the building-in of ring 547, the fitting out of the next ring was prepared. The preparation also comprised the cleaning of the underside of the
shield and the pumping away of leak water and cleansing water which collected there. However, on withdrawing the jacks in order to be able to place a
new segment, the clearing of one pump had been forgotten.
The receding jack pairs dragged this pump along over an injection pipe which
then broke below the level of a valve. A mixture of water, sand, grout and
bentonite immediately squirted into the tunnel boring machine and into the
tunnel at a pressure of approximately 6 bar at that point in time the TBM
was positioned at the deepest point of the boring route.
Consequences
Attempts to close the hole with wood and fabric didnt work and the TBM
(and the tunnel behind) slowly filled up with the incoming muddy mixture.
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Fig. 11.8
Water in the tunnel
as a result of the
bentonite valve
breaking off
Fig. 11.9
Repairing the
leakage
After some time the leak was not even accessible anymore. The emergency
pumps installed on the TBM were operating at full capacity, but appeared to
have great difficulty in pumping away the enormous quantity of sand: it
involved an uncontrollable situation which caused a direct threat to the people
present in the tunnel, the boring machine and the tunnel itself.
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Nature appeared to be kind: after some hours the situation stabilized itself
and the water which had reached a height of about 2 metres in the shield
rose no further. At the position of the first two trailers the water came to just
below the first deck. Further behind the water reached into the cable gallery.
During the leak, a total of about 50 m3 of soil and 250 m3 of water and bentonite slurry had entered.
Soon after the breaking of the injection pipe, the support pressure sensors
indicated that a connection no longer existed between the compression chamber and the excavation chamber. This was a major indication of a collapsed
excavation front. Besides, the TBMs navigating system showed that the shield
had relocated approximately 110 mm. The result was that the air space on the
underside of the shield had become so great, that the tail seal threatened to
overturn. A few days after the disaster with the bentonite injection pipe, the
tail seal also collapsed locally (see elsewhere in this chapter). In order to
remove a possibly instable situation of the soil around the tunnel boring
machine, cement mortar was injected.
Measures
After the streaming in of the mud appeared to have stopped, presumably as
a result of a blockage of the injection pipe with sand, gravel and bentonite and
the 2 metres of muddy water above the leak, it was necessary to close the
opening. Only then could the situation be under control. The safety philosophy employed in this case, was geared towards the closing of the leak without pumping the water in the TBM and in the tunnel away, so as not to run
the risk that the flow would thus start up again. In order to close the leak a
pipe with a flat foot and a valve was made. A diver had to place this pipe over
the injection opening after which the erector would push the pipe against
the shield with a tremendous force.
However, the finding of the opening and the cleansing of the surrounding
area was made extremely difficult by the density of the mud which continually filled the cleaned section. The high degree of density also meant that the
diver could not reach the bottom of the shield, but floated on the soil, bentonite and water mixture. After some failed attempts to place the pipe, another
strategy was chosen.
At the same time as the diving attempt, the emergency pump facility which
had difficulty in processing the sandy mixture in the first instance was
adapted. In order to keep the mixture that had to be pumped away as watery
as possible, spray nozzles were fitted at the collection points and the pumping capacity was increased. After the adaptation of the pump facilities it was
decided to deviate from the safety philosophy used up to that point in time,
and to gradually start pumping away the mud. When approximately one
metre of slurry remained, they did manage to place the pipe over the leak
and to push it in place by means of the erector. Then the entire quantity of
slurry could be pumped away and the pipe was welded to the shield: the
situation was under control.
A blessing in disguise
The calamity with the bentonite valve appeared to be of major influence
anyway on the deformation of the shield of the westerly boring machine.
That involved a single large deformation, a dent situated at 9 oclock. Due to
the enormous earth removal process associated with the leakage, the shield
relaxed and almost sprang back entirely into its original shape: from a
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deformation of 45 mm to a deformation of 15 mm. However, this favourable

effect was of a temporary nature. Very soon deformation occurred again.
Problems with the tail seal west

As a result of the vertical relocation (110 mm) of the shield during the disaster
with the broken bentonite valve, the space between the inner diameter of the
boring shield and the outer diameter of the segments at the top of the shield
reduced to 0: the TBMs shield lay against the segments. At the bottom on the
other hand, there the air space had indeed increased enormously; the
brushes of the tail seal could barely seal the space created. The fear existed
that this would lead to problems again. A few days after the stabilization of the
broken valve problem, it appeared that this fear was justified and a leakage of
the tail seal came about, which fortunately only involved a small quantity of
6 m3. In the meantime, this more or less expected leakage had been anticipated: injection facilities (packers) were fitted in the tunnel segments.
The moment the leakage happened, a chemical agent could therefore
immediately be injected just behind the tail seal through the segments in
order to stop the inflow of water and sand. In the following period of two
weeks, a solution was sought for the problem. In this, it was of particular
importance that the boring machine had to be steered and the rings had to
be built as such, that once again there was a situation of an equally distributed air space around the rings.
Fig. 11.10
Diagrammatic
representation of
tail seal
1
475
475
475
450
1 Shield
2 Lining
2
3 Grease chambers
(dimensions in mm)
2000
Boring with extra provisions

In order to continue boring without leakages, use was made of an extra provision for a number of metres, which was also used during the construction
of the Second Heinenoord Tunnel (the first traffic tunnel which was bored in
the soil of the Netherlands). In order to create an extra seal, (wooden emergency partition) formwork was applied around the circumference of the tunnel ring against which the jacks pushed off. The space between the inner
diameter of the shield and the outer diameter of the tunnel ring was thus
sealed and also filled with grease.
After having bored for a number of metres using this provision an extremely
time consuming matter the replacement of the steel brush seal could
commence after having attained a normal distribution of the air space
around the tunnel rings.
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Temporary extra grease chamber
157
Fig. 11.11
Diagrammatic
representation of
extra provisions for
tail seal
Wooden emergency partition
Replacement of tail seal

In order to replace the seal, first of all it was necessary to construct a ring
and then boring through until the first two rows of brushes (the brushes to
be replaced) were positioned on the tunnel ring which was built last. Then
through this ring, around the entire circumference, a chemical agent was
injected at the end of the tail void. The agent cemented the sand and water
into a homogeneous and watertight mass. Then the tunnel ring which was
placed last was partially removed (from a safety point of view, only the keystone and the adjacent segments). The two rows of brushes to be replaced
were accessible and were replaced. Thus, step by step, the entire circumference of the shield could be provided with a new tail seal.
Row of brushes to be replaced

Gel injection
Segment to be removed
Fig. 11.12
Diagrammatic
representation of
replacing tail seal
brushes
Fig. 11.13
Repairs to steel brush
seal
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Disaster with the tail seal east

A disaster occurred twice during the boring of the Westerschelde Tunnel
which formed a direct threat to the safety of the people present in the tunnel, the TBM and the tunnel itself. One was the uncontrollable situation
described before as a result of the broken bentonite valve. The second
calamity occurred by the sudden collapse of the tail seal of the easterly
boring machine.
4,000 m3 of slurry flow into the tunnel

Although it was not expected that a steel brush sealing with grease chambers
would collapse suddenly, this nevertheless happened. On 30th November
2001 in the easterly machine which at that moment was positioned under
Everingen in the tunnel, an enormous amount of soil and water entered.
About 350400 m3 of material per hour squirted in through the leak and only
after 13 hours the situation was under control again. Later it appeared that
the second row of brushes at the position of the leak, across a distance of 0.8
metres in the circumferential direction, had disappeared completely, whereas
in the third row a number of brushes were missing as well. Attempts to continue boring normally using extra grout and grease injection did not have
the desired effect for stabilizing the situation: the material continued to flow
in. As such it was a lucky circumstance that the inflowing material mainly
consisted of bentonite which came from the excavation front. The problem
would have increased substantially if it were large quantities of sand coming
in which would be difficult to pump away.
Fig. 11.14
Leakage as a result of
the collapse of the tail
seal of the easterly
tunnel boring machine
In order to replenish the bentonite at the excavation front a permanent supply of new bentonite was necessary. In order to have sufficient bentonite at
hand, the boring by the other machine was therefore also halted: it was more
favourable to maintain the bentonite flow than to stop the supply which
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159
involved a risk that sand and ground water could enter into the tunnel. Besides,
stopping the supply could also lead to the collapse of the excavation front.
Provisional solution
The first attempts to stop the leakage were concentrated on the injecting of
a chemical agent through the segments at the position of the leak. Yet this
agent needed time to react with the soil and the water. However, due to the
rate at which the bentonite solution flowed into the TBM and the tunnel,
there was no time. That is why the flow of the water/bentonite first had to be
stopped. In order to achieve that, the dowels of a segment were removed,
while an insulation membrane which originated from the activities on the
cross connections was applied. Then, by means of the erector, this segment was then pushed against the hole and the shield. The small quantity of
bentonite which then still flowed in could be stopped by plugging the
remaining holes with fabric. Due to this the supply flow reduced to such an
extent, that the injecting of the chemical agent thereafter was successful:
after 13 hours the leakage was under control.
Fig. 11.15
The sealing of the leak
by placing the
membrane segment
The brush seal was replaced in the same manner as described at the leakage of the tail seal of the westerly machine.
Ring construction and damages

During the boring of a tunnel and the building-in of the tunnel rings, there is
always a chance of damage to the tunnel ring segments also being caused
by the tremendous jack forces exerted onto the segments. As such, not
every kind of damage is avoidable; its different when a structural damagepattern becomes apparent. The building-in of a tunnel ring is an irreversible
process. Damages could indeed be repaired, but the replacement of a
damaged segment with a new one is impossible. Certainly taking into
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consideration the required life span of 100 years, the damage to the lining
had to remain as limited as possible. However, at the Westerschelde Tunnel
is seemed after about 300 metres of boring (150 rings) that it involved a
structural damage pattern. The kind of damage that came about can generally
be categorized as follows:
cracks which were sometimes dry and sometimes aquiferous;
large chunks of broken concrete (scales) whereby the reinforcement was
exposed in a number of cases;
leakages which were mainly concentrated around the keystone.
Fig. 11.16
Cases of damage:
cracks, chipped scales
and leakages
Fig. 11.17
Cases of damage:
and leakages
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161
Fig. 11.18
Cases of damage:
and leakages
Fig. 11.19
Exposed reinforcement
Although the contractor ascribed the damages to start up problems, the client
demanded measures, all the more because the tunnel boring machines were
underway to the deepest point under the Pas van Terneuzen. The boring
process was therefore halted: first an investigation had to be done to see
what was happening.
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Crack-forming
Cracks come about due to force actions between the segments which didnt
take place as desired and for example, local force concentrations occur. That
would be the case when the segments are not entirely flat at the points where
they connect to the other segments. Later it appeared (see also Chapter 9
Tunnel Lining) that the longitudinal joint indeed was not straight but slightly
curved. That provided force concentrations which caused crack-forming.
Triplex instead of kaubit: less forces on the dowels

Between the rings themselves, there is a coupling by means of the so-called
Nocke-Topf connection (recess-dowel). This connection is meant to take up
radial forces: when the rings move mutually (as a major over-exaggeration:
being pushed out of the tube shape), the associated transfer of forces take
place via the dowels. A ring which deforms, is thus supported by the adjacent
ring. The dowels however, hardly play a role in the transfer of the tremendous
jack pressures in the axial (longitudinal) direction. Here the reinforcement is
of essential importance, whereas the place where the force transfer take place
is fixed.
Initially such fixation occurred by means of kaubit, a bituminous material.
Besides, the kaubit serves to smooth out possible unevenness of the concrete. What appeared to be the case however, was that when kaubit is
pressed together into a layer of negligible thickness, it acts as a lubricant.
That also meant that in respect of each other, the rings could deform easier.
When that happens, the dowels make contact sooner, they become (too)
heavily loaded and the chances of shearing increases.
Therefore the choice was soon made for the application of triplex panels
instead of kaubit, in order to affix the force transfer in the longitudinal direction. This method had previously been used in the construction of the Second
Fig. 11.20
Triplex panels instead
of kaubit
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Heinenoord Tunnel. The application of triplex caused a drastic decrease of

damages: triplex is far more rigid and can therefore, in comparison with
kaubit, transfer a greater force via friction. Due to the friction, a coupling is
brought about between the rings: in other words, the rings can lean against
each other better, so that smaller mutual deformation occurs, the dowels
are less loaded and less damage is the result.
Due consideration was given to the durability of the triplex and the effect on
the Dowel-Recess joint. It has been investigated that after wear and tear of
the triplex in the end situation, the Dowel-Recess joint is still acceptable.
Dowels are given more space

In the ideal situation the dowel (Nocke) falls into the recess (Topf) which
involves an evenly distributed latitude around the dowel. When charting
the possible causes of the damages, it was also examined whether something perhaps went amiss with the play in the building-in of the segments
into a ring. In general, it is of utmost importance in the construction of a ring
to push the longitudinal joints together properly. If this does not happen,
then it results in a greater circumferential length than intended. If this mistake is repeated in the placing of every segment, that leads in the worst
case to too little space for the placing of the keystone.
This is also of vital importance for the position of the dowels, because, in
the case of not pushing the longitudinal joints together properly, the dowel
in the circumferential direction would continue to lie further away from the
ideal position. Sometimes, even so far, that when placing a segment there
is contact already. Then even if the slightest thing happens the dowel will
shear. It is because of this problem also possibly occurring during the boring and construction of the Westerschelde Tunnel, that the dowels were
made smaller so that they had a bit more space.
Relationship with the sealing profile

As the abovementioned shows, it is best to construct the tunnel rings as
tight-fitting as possible, whereby the segments are pushed optimally against
each other at the position of the longitudinal joint. However, in practice, the
pushing together often appeared to happen laboriously and naturally the
question about its cause arose. The answer was closely connected to the seal
used which was applied around the segments in order to guarantee the watertightness. Originally, a high and simultaneously too extremely rigid profile
was used which appeared to be awkwardly compressible. When the longitudinal joints are not pushed together to the maximum during the ring construction, then this occurs at the moment that the ring is outside the shield
in the advancement of the TBM sand and water pressures complete the
task. The result is that the rings amongst themselves deform, which again
could lead to damage. The solution to the problem was found in the use of a
lowered and broadened profile which was easier to push together.
Key stone
The recurrent leakages which occurred during the boring of the first couple of
hundred metres, were particularly concentrated around the closing stone
(keystone). The idea was that here a problem may also have occurred with the
seal: perhaps it was damaged during the placing, or possibly the sliding in
of the stone caused damage to the concrete. In order to shed light on the
problem, an extensive investigation was set up amongst other things, by the
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manufacturing company Herrenknecht in Germany. Here the building-in of

the closing stone was narrowly monitored with a test-mounted video camera.
From the study it appeared that the seal around the keystone already made
contact with the adjacent segments (stones B and C) even under ideal circumstances during the sliding-in process, at approximately 0.26 metres
before the final position was reached. The video recorded at Herrenknecht
showed that the seal then displayed the tendency of rolling up. When the
keystone was completely in position, openings could come about because
of this rolling up, or the rubber could be damaged. Besides, it appeared in
some cases that the rubber seals did not fit exactly on top of each other as
intended, but lay next to each other. In some cases the rubber seals even
turned over.
In order to solve the problem, it was decided to broaden the profile and also
to extend it. This resulted in the seal of the keystone making contact with the
adjacent profile at a later stage, and the chances were less great that the
sections ended up next to each other or could turn over. With this new section, the number of leakages were considerably reduced.
Fig. 11.21
Investigation into
operation of seal and
examination of
keystone
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Fig. 11.22
Deformation of the
rubber seal
M38565
(a)
27
17.5
32
17.5
17.5
Fig. 11.23
Old and new section of
the sealing profile
M 38585a
(b)
Looking ahead on the 11 mm problem

The damage which occurred to the tunnel ring segments during the boring
of the first few hundred metres even before the boring process was halted
lead amongst other things, to the fact that the rings were built-in in an
extremely careful manner. This caused some matters to be noticeable:
although the building-in occurred very carefully as such, it appeared that a
segment that had just been placed started to twist from the moment that the
jacks exerted pressure on this segment. This was a sign that something could
be wrong with the basic geometry of the segment. The segments were then
subjected to an extensive dimensioning investigation. The results of this
investigation clarified that there was a major mistake in the geometry of
the keystone and the two adjacent segments. This so-called 11 mm problem
is dealt with extensively in Chapter 9 The Tunnel Lining.
Repairing the seal of the main bearing

When the easterly TBM was underway to the deepest point and was already
partially in the glauconitic sand, a problem occurred with the main bearing:
a lid that had sprung off a pressure gauge made it clear that something was
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amiss with the sealing. The machine was halted immediately. Further investigation showed that it involved a leakage under one of the neoprene lip
seals which separate the chambers of the main seal from each other.
The position where the boring machine was situated at that moment was
unsuitable for on the spot repairs. At the same time it was clear that, by
means of emergency facilities thicker grease in one of the chambers (the
labyrinth) of the main seal and the filling of the so-called leakage chamber
with compressed oil and air further boring was possible. That then happened: the machine followed its course further into the glauconitic sand,
under the Pas van Terneuzen (the deepest point) and then continued
upwards into the Boom clay. There were no further problems with the main
bearing seal worth mentioning.
Necessary preventative repairs

The question that remained however was, what the consequences would be
of a worsening of the problem at the time that the boring machine would be
positioned in the sand under Everingen. In the sand and besides being
under a fairway, the problem would almost be insoluble; it was a risk which
nobody wanted to take. That is why it was decided to repair the sealing before
the boring machine left the Boom clay. There the chance of success was
greater: the pressures there were a lot lower and the Boom clay was relatively stable. Besides, at the time that the decision was taken to repair, the
TBM was positioned under the Middelplaat and that also meant, that in theory there was also an option to work on a solution from above.
Atmospheric circumstances required

For the reparation of the main bearing seal it was clear that no divers could
be employed; specialists were required who could not undertake the work
the vulcanization of rubber with increased air pressure. This meant that
atmospheric circumstances were a requirement also at the front end of the
tunnel boring machine.
The first idea consisted of boring forwards with the boring machine for 0.4
metres and then withdrawing the cutting wheel. From the working space
thus created a part of the cutting wheel would then be dismantled, the main
bearing would be exposed and the repairs could take place. The experience
that had been gained with the clay in the meantime, had made it clear that
although the clay is stable, there was indeed a problem. Certainly if the task
would take a couple of days: in the clay that would stand in front of the
TBM like a great big wall during the repairs, there are cracks (fissures).
Along those cracks, clay chips (some of which weighing more than 100 kg)
could fall down because the over-consolidated clay relieves. Such working
circumstances provided no perspective.
Solutions from the top: no option

In principle it was possible to work on a solution from a working island to be
constructed on Middelplaat: from this island an underground station would
have to be built to then be able to repair the TBM. For the construction of such
a station, in theory various construction methods were eligible, like making
use of diaphragm walls, boring piles or the freezing technique. The construction of the required working island would mean that time (and money) would
be lost in the application of the required permits. Besides, the possible implementation methods would bring along their own problems and risks: the
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depth (the boring machine was situated at approximately 45 metres NAP)

made the use of diaphragm walls very susceptible for inaccuracies. Also the
use of boring piles at that depth in the hard clay was considered as risky and
the fact that on applying the freezing technique, the freezing-pipes would
have to be withdrawn again (to be able to continue boring), met with objections. Working from a working island therefore did not appear to be an option.
Cutting wheel covered with foil a simple but brilliant idea

In the further search for solutions, attention was again entirely concentrated
on the subgrade. The basic idea which was presented, consisted of the cutting wheel boring forwards over a distance of 0.4 metres and then withdrawing the cutting wheel again into its original position. Then the entire
space between the pressure wall and the Boom clay which also contained
1. Pull in through the opening
3. Spanning to the top
5. Unfold downwards
4. Spanning the top half
6. Spanning across the

whole surface
2. Positioning of belts
12
11
1
2
10
9
3
4
(a)
Fig. 11.24
(a) Spanning the foil
over the cutting wheel
(b) Creating the
atmospheric
circumstances for the
repairs of the main
bearing seal
Phase 2
Phase 1
Clay stratum
Phase 3
Air
cushion
Mortar
Compressed
air
Cutting wheel
Bentonite
suspension
Pressure wall
Pressure wall
hatch
400 mm
400 mm
Phase 4
200 mm
Phase 5
Atmospherical
Bentonite
suspension
Main bearing seal

Disk of mortar
(b)
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the cutting wheel had to be filled with concrete. After cutting away the concrete between the pressure wall and the cutting wheel a lovely working
space would be created. A good idea, which still required optimization however: after the repairs of the main bearing seal, it would take a lot of time to
cut the stuck cutting wheel out of the concrete. A brilliant and simultaneously a very workable simple solution for the problem was discovered in
the application of a foil seal with which the entire cutting wheel was covered
on the excavation front.
Divers spanned the foil, which was provided with feed-throughs, over the
cutting wheel. Through the openings, the space between the cutting wheel
and the soil was then filled with lean concrete. Simultaneously in order to
prevent that the foil would collapse or would come inside soft mortar
which had the same density as the lean concrete, was poured on the other
side of the cutting wheel. After the concrete on the excavation front end had
hardened sufficiently, the soft mortar between the pressure wall and cutting
wheel was sprayed away. The result was a lovely clean working chamber
which could be used by everyone under atmospheric pressure.
The actual repairs to the main bearing seal a task which as such was far
less exceptional than the creation of the circumstances which were necessary for the implementation took five days. The boring could then be
resumed . . . a world first!
Fig. 11.25
Exposed chambers of
the main bearing seal
during the repair work
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Wear and tear of the cutting teeth

in glauconitic sand
Aside from the switching (and the switching back) of the cutting teeth in and
after the impermeable block, it was necessary to switch the cutting teeth
more often. Especially the serious wear and tear of the teeth during the
boring in glauconitic sand under the Everingen was a cause. Unexpectedly,
the teeth had to be switched twice because particularly the reamers (overcutters) wore out so badly. Geodelft who had undertaken the soil investigation, had warned about this problem beforehand: the cone penetrations
showed that it involved negative pore pressures, probably because the
glauconitic sand drains badly. The under-tensions lead to a greater force on
the cutting teeth which in turn resulted in wear and tear. However no particular provisions were taken. After 600 metres of progress the reamers had to
be replaced again.
Adaptation of the cutting teeth design

The cause of the wear and tear was also associated with the rotation of the
cutting wheel in two directions. That meant that a tooth either dug the soil
away or dragged across the soil, and it was particularly because of the dragging that the teeth appeared to wear out tremendously. Eventually the wear
and tear lead to an adapted cutting tooth design of the reamers. Where originally it involved teeth that only cut on one side, the new concept provided
for double-sided cutting teeth so it no longer involved any dragging. On
application of this new type of tooth, the problem was solved immediately.
It is not surprising anyway that particularly the reamers were the most worn
out: after all, they were situated on the outside of the cutting wheel and
therefore covered the greatest distance.
The design of cutting teeth for tunnel boring machines, strongly appears to
be based on empiricism and experience. Fundamental scientific knowledge
hardly enters into the matter. Yet in other business sectors the knowledge is
available. In the past the dredging industry in the Netherlands has financed
a great deal of scientific research into the assessment of similar processes; a
dredging firm could perhaps have pointed out the possibility of the coming
about of the wear and tear problem.
Progress east and west

3000
Rings east and west
2500
2000
TBM east ring

TBM west ring
1500
1000
500
29-7-1999
26-8-1999
23-9-1999
21-10-1999
18-11-1999
16-12-1999
13-1-2000
10-2-2000
9-3-2000
6-4-2000
4-5-2000
1-6-2000
29-6-2000
27-7-2000
24-8-2000
21-9-2000
19-10-2000
16-11-2000
14-12-2000
11-1-2001
8-2-2001
8-3-2001
5-4-2001
3-5-2001
31-5-2001
28-6-2001
26-7-2001
23-8-2001
20-9-2001
18-10-2001
15-11-2001
13-12-2001
10-1-2002
7-2-2002
Fig. 11.26a
Progress of the boring
process
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Fig. 11.26b
Progress of the boring
process
Monthly production
Rings
450
400
TBM east rings
350
TBM west rings

Total rings
300
KMW schedule
(rings per tube)
250
200
150
100
50
Jul.99
Aug.99
Sep.99
Oct.99
Nov.99
Dec.99
Jan.00
Feb.00
Mar.00
Apr.00
May.00
Jun.00
Jul.00
Aug.00
Sep.00
Oct.00
Nov.00
Dec.00
Jan.01
Feb.01
Mar.01
Apr.01
May.01
Jun.01
Jul.01
Aug.01
Sep.01
Oct.01
Nov.01
Dec.01
Jan.02
Feb.02
Mar.02
Fig. 11.27
Arrival of the tunnel
boring machine
Diving activities
Introduction
Never before had boring taken place with a slurry shield at such a great
depth (60 metres NAP) and under equally (soft) soil conditions as for the construction of the Westerschelde Tunnel. It was known beforehand that divers
would regularly have to be at the excavation front, sometimes even in front
of the cutting wheel for inspections and the carrying out of maintenance
activities, such as the switching of cutting teeth. Prior to diving operations,
the space between the cutting wheel and the excavation front was cleared of
bentonite suspension if the situation so permitted. The bentonite slurry was
pumped away up to a certain level while at the same time the compressed
air took over the support of the excavation front. Thus an air bubble was
created in which the divers, who entered the excavation chamber via an air
lock, could carry out their work. However, working in compressed air was
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171
sometimes not possible and the divers had to undertake their heavy tasks in
the slurry on feeling.
The greatest pressure under which the divers operated during the construction of the tunnel was about 7.5 bar. This was unheard of, and called for the
development of special techniques which applications would generally only
be found in the offshore-industry.
Dependent on the depth of the activity, various diving methods can be differentiated. Up to a certain depth and also dependent on the duration of the operation, no special breathing apparatus was necessary and the divers inhaled
compressed air. At greater depths the divers made use of special gas mixtures
which they inhaled via a helmet. In periods in which lengthy operations had to
be undertaken under great pressure, the saturation diving technique was
applied. This meant that the divers did not come to the surface pressure every
time, but between the activities they were also kept under pressure in a pressure cabin. The divers then spent a longer amount of time in a cabin outside
the tunnel which was furnished as an accommodation.This made it possible to
avoid extremely long decompression periods.
Medical support
Before the boring activities commenced, all the aspects related to the diving
were extensively examined. In this, a number of doctors who are specialists
on diving were also involved. In the Netherlands it is a requirement that an
extensive working plan is drawn up together with an accompanying risks
analysis. This plan must be approved before the activities may commence.
Medical support during the entire duration of the project was desired and a
decision was made to have a medical specialist permanently present.
Furthermore, during the activities, a MAD-B diver (Medical Aid Diver) always
formed part of the diving team. All the divers involved (before, during and after
the activities) were subjected to extensive medical examinations such as a neurobehavioral evaluation system. At the end of the project and after a couple of
years, the tests will be repeated to examine if it involves long term effects.
Fig. 11.28
The transportation of
the divers in the
pressure-shuttle
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Fig. 11.29
The transportation of
the divers in the
pressure-shuttle
During diving operations increasing by depth and diving time body tissues become saturated with the gas mixtures that have been inhaled. The
tissues must get rid of those gases (e.g. nitrogen) again in a dosed manner,
comparable to the slow decorking of a bottle of champagne. The decorking
must be dosed as such, that there are no nitrogen bubbles which could
result in the blockage of capillaries. If that does happen, decompression illnesses like bends and staggers could come about: severe pains in the joints
and skin disorders (bends) or in the most serious cases, disorders of the
central nervous system (staggers).
By using diving tables especially developed for the project which are different dependent on the working depths, the diving time and the gas mixture
used, reducing the pressure in steps while simultaneously inhaling 100%
oxygen, the decompression illnesses could largely be prevented.
Working under increased air pressure up to 4.5 bar

The type of work that the divers carried out consisted of inspecting the
cutting wheel, the replacement of the cutting teeth of the cutting wheel
when these were worn out, and activities for the various repairs.
The excavation chamber, which was accessible via an air lock, was generally
filled with air placed under increased pressure during diving activities.
During diving operations of a short duration, the divers could (up to a pressure of approximately 4 bar) work without special breathing apparatus. The
decompression time amounted to a maximum of 2 hours, also because of
the not very comfortable circumstances in the decompression chamber. At
the end of every diving operation a medical check was undertaken in which the
divers were observed for a period of four hours.
At pressures above 3.6 bar, symptoms of nitrogen narcosis were observed.
Divers worked slower and made more mistakes. After 672 compressed air
exposures there were three cases of decompression illness (bends) at a pressure of 3.9 to 4.2 bar. The activities which were carried out then were exceptionally heavy: the switching of digging teeth. Besides, the divers had been
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busy for quite a while. Diving operations were carried out for five consequential days and fatigue can play an important role in the coming about of the
decompression illness. Besides that, the high temperature in the excavating
chamber and the cooling down during the decompression, more than likely
also played a role. All cases of decompression illness were treated and
cured.
Welding at 3.6 bar; reducing the fire hazard

An exceptional operation was the welding of injection nozzles onto the
cutting wheel. These nozzles were necessary to bore through the rigid
Boom clay easier.
Worldwide there was hardly any experience with welding at a pressure of
3.6 bar; at such pressure everything burns at an explosive rate. Experience
with welding activities at the construction of the Elbe Tunnel in Germany
had shown that a rubber shoe sole burns away in mere seconds. A solution
from the offshore industry is the reduction of the oxygen content being worked
under. At the Westerschelde Tunnel this was not possible and that is why the
precautions were concentrated on the prevention of fire. The welder wore
special non-combustible clothing and a breathing mask, while another diver
guarded his activities with a fire extinguisher at hand. Besides, there were
extra smoke extractors placed around the work place.The door to the decompression chamber was also almost completely closed, an over pressure
prevented any smoke from entering there.
Greatest danger: excavation front instability

One of the greatest (real) dangers when working in the excavation chamber
and in front of the cutting wheel was that of an excavation front instability
(blow-out). Such an instability happened twice in the preparation of diving
activities. Fortunately, in both cases, no divers were at the excavation
front. If that were the case, then the situation would certainly have been lifethreatening. However, up to a certain point, the divers were through their
training and experience with other projects in a position to detect the coming about of such a situation: for example, the leaking away of the air in
which activities take place during operations is of influence to the behaviour
of the bentonite level in the excavation chamber. Besides, the pressure in the
excavation chamber is permanently monitored during the diving operations.
A change in pressure could indicate the collapse of the excavation front.
Special gas mixture for working at greater depths

At pressures greater than 3.6 bar the danger of nitrogen narcosis became too
great certainly for lengthier operations. That is why use was made of
a special gas mixture which divers can inhale via a helmet. The helmet itself
was cooled with compressed air to prevent the visor from misting over. At pressures up to 5.1 bar a special gas mixture was used. This consisted of 25% oxygen, 50% nitrogen and 25% helium. In order to determine the reliability of the
decompression schedule used, the divers underwent so-called bubble tests.
Saturation work
At the deepest point of the boring route the pressure was a little higher than
7 bar. The decompression of 7 bar to atmospheric circumstances takes many
173
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days. In order to avoid that activities would lead to a delay in the boring process at pressures of 4.2 to 7.5 bar, the divers remained under pressure for a
longer period of time this meant weeks. In this period the divers breathed
a gas mixture which consisted of a mixture of oxygen (12%), nitrogen (45%)
and helium (43%). In order to keep them under pressure continuously, a
special accommodation with a pressure of 4 bar was built on the site; the
decompression from 7 to 4 bar, in respect of the decompression from 7 bar
to atmospheric circumstances takes up much less time. This accommodation consisted of 2 rooms connected to each other, one with a length of 4.7
metres and the other with a length of 7 metres and a diameter of almost two
and a half metres. The accommodation provided space for a maximum of
9 divers who could stay for a period of 4 weeks at most.
In order to travel to the excavation front, the divers stepped out of the habitat into a connected pressure-shuttle which transported them by train to the
TBM. Having arrived, the shuttle connected onto one of the air locks which
provided access to the pressurized section of the boring machine. In the air
lock the divers were brought to the required pressure. Once they had finished with their activities, the pressure of the air lock was reduced again and
they went home in the shuttle. At the time of the switching of the cutters,
when the boring machines were positioned at the deepest point, the divers
remained under pressure continually for 2.5 weeks. Afterwards the decompression time lasted two and a half days. That was also the time that would
have been required if they would have had to be transported out in a case
of disaster. That is why all divers had undergone a diving-medical training
beforehand, which includes an annual stint in a hospital. That is where,
Fig. 11.30
The divers habitat,
where they remained
under pressure for
longer periods
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175
Fig. 11.31
The pressure-shuttle,
just before linking up
to the divers habitat
amongst other things, they learnt to intubate, stitch up, insert a catheter and
to fit a thorax drain.The latter is of importance to allow the air, which is trapped
in the body cavities and which swells up when the pressure is reduced, in
the most serious case, to escape.
Besides, an agreement was made with the nearest hospital that, in emergency cases, they would treat the divers in the compression chamber.
On feeling
At the deepest point of the boring route, the boring machines stood still in
the glauconitic sand as a result of the shield deformations, the diving operations could not take place in compressed air. The risk was too great that a
blow-out would occur. The switching of the teeth for the cutting therefore
had to be carried out by divers in the bentonite fluid entirely on feeling. A
unique performance which had never been done before.
During the construction of the Westerschelde Tunnel, more than 5,000 manhours were realised in over pressure. By combining the knowledge from all
those involved in the project, and the co-operation between the builders,
medical staff and the diving company, it was possible to bore a tunnel at a
depth of 60 metres below sea level through these soils. With this the project
has unlocked avenues which previously appeared to be shut.
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12 SEPARATION PLANT AND

BORING SPOIL
J.D. Vlasblom, E.J. Sonke, J. Heijboer and H. Glas

The bentonite mixing installation
The separation plant
Boring spoil issues
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Introduction
During the boring of the two tunnel tubes a total of about 1.3 million m3 of
soil became available. The composition of this excavated product varied,
dependent on the various soil deposits in which the boring machines were
situated. Where boring occurred at the dividing line between two soil
deposits, various soils inevitably got mixed with each other. That meant that
across the full length of a single tunnel tube, about 40% of the soil consisted
of a mixture of various soil deposits. In the excavation chamber of the boring machine the excavated soil was also mixed with bentonite suspension.
Piping transported this bentonite soil mixture to the separation plant at surface level. Here the various fractions were separated and the bentonite and
water were recycled for reuse. The remaining (separated) spoil components,
if it complied with the necessary quality, could be reused for various purposes or was spread over the Westerschelde.
With this, the separation plant served two purposes:
the recycling of water and bentonite for reuse in the boring process;
making reuse of the excavated soil possible.
In the first section of this chapter the operations of the separation plant
are explained, whereas the following section broaches on the manner in
which the cuttings are dealt with.
The bentonite mixing installation

Fresh bentonite suspension was produced from water and bentonite
powder in the bentonite mixing installation. The powder was pumped from
a silo to the installation and was continually stirred while adding water.
The storage of the fresh bentonite suspension took place in a storage basin
with a contents of approximately 2,000 m3 near the separation plant. When
the storage took too much time, the suspension was pumped around
through the separation plant and was mixed there with the loaded
(contaminated with soil particles) suspension. Bentonite is a tuff which
consists of tiny clay particles which swells into a type of gel when it
absorbs water. The fluid penetrates into the pores of the soil around the
excavation front and thus forms a plaster layer. Mixed with water and soil,
bentonite not only acts as a supportive fluid, but also as a transportation
medium to remove soil. Bentonite has a special (thixotropic) property
which, when stagnant, it behaves like a solid, whereas when it is in motion,
it behaves like a fluid.
In order to fulfil the supportive function at the excavation front, it is important that the bentonite suspension maintains the thixotropic properties. The
more often that the bentonite is reused, the greater the contamination of the
substance with other soil particles, which is to the detriment of the thixotropic
properties. The degree of contamination thus determines the possibilities of
reuse of the suspension. The properties which are of importance for the proper
functioning of the bentonite suspension are loss of filtration water, liquid limit
and density.
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Separation Plant and Boring Spoil
179
Fig. 12.1
under construction

The separation plant served to separate the substances present in the spoil
fine and coarse sand, glauconitic sand, Boom clay, bentonite and also
water from each other, and to recycle them for reuse. That not only meant
a substantial saving on the relatively expensive bentonite, the remaining
reusable components could also, naturally depending on the demand, be
sold off in the raw-materials sector. In the separation process the soil particles
were removed from coarse to fine. This separation occurred in a number of
steps, dependent on the grain size composition of the spoil.
To the TBM
1st Hydro-cyclone stage
2nd Hydro-cyclone stage
3rd Hydro-cyclone stage
Dewatering
sieve
f 0.5/0.3 mm
Dewatering
sieve
f 0.5 mm
From the TBM
Bentonite
and water
Preliminary
sieve
f 4 mm
Basin
Basin
Pump
Pump
Pump
Conveyor belt
Pump
Pump
Conveyor belt
Removal by ship
Preliminary sieve
A preliminary sieve a coarse vibrating sieve sieved the matter larger than
10 mm (initially 4 mm) from the bentonite soil mixture. The preliminary sieves
function was to protect the next separating apparatus from the larger
Fig. 12.2
Diagrammatic
representation of
separation plant
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fractions. The sieved matter was discharged as a separate partial current via
a conveyor belt.
Hydro-cyclone separation
The remaining mixture which did not stay behind in the preliminary sieve,
underwent two sequential treatments, each being with a hydro-cyclone and
a dewatering sieve. The hydro-cyclone, a funnel-shaped vessel, separated
the coarser from the finer parts of the suspension by means of a centrifugal
force. A hydro-cyclone is a fixed, non-rotating set-up in which the separation
takes place by rotating the suspension under higher pressure in the hydrocyclone.
The dewatering sieve was used in order to remove the separated matter as
dry as possible, with which the water consumption remained limited to the
minimum requirement.
First hydro-cyclone
At the first hydro-cyclone stage, the matter between 4 mm and 100 m,
(mainly sand) had the silt removed, was separated and run over a dewatering
Fig. 12.3
Hydro-cyclones in the
separation plant
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181
Fig. 12.4
Hydro-cyclones in the
separation plant under
construction
sieve. The remaining mixture, the bentonite suspension with soil particles
smaller than 100 m, went on to the next hydro-cyclone stage.
Second hydro-cyclone
Of the remaining suspension, the matter between 100 m and 30 m was separated in the second hydro-cyclone stage. In this hydro-cyclone stage the lowest limit of 30 m was a theoretical limit; in practice the second hydro-cyclone
stage could separate up to 40 m.
The matter which was separated in the three separation stages, was removed
via a conveyor belt. The remaining mixture (the fractions 40 m) went back
to the excavation front via a buffer tank, or was (partially) replaced by fresh
bentonite suspension.
Clay looks like bentonite

In the boring trajectory where there was no clay, the sand trajectories, the
suspension which was to be reused again (fractions 40 m) was almost
free of soil particles after the three separation stages. On the other hand, in
the clay trajectories, a portion of the clay dissolved in the suspension. Due
to the fact that these clay particles, in the sense of its properties like the
size displays many concurrences with the bentonite particles, it was not possible, as expected during the design stage, to remove all these clay particles
from the suspension within the abovementioned separation stages. That
meant that the bentonite suspension that was to be reused again, gradually
became loaded (contaminated) with clay particles. However, these particles do not have the bentonite properties which are necessary to keep the
excavation front stable. When the suspension was too loaded, there was a
major increase of the specific mass of the suspension and it became difficult
or impossible to pump it around, and could also not absorb soil particles in
the excavation chamber adequately. A portion of the loaded suspension
then had to be removed and be replaced with fresh bentonite suspension, in
order to bring the specific mass of the suspension to be used, back to an
acceptable limit again.
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Multiple hydro-cyclones
During the boring process the suspension could be guided through a fourth
separation stage for further cleansing. This occurred by means of multiple
hydro-cyclones which in principle, acted similarly to the hydro-cyclones.
On the one hand the multiple hydro-cyclone was an extra separation step for
the regaining of bentonite and on the other hand, the multiple hydro-cyclones
purpose was to thicken and separate a portion of the loaded suspension
before transportation took place. This meant a substantial reduction of the
quantity of bentonite suspension which was no longer reusable. This step was
of particular importance during the boring into clay, because then a substantial quantity of dissolved clay particles came about in the suspension.
The non-reusable suspension to be discharged (fractions 30 m also
known as discharge flow), was not removed via a conveyor belt, but was
removed separately through piping to the Westerschelde.
Clay chopper
During the boring of the tunnel tubes the separation plant functioned very
well. Although during the trip, at the time that the boring machines were situated in the Boom clay, a so-called clay chopper was applied as an extra
facility in order to regulate the inflow of clay better. Clay stuck in the bentonite piping into large chunks which could lead to a blockage of the sieve
causing it to overflow. With the clay chopper, it was prevented that chunks of
clay that were too large (and difficult to process in the plant) would get into
the plant at one time. Due to the separation plant functioning better by this,
the boring process was also confronted with less delays. Aside from that,
design changes were also carried out prior to the boring process. This did not
particularly concern the separation principle, but the manner of removal in
view of the possibilities for reuse of the matter that became available.
Boring spoil issues

Dumping of excavated soil requires closer investigation
Originally it was assumed that the soil that became available during the boring (naturally based on a permit to be applied for) could be dumped into the
Westerschelde. The contractor drew up a design for the separation plant
based on that assumption. The idea was that the excavated soil from the two
tunnel tubes would be removed to a ship with a single conveyor belt system.
The mooring jetty of the ship was situated just outside the site in the outer
harbour of Terneuzen.
However, the original plans had to be adjusted because, in 1996 the government also in the light of a project in which the important fairway for
Antwerp would be deepened made a statement that the dumping of excavated soil on locations in the Westerschelde had to be examined more
closely. This meant that, in view of the Pollution of Surface Waters Act it no
longer sufficed to apply for a permit via the usual procedure; an extensive
investigation, being an Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA), had to be
set up, and that fact put the planning of the boring project under pressure.
In the spring of 1999 the boring had to start and if the correct permits were
not granted in good time, it would cause delays. That is why a separate
subproject group (EIA cuttings) was started in order to carry out the investigative procedure within the time available.
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183
Fig. 12.5
Removal of cuttings
by ship
Three matters formed the focal point in the environmental impact assessment on boring spoil:
the contractor had to supply basic data concerning the quantity and the
quality of the soil which would become available during the boring;
an investigation had to take place as to which dumping locations would
have the least impact on the environment of the Westerschelde;
the reusage possibilities of the excavated soil had to be investigated. This
investigation in particular appeared to be of major importance to the
Westerschelde Tunnel project.
Minimal environmental impact with the spread of boring spoil

The conclusion of the investigation into the most optimum dumping sites
for the soil which, based on the investigation, was otherwise considered as
clean, was that in general, it actually did not involve dumping locations but
spreading locations. The cuttings would rapidly be spread by the tidal
movements and would only have a minimal impact on the environment: in
the Westerschelde there is a movement of 2.3 million m3 of sediment every
twenty-four hours. The entire boring process would add a quantity of 1.3 million m3 there in dribs and drabs during the boring process of the tunnel.
Due to the fact that it did not actually involve dumping, the official environmental impact assessment obligation was no longer applicable. However, it
was decided to conclude the investigation (the environmental impact assessment) on a voluntary basis.
Possibilities for reuse present, but is there a market demand?

During the investigation into recycling the excavated soil many (re)use possibilities were examined. Perhaps the clay could be applied in water-restraints,
or as a sealing material of dumping sites, and the sand for example, as landfill material in the construction of roads. The general conclusion was that a
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multitude of potential possibilities existed. However, it appeared to be

unclear whether there was actually a demand for it in the market, also
because there were some uncertainties regarding the physical quality.
Besides, the already designed separation plant had to be substantially
extended to make reuse possible. This would involve an extra investment of
about 4 million euro.
Fig. 12.6
The working site
adjacent to the
separation plant
Fig. 12.7
The working site
adjacent to the
separation plant
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Impasse and additional market investigation

The idea to have to make reuse possible was not very attractive to the initiators (client and contractor): the argument was, that the spreading of the
boring spoil would have a minimal impact on the environment, whereas the
reuse of the soil would have no purpose. The official authorities who were
eventually responsible for the granting of the necessary permits however,
thought that the initiators disregarded the benefits of reuse and were not
prepared to invest in environmental measures. In order to eventually take a
decision about reusing the cuttings or not being necessary to then be able to
apply for the actual permits in order to spread the non-reusable boring spoil
an additional market investigation was carried out into reuse. Anyway, this
investigation was entirely in line with the raw-materials policy by the Ministry
of Public Housing, Spatial Planning and Environment: the moment soil
becomes available, it first has to be established whether reuse is possible.
A market of potentials present, prices uncertain

The study geared its attention towards: the necessary investments to
make the separation plant suitable for dealing with reuse; on the construction and location of a temporary storage area (TOP) for the soil which will
possibly be reused; on the necessity for pre-treatments; on the consistency
of the clay; and particularly on the market potential and the market prices.
The investigation was concluded in August 1998. The results clearly showed
that the potential for reuse was present, but also that the market prices were
extremely uncertain.
Particularly due to the pressure by the Environmental Hygiene Inspectorate
to deal with reuse on the basis of the prevailing raw-materials policy of the
Netherlands, it was clear that major risks would come about in the permitgranting if the possibilities for dealing with reuse was not created. That would
mean that the entire project would be delayed and the client could expect
compensation claims from the contractor.
Decision for reuse leads to adaptations of the separation plant

The company NV Westerscheldetunnel was not happy with its role as a newcomer in the traditionally closed raw-materials sector. Besides, the role called
for extra investments in the extension of the separation plant. This extension
concerned:
the construction of extra conveyor belts and the altering of the driving
mechanism of the already installed conveyor belts in the separation
plant;
the construction of an interim storage area on the site in Terneuzen and a
system of conveyor belts from the separation plant to such storage area;
the choice of location, land acquisition, permission granting and construction of a temporary storage area (TOP) in the vicinity of the site;
the broadening of the roads from the site to the temporary storage area
in connection with the increased road transportation.
Approaching the market

In order to be able to supply the boring spoil to the market, potential buyers
of recycled sand and clay had to be approached. In order to be able to do so,
185
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Fig. 12.8
Dumping soil onto
working site adjacent
to separation plant
Fig. 12.9
Dumping soil onto
working site adjacent
to separation plant
contact was made with a marketer in the soil trade whose most important
task was to set up an organisation to deal with the sale of the cuttings. The
NV Westerscheldetunnels intention was to achieve targeted sales of soils
that become available, such as clay, sand and a mixture of both soil types.
In the period from June through August 1999 an attempt was made to find
private partners with commercial experience in the selling of sand and clay.
However, there appeared to be very little private interest. Eventually an
agreement was concluded between the NV Westerscheldetunnel and the
Combinatie Hergebruik Boorspecie [Combination Reuse boring spoil] (CHB)
consisting of two of the contractors involved in the project and permanent
players in the raw-materials sector.
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187
Marginal results on reuse

From the start of the boring process in the summer of 1999, up to the arrival of
the two tunnel boring machines in January and February 2002, approximately
90,000 m3 of soil was reused. Important buyers were a dumping site in Belgium
and a project in which soil was processed in the municipality of Hulst. Of the
total amount of cuttings that became available (approximately 1.3 million m3,
2.1 million tons of dry matter), thus approximately 6% was reused.
In order to achieve this miserable result, the NV Westerscheldetunnel had
invested an amount of approximately 3.6 million euro in the extension of
the separation plant, the construction of the TOP and the service road and
for consultancies and design costs. The sale of soil indeed led to an income,
but the costs for storage, transhipment and the transportation, created an
almost equally high expense.
Fig. 12.10
Transhipment of soil
for reuse
An important reason for the not very successful reuse, was the limited scope
of the market for sand in south-western Netherlands. It was estimated that
per annum, an amount of 100,000 m3 of sand changed hands there. Transportation over long distances did not appear to be an option from a costs
point of view. Aside from that, the supply of soil was intrinsic to the boring
process: often very irregular and also not always in line with the market
demand. This caused storage expenses, which then had an unfavourable
effect on the price. It also appeared that the physical properties of the sand
made the matter unusable for all kinds of purposes. Aside from chemical
properties, perhaps the investigation into reuse possibilities should have
paid more attention to the physical aspects which are of importance to the
market parties.
Further it is remarkable that, precisely in those projects undertaken by local
authorities who were involved in the granting of permits (municipalities,
province and the regional department of the Directorate-General for Public
Works and Water Management), hardly any use was made of the reusable soil
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from the boring spoil. Perhaps it can be concluded from this, that these parties had developed inadequate policy to create conditions in which reuse
could be optimized.
The adaptation of the separation plant brought about one major advantage
(a blessing in disguise): the capacity of the plant was extensively extended
and that meant that higher boring rates could be achieved (and were
achieved) than would have been possible with the originally designed plant.
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13 CROSS CONNECTIONS
H. Weigl, G. Kooijman, N.M. Naaktgeboren and R.J. van Beek

The design and construction concept of the cross connections
Principle of ground freezing
The creation of the frozen soil
Preparatory measures
Managing the frozen soil
Construction of cross connections
Experiences
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Introduction
Since the first ideas came about to construct the Westerschelde Tunnel as
a bored tunnel with twin tunnel tubes, it was also evident that both tubes
would have to be connected to each other by means of cross connections.
Especially the requirements concerning safety were fundamental: in cases
of disaster, people should be able to proceed to the other safe tunnel tube
via a cross connection. Simultaneously, the emergency services should
safely be able to reach the location of the accident or fire via the cross
connections.
By constructing the cross connections, the installations present in the
tunnel could also be carried out redundantly: the 10 kV cables present in
both tunnel tubes feed a section of the installations in their own tunnel
tube for example, while they via the cross connections also provide
power to a part of the installations in the other tunnel tube.
The cross connections were of such importance that, while the design of
the tunnel was already at an advanced stage, after intensive studies of the
safety aspects, it was decided to double the number of connections from
13 to 26. On the basis of a probabilistic safety consideration, the original
distance between the cross connections (500 m) did comply with the
required level of safety, but on the basis of the results of a deterministic
scenario, the distance was halved to 250 m.
The design and construction concept of the

cross connections
The construction of the cross connections had to be carried out entirely
underground from within the tunnel tubes, in which the deepest cross connection was situated at a depth of 60 metres NAP and about 15 metres
under the bed of the Westerschelde. Excavation of the soil was necessary for
the construction of the cross connections. Yet, in order to excavate the
ground, the surrounding soil which consists of sand as well as clay, must
firstly be made adequately loadbearing, stable and watertight. In theory
there are three construction method options for the (underground) building
of cross connections:
working under increased air pressure;
the realisation of a stable soil mass by means of soil grouting;
the realisation of a stable soil mass by freezing the water present in the
soil around the intended excavation.
Due to the fact that activities would need to be undertaken at extreme
depths in cases where water pressures rise up to about 6 bar, construction
under increased air pressure was excluded from the start. Also the realisation of an absolutely watertight grout-body at high water pressures faced
major objections and was considered as too risky. Already at an early stage,
the choice was therefore made for the freezing technology.
This was unique, because this technology had never previously been
applied on such an enormous scale at great depth in the Netherlands: to
make excavations possible, an oval-shaped ring of frozen soil had to be
realized between both tunnel tubes across a distance of about 12 metres. The
excavation and the actual construction of the cross connections could then
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Cross Connections
10 m
20 m
30 m
Everingen
K1
KZ1
K1
KZ1
Z1
Z1
Z1
26
20 m
ZK1
ZK1
BK1
BK1
25
Z1
30 m
Cross connection
BK2
8
GZ2
50 m
0
10 m
KZ1
Z1
1
40 m
60 m
Pas van Terneuzen
Z1
191
BK2
10
11
12
13
14
24
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
GZ1
40 m
23
BK2
60 m
GZ2
K2
50 m
BK1
BK2
70 m
70 m
approx. 6,600 m
take place within the protection of this frozen soil. On the one hand the ovalshaped ring had to retain the ground water during the whole construction
phase, and on the other hand it had to (temporarily) take up the prevailing
ground and water pressures.
Of a total of 26 cross connections, 9 are positioned in moderately firm to
firm sand, 11 in the Boom clay and 6 in a mixed subgrade. Although the
Boom clay is poorly permeable, here the choice was also taken to apply the
freezing technology because of the possible presence of aquiferous sand
lenses and vertical cracks. The water pressure to be restrained varies from
2 to 6 bar.
Section in the area of a cross connection
11.33 m
Segmental lining, t 45 cm
10.10 m
approx. 12 m
Cross connection, every 250 m

Cable trench
Steel segment
Installation basement
Cable gallery
The design
The inner lining of the cross connection consists of an oval-shaped circle
made of reinforced concrete 0.4 metres thick. This is enclosed by the outer
lining of reinforced shotcrete which is 0.35 metres thick. The required structure gauge of 1.5 by 2.1 metres was determinative for the internal measurements: the rings are 2.5 metres wide and 2.75 metres high. The connection
of the (oval-shaped) central section of a cross connection on the wall of the
bored tunnel tubes consists of a concrete collar structure. A steel plate in the
pouring joint in combination with a rubber seal and otherwise filled with a
grout mixture, ensures there is a watertight connection between the tunnel
tube and collar structure. The collar structure ensures that adequate space is
created for this connection.
Another function is the taking care of the transmission of the bearing
forces between the tunnel tube and cross connection, while it is possible to
take up the construction tolerances of the tunnel tube as well as the cross
Fig. 13.1
Location of the cross
connections
Fig. 13.2
Cross section of tunnel
tubes with cross
connection
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connection. The transition from the collar structure to the central section is
constructed as a continuous concrete structure.
In the original design an expansion joint was provided for between the central section and both collar structures, in which a water-retaining omega
seal was fitted. Calculations clearly showed that the expansion joints could
be cancelled because there would be almost no settlement differences
expected between either of the main tubes in the final situation. The connection is also subjected to a normal compressive force due to the two
tunnel tubes being pressed towards each other by the prevailing water and
ground pressure across the section of the cross connection. Thus the expansion achieved is not ideal.
Fig. 13.3
Transition roundedrectangle; lining of
cross connection ready
Steel segments are essential

In the construction of the cross connections the access to the connections
to be made in the tunnel tubes generally goes across a number of tunnel
segments which interrupts ring joints and longitudinal joints. That makes
it essential to secure the remaining segments around the access up to the
connection and to divert the structural behaviour on the segments.
However, the design of the Westerschelde Tunnel provided for an access to
the cross connections with a width of 1.5 metres. The relatively large ring
width of 2 metres made it possible to situate the opening within a single
tunnel ring. A major advantage to this was, that no circular and longitudinal
joints were present at the position of the connection between the tunnel
tube and the cross connection, which could cause problems with the watertightness.
In the tunnel ring, in which the access to the cross connection was realised,
two steel segments were applied. Together these segments have the
same length as the two concrete segments which they replaced. The access,
which in the first instance was filled with concrete, was situated in the
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Cross Connections
uppermost extended steel segment. The opening is 1.5 metres wide and
2.9 metres high. Due to the over-height in respect of the structure gauge differences could be taken up as a result of cross super-elevation, boring tolerance and circumferential rotation. The lowest steel segment is shorter than
a normal concrete segment and for practical and economical reasons it is
also made of steel; if it were made of concrete that would have meant that
a separate formwork casing would have to be made for only 52 elements.
Steel connecting beams below and above the door opening provide stiffening, the taking up of connection forces between the bored tunnel rings and
to restrict the deformations during the construction phase.
Fig. 13.4
Steel segment
Construction concept NATM

The construction method chosen for the construction of the cross connections is also known as the New Austrian Tunnelling Method (NATM), which
is always applied in stable rocky soil. In this method the soil in the case of
the Westerschelde Tunnel, is not in stable soil but within the protection of the
circular-shaped frozen soil excavation is phased both crosswise as well as
in the longitudinal direction. Simultaneously the perimeter of the excavation
is provided with a layer of reinforced shotcrete. This layer forms the outer lining of the actual cross connection and when the concrete has hardened, it
takes over the water-retaining and bearing function of the frozen soil. After
the entire excavation is complete, reinforced concrete is applied as the inner
193
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Fig. 13.5
Diagrammatic
representation of New
Austrian Tunnelling
Method (NATM)
23,300 mm
Tunnel tube
west
Tunnel tube
east
Freeze-pipe
Freeze-pipe
Longitudinal cross section
lining by means of formwork being the final structure. After this has hardened, the freezing can be halted.
Calculating method
The frozen soil, the outer lining as well as the inner lining were considered
in the design calculations as independent loadbearing structures: each one
had to separately be able to bear the full load. The stresses in the frozen soil
are calculated by means of a three-dimensional finite elements model. This
has taken into consideration the temperature-dependent properties of the
frozen ground regarding the elasticity as well as the maximum strength.
The cross-sections of both the outer lining and the inner lining are calculated
as monolithic single-ringed bar charts according to the principles of the
Emphelungen fr Tunnel im Lockergestein, 1980 (ETL), in which the ring is
loaded by water and ground pressures and supported by radially acting soil
springs. In the strength calculation for the outer lining of shotcrete a reduction of 50 mm on the wall thickness has been used. It has been assumed that
the first 50 mm of the outer lining which lies directly against the frozen soil
could not or could barely harden as a result of the low temperature.
Besides, the elasticity modulus has also been reduced to 50%. This reduction
was necessary because the concrete was loaded sooner as a result of creep
by the frozen soil, than the 28 days which is always taken into account.
In both the construction and the final phase, the deformations and the forces
(bending moments and coupling forces) in the tunnel tube at the location of
the cross connection, are calculated with an extension of the model which is
used for the normal tunnel cross-section. The model for the usual tunnel
cross section, a two-ringed framework analysis with rotation joints between
the segments of a ring and translation springs between the rings, was
extended to a 4-ringed model in which, aside from the cross connection ring,
on both sides another 2 12 ( 5 metres) rings were modelled. In this model the
deviating stiffness of the steel segments was also included.
Assuming the stresses and couples that are already present as a result of
the load which is normally present, the so-called nil-situation, then a semiphased calculation was carried out in which the result of the previous phase
formed the input for the following phase. The following phases were consecutively calculated to the nil-situation:
applying of the stiffening beams;
changed bedding as a result of the freezing of the soil;
falling away of bedding and load as a result of the excavation of the cross
connection;
fixing of the deformation at the positioning of the applied inner and outer
lining;
applying a changed bedding as a result of the thawing of the soil.
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Cross Connections
195
Principle of ground freezing

The principle of ground freezing lies in the artificial cooling of the soil to
below freezing point. The pore water present in the soil freezes and acts as
a sort of binding agent for the soil. The low temperature required for the
realization of the frozen soil is achieved by means of freezing pipes fitted
into the ground. An extremely cold medium/freezing agent (for example a
salt solution at a temperature of 37 C) circulates within the freezing pipes
so that heat can continually be extracted from the surrounding soil. The
result is frozen soil around the pipes which grows in time. After a while the
frozen soils grow together around the various pipes which, in the case of
the Westerschelde Tunnel were fitted more or less in a circular shape into
a large circular-shaped sealed and watertight body. After the required thickness has been achieved (for the taking up of forces), the necessary excavations for the cross connections can commence within this frozen soil.
Fig. 13.6
Diagrammatic
principle of freezing
(a) Individually frozen soil bodies
(b) Closing of frozen soil
(c) Circular shaped frozen soil
(d) Placing of concrete lining
Ground freezing deforms the tunnel tubes

An important aspect in the design of the cross connections was the behaviour of the ground when being frozen: the water which is present in the
ground expands and when such volume-increase is hindered, major forces
could occur. Then the question is how great such forces could become, what
direction they take and to what degree the tunnel tubes are affected by it?
The expansion of frozen ground had as appeared in literature already
been a subject of research and measurements many times. However, the
attention was always directed towards the expansion in the direction of the
temperature gradient (so-called Frost Heave tests) and thus, transformed
for the Westerschelde Tunnel, perpendicular to the cross connection. The
expansion of the ground parallel to the freezing pipes (the isothermals) until
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then, was not measured by the Frost Heave tests. However, this expansion
was indeed normative for the deformation of the tunnel tubes.
The absence of reliable values meant that assumptions regarding the degree
of expansion were not sufficiently substantiated, whereas this was essential
for a proper calculation. Due to the fact that the most unfavourable assumption for the expansion would mean that the main tunnel tubes would reach a
failure stage, the commissioning party decided on a closer investigation.
This investigation consisted of two parallel tracks: a laboratory research
into the degree of expansion parallel to the cross connection and a threedimensional analysis with a finite element model DIANA. This latter investigation was geared towards the stress development in the tunnel tube at
the position of the cross connection, in which the degree of expansion was
varied. In this 3D analysis, the tunnel was modelled at both sides of the
cross connection across 14 rings (28 metres) in order to be able to observe
the effects longitudinally.
Fig. 13.7
Expansion of the
frozen soil
Fig. 13.8
3-D picture of possible
deformation of tunnel
tube at the position of
the frozen soil
12 m
Model : Fases Del 135

LC1 : Load case 1
Step : Load : 1
Model TDTX O RESTDT
Max/min on results net:
Max 110
Min 247 104
Y
X
Z
From the laboratory research it was evident that during the freezing of
Boom clay, expansions could possibly occur measuring at least 16 mm parallel to the frozen soil at the location of the tunnel tube. For sandy layers,
hardly any deformations were expected: water expands and freezes and at
the same time it pushes the water that is still present in the surrounding
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Cross Connections
197
pores away. Yet it was of importance that the water in the core of the frozen
soil was drained in order to avoid that this caused problems.
The three-dimensional analysis of the main tunnel tube indicated that deformations of 10 mm as a result of the freezing would cause no problems,
whereas sections of the tunnel tube during a deformation of 30 mm would
be too heavily loaded.
The engineering company, Ingenieursbureau Westerscheldetunnel (IBW)
who were responsible for the design of the cross connections, provided for
an additional view that, taking into consideration the failure safety of the
segments, a deformation of approximately 2025 mm was acceptable. Due
to the unfamiliarity of the expected deformations of the tunnel tube and the
associated risks, it was decided to extend and to intensify the measuring
schedule. The acceptable deformation of 20 mm as calculated by the IBW
acted as the point to look out for.
Besides, in order to achieve a greater insight into the behaviour of freezing
ground and its effects on the adjacent structure, under the auspices of the
Centre for Underground Construction (COB) an extra investigation was
started which is also known as the COB project F100.
Deformation of tunnel tubes concurs with research

During the construction phase the charting of the deformations was a continuous point of attention. As expected, it was clear that the deformations of
the tunnel tube that occurred at cross connections situated in sand, were
small (maximum 4 mm). However, at the cross connections which were situated in Boom clay there were deformations up to 20 mm at most. Although
the degree of deformation was difficult to forecast beforehand, the magnitude of the measured deformations concurred well with the expectations
regarding the expansion of the frozen soil.
The creation of the frozen soil

In order to be able to create frozen soil, 22 freezing pipes had to be bored
from within the easterly tunnel tube where the boring had been started a
few months earlier in such a fashion, that a closed circular shape at least
Fig. 13.9
The configuration of
the freeze-pipes
around the cross
connection
Minimal thickness of
frozen soil is 2 metres
Freezing-pipes
Outer lining
Inner lining
Steel segment
2 metres thick could be made. Inside this, the excavation of the cross connection from the westerly tube takes place.
Freezing agents such as fluid gases like liquefied nitrogen, or extremely
cooled salt solutions could be considered. Due to evaporation, liquid nitrogen
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can take up a great deal of heat. Although, a disadvantage is, that due to the
evaporation it can only be used once. Thus freezing with nitrogen is an
extremely expensive process. Besides, using nitrogen which is an odourless
and hazardous gas (when higher concentrations than normal are present in
the air) requires extremely stringent safety measures. When using liquefied
air, less radical safety measures suffice, as was evident in the elaboration
of an alternative for the last cross connection. Except, then the consequences
of the released (extreme) cold air in the tunnel tubes is a special point of
attention.
In the application of a salt solution which circulates in the freeze piping and
freezing pipes, the freezing agent can continually be brought to the desired
(low) temperature by means of cold-generators (chillers). Although this
technique calls for longer freezing periods, this method was nevertheless
chosen for the construction of the cross connections of the Westerschelde
Tunnel. On the one hand there are less stringent safety measures necessary,
whereas on the other hand the costs are also lower.
Laboratory research necessary

In order to determine the dimensioning of the freezing installation, the establishing of the growth of the frozen soil and the constructive dimensioning of
the frozen soil, it was necessary to have precise knowledge about the build-up
of the soil, the heat transfer soil parameters and the relevant constructive
soil parameters of the frozen and non-frozen ground.
Furthermore, the chloride content of the water was of particular importance;
salt water freezes at a lower temperature than fresh water.
Extensive laboratory research was undertaken at Professor Jessberger and
Partners institute in Bochum, in which the (soil) parameters for frozen ground
at temperatures of respectively 5 C, 10 C and 20 C were determined.
Preparatory measures
Already in the design stage of the actual tunnel tubes and at the production
of the circular tunnel segments, all relevant structural consequences of the
construction of the cross connections had to be examined.
Next to the tunnel ring which contains the access door, up to the cross connection to be constructed, four adjoining rings (at either side of the access
ring two tunnel rings each) were designed as non-standard rings. During
the production of the segments the ducts for the freezing pipes were built
into these rings in accordance with the geometry of the frozen soil.
In the determining of the positioning of the ducts in the tunnel rings, matters that obviously should be taken into account are the position of the
joints, the facilities to be built into the segments and the reinforcement of
the segments. Besides, the design provided for a possible deviation in the
positioning of the access doors to the cross connection measuring up to 1
metre. Larger deviations could be compensated by placing special tunnel
rings measuring 1 metre wide in the longitudinal direction.
Emergency partition as the utmost safety precaution

The boring of the tunnel and the construction of the cross connections
occurred parallel (in time). That also meant that unfortunately major leakages
as a result of the activities on the cross connections could also endanger the
crew on the tunnel boring machine.
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Cross Connections
199
The construction concept of the cross connections was therefore chosen

as such, that at each cross connection only the concrete filling in the steel
segment of the westerly tube was removed. The opening of the door only
occurred after a solid connection of the frozen soil to the tunnel tube was
achieved. The opening in the steel segment of the easterly tunnel tube
remained closed until the inner lining was applied.
The remaining weak link was formed by the door opening in the westerly
tube. In order to adequately deal with possible disasters during the activities on the cross connections, an emergency partition was placed. In cases
of leakage, this door which was designed and tested for resistance of the
total water pressure could be closed mechanically very quickly.
In case of leakage, the emergency partition also made it possible to fill the
excavated space with water, in order to halt the flow from outside to inside
and to prevent the intruding water from washing away the soil.
Fig. 13.10
Emergency partition
Limited space borings

The fact that the construction of the cross connections already commenced
during the boring of the tunnel tubes, places important conditions and limitations on the method of construction: generally, only half of the width of
the tunnel tube was available for the activities. That is why work had to be
undertaken with extremely compact boring equipment, customized specifically for this project, in which the boring took place from a telescoping
working platform which was adjustable in height.
The implementation of the freeze-borings which totalled 22, called for an
extreme accuracy whereby a minor deviation (0.5%) in respect of the ideal
line was permitted. After the fitting of the boring tubes comprising sections with a length measuring from 0.5 metres to 1 metre the tubes were
sealed completely watertight in order to prevent the freezing agent escaping
into the soil. The tightness of the tubes was tested by means of pressure
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tests. Of further extreme importance, was that the ground between both
tunnel tubes would not be disturbed. Based on this too, the choice was
made for using a Double Head Boring Method (Doppelkopfbohrverfahren).
This method makes it possible to bore extremely accurately, while the backflow of soil and water is controllable (prevention of ground deformations)
and the boring can be sealed off watertight. Besides 22 freeze-borings, also
carried out per cross connection were, 2 borings for the temperature measurements and 1 boring for the drainage of the soil within the circular-shaped
ice mass. In any case, there was a possibility to carry out a reserve boring,
to be able to place an extra freezing pipe.
Fig. 13.11
Boring of the
freezing pipes
An important characteristic of the freeze-borings, is that the boring tubes,

which were installed up to the grout layer of the westerly tunnel tube, were
not extracted after the boring; after the end of the boring tube was closed by
means of a seal and this seal was tested, piping was fitted into the boring
tubes in which the cold salt solution was transported. The boring tube thus
acted as a freezing pipe during the freezing process in which the salt solution circulated.
At each boring process the horizontal and vertical deviations from the ideal
line were measured by means of a double inclinometer. The measuring data
was then converted directly into co-ordinates and then processed so that
the exact location of the borings (also in respect of each other) were known.
Particularly the knowledge of the precise distances between the borings on
behalf of the temperature measurements and the adjacent freeze-borings,
were of extreme importance for the controlling of the frozen soil.
Freezing installation; salt keeping safety in mind

In order to freeze safely, a freezing generator was developed with a minimum
amount of ammonia approximately 80 kilograms to supply a power of
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201
95 kW. In order to anticipate possible unsafe situations the ammonia

concentration was continuously measured; in the event of the concentration being too high, the process stopped and a water basin neutralized the
ammonia that had flowed out. If such a precaution had not been taken, then
the fitting of a freezing installation in a tunnel under construction an area
which only has limited ventilation possibilities, could not have been possible
at all.
Fig. 13.12a
The freezing
installation and piping
Fig. 13.12b
The freezing
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Fig. 13.12c
The freezing
The freeze piping was connected to the main piping with flexible piping.
The entire piping system contained approximately 3 m3 salt solution.
Temperature readings of the salt solution continually took place during
the freezing process in order to check if the freezing pipes functioned
properly and if the production of cold was spread evenly across the freezing
pipes. Dependent on the differences in heat capacity of the sand and
Boom clay, it appeared that to be able to achieve a strong and stable frozen
soil, a period of approximately 28 days to about 40 days respectively was
necessary.
Managing the frozen soil

During the construction of all cross connections, the growth of the frozen
soils was monitored and checked by means of extensive temperature readings. For this, each time 2 temperature measuring pipes (T1 and T2) were fitted from the easterly tube: top left and bottom right. By placing these
horizontally bored pipes at an angle to the longitudinal axis of the (still to be
constructed) cross connection (from outside to inside and from inside to
outside), the development of the frozen soil could be followed. The temperature measuring pipes were provided with a number of temperature sensors spread across the length of the pipe. For such a configuration the
sensors which are in the vicinity of a freezing pipe would initially indicate a
lower temperature. The larger the ice-mass becomes, the more sensors
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Cross Connections
Fig. 13.13
Diagrammatic
position of the
temperature
measuring pipes
(T1T2) and the
temperature
measuring instruments
(A, B, C, D, E, F, G, H)
spread across to the
westerly tunnel tube
T1
T2
203
E
H
F
Steel segments
would indicate that the ground freezes. Due to the salt content in the soil,
the temperature at the edge of the frozen soil was determined at 3 C.
The connection of the frozen soil to the westerly tunnel tube was checked by
a large number (26) of temperature measuring instruments which were built
into the circular tunnel segments. These were spread across the entire
cross-section and fitted near the outside of the segments. Temperature sensors were also fitted in the easterly tube.
For the checking of the density of the frozen soil there were various options.
First and foremost, checks took place by means of thermocouple-elements
in the segments. Further, simultaneously with the boring for the dewatering,
a pressure gauge was placed on the drainage tube. A rapidly increasing
water pressure in a sand and mixed soil bed indicated the solidifying of the
frozen soil.
Preventative measures could also be taken so that the water pressure within
the closed circular shaped frozen soil did not increase too much when the
Fig. 13.14
Measured water
pressure versus time
Closure (oval-shaped) ring
Waterpressure (bar)
Dewatering test
6
5
4
3
2
Start excavation
1
0
0
10
15
20
25
Time (days)
30
35
40
45
50
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reading showed a strong pressure increase. For this purpose, a pressure

controller had been fitted onto the drainage tube with which the pressure of
the water within the ice circle could be checked and regulated.
In any case, the water content in the layers of Boom clay was too slight to
show this pressure increase.
As the third check-factor, a dewatering test was carried out prior to the
removal of the concrete filling from the steel segment. Quantities of water
which were smaller than those in the pores of the unfrozen soil, were a clear
evidence of a dense frozen soil in sand.
The structural thickness of the frozen soil required was determined by
means of the temperature measuring pipes. As soon as all the data results
were positive, the removal of the concrete filling of the steel segment and
then the excavation of the cross connections could commence.
F100 COB project Freezing the soil at the Westerschelde

Due to the fact that on this scale, and at extremely high ground water pressures, the application of ground freezing was a new development in the
Netherlands, the Centre for Underground Construction (COB) decided to
investigate the behaviour of freezing soil at the first and second cross connections. The research was not only geared towards deformations occurring
horizontally and vertically, but also on the forces that were exerted onto the
main tunnel tubes as a result of the freezing. Grateful use was made of the
extra measuring data provided by this COB project Freezing the soil at the
Westerschelde (F100), for the assessment of the development of the frozen
soil of the first two cross connections.
Construction of cross connections

The actual construction of the cross connections was an undertaking in
itself. Not only in respect of the logistics of the boring of the tunnel tubes,
whereby a little more than half of the tunnel diameter was available at most,
but also due to the rather narrow access to the cross connection (1.5 metres
by 2.1 metres). That is why for example, for the breaking up of the concrete
filling of the steel segment, not a hydraulic hammer was used, but an
extremely short Imloch hammer.
The excavation of the frozen ground took place phased in the longitudinal
direction as well as crosswise by means of milling. The milling of the frozen
ground (having a temperature from 5 C to 10 C) is comparable to the
chasing of B25 concrete. However, the ground to be excavated was much
tougher than concrete and often caused sticking so that the excavated matter was therefore more difficult to process. Besides, the fact that the frozen
soils had been constructed in two extremely differing deposits (sand and
clay) while the same technique was applied at the excavation, did not make
the digging any easier.
For the excavation the choice was made for extremely compact, heavy and
stable equipment. The machine that was used weighed approximately 15 tons
and was fitted with a cutter weighing about 2 tons. Due to the compact construction method and the minimal width of 1.40 metres, it was not possible
to equip the machine with a transportation belt for the removal of the excavated soil. After an excavation of about 2 m3, the spoil was removed with a
very manoeuvrable loader to a transporting truck which carried the materials outside via the main track in the tunnel.
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Cross Connections
Fig. 13.15a
Milling machine
Fig. 13.15b
Milling machine
The full excavation work for every cross connection including the application
of the outer lining of the cross connection (shotcrete) took approximately
7 days for the first cross connection. The moment that the outer lining
was completed, the freezing installation was placed into the so-called
maintenance freezing position. Then, by means of collapsible vibrating
205
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Fig. 13.16
Application of an outer
lining of shotcrete
formwork, the final 0.4 metres thick reinforced concrete inner lining of
the cross connection was cast within the excavation. After this wall had
hardened, the freezing process was stopped completely. The behaviour
of the thawing frozen soil and the associated reduction of loads was only
monitored at the first two cross connections, but did not cause any problems
elsewhere.
Experiences
Necessity for insulation and cooling of tunnel tubes
The tunnel boring machines electrical and hydraulic generators, the diesel
locomotives for the supply and discharge of materials, equipment and personnel and all other apparatus present in the tunnel, generated a great deal
of heat in the tunnel. Despite intensive ventilation, temperatures sometimes
measured over 25 C in the tunnel. The result was that the lining also
warmed up, and therefore also the ground water which had to be frozen
on the outside of the tunnel at the location of the cross connection under
construction.
Active cooling
Originally, only a 100 mm thick insulation layer was fitted onto the lining
in the westerly tube. In the easterly tube the freezing pipes were fed through
the segments whereby these were cooled, and where active cooling was
already taking place in this tube. However, during the activities at the first
cross connection it was clear that merely a passive insulation in the westerly tunnel tube at the point of the lowest steel segment, was inadequate to
ensure a proper connection between the frozen soil and the tunnel tube: the
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Cross Connections
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freezing took much longer than was assumed beforehand. Especially the
major heat transporter to the freezing soil at the location of the steel segments, was detrimental.
Besides, readings indicated that the water to be frozen was more salty at
some points. Perhaps a factor played a role here whereby salt is driven out
of the freezing water during the freezing process thus leading to a higher
salt concentration in the surrounding water, which is then obviously more
difficult to freeze.
In order to achieve an optimum connection quicker, the choice was made
to actively cool the lowest steel segment in the westerly tunnel tube.
This occurred at the first cross connection by placing blocks of dry ice (solid
carbon dioxide at a temperature of 80C) onto the segment. Besides, a
100 mm thick insulation layer was also applied onto the lining in the easterly
tube.
Radial
deformation
Radial deformation (mm)
Frozen soil in clay continues to expand

At the second cross connection the connection of the frozen soil onto the
tunnel tube was also very difficult to realise. Other than at the first cross
connection, here the freezing occurred in Boom clay. An aspect which plays
a role here and as was already proven in studies and tests was that the
longer the freezing took place, so too would the expansion of the frozen soil
parallel to the freezing pipes continue to increase. A factor that could have
played a role here, was that the water-sucking action at the border between
frozen and non-frozen soil is much greater in the case of clay than with sand.
The result is that the frozen soil continues to expand evenly. Although the
connection of the frozen soil was not realized at some places, the ice continued to press harder against the tunnel tube at other places, whereby the
deformations increased; freezing for a longer period is certainly not the
solution for achieving a proper connection when it comes to dealing with
Boom clay. The deformations threatened to increase to such a degree that it
was immediately decided to undertake active cooling with dry ice. Once the
connection was achieved, the access could be broken open and the pressure decreased.
In order to no longer be confronted with the problem of an inadequate insulation, at the remaining cross connections (three up to and including
1.2
Fig. 13.17a
Radial and axial
deformation test
versus time of Boom
clay; test is done
before freezing
Dilatation
1.0
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
Contraction
0
0
12
24
36
48
36
48
Axial
deformation
Axial deformation (%)
Time (hours)
0.06
Dilatation
0.04
0.02
0.00
0.02
0.04
0.06
Contraction
0
12
24
Time (hours)
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Fig. 13.17b
Freezing leads to
inward deformation of
the tunnel lining in
Boom clay
20.0
18.0
Deformation of the tunnel lining (mm)
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16.0
14.0
12.0
10.0
8.0
6.0
4.0
2.0
0.0
2.0
Starting excavation cross connection

0
14
21
28
35
42
49
56
63
70
77
84
Time (day)
twenty-six) the choice was made for active cooling of the steel segment by
means of a small cooling system.
The segment was cooled down on the inside to approximately 0 C.
Leakages
Aside from the laborious achievement of a proper connection due to
the inadequate insulation, another problem occurred during the construction of the first cross connection: leakage of ground water through the final
inner lining. The cause was due to a problem with the perhaps too lightly
dimensioned vibrating formwork which is why the compacting of the concrete had to be halted. The result: an inner lining which was not properly
watertight.
Presumably the water penetrated the cross connection via the circular and
longitudinal joints between the circular tunnel segments. These joints are so
deep within the surface of the lining, that they could never be completely
filled with shotcrete with which the outer lining of the cross connection was
made. In this way these joints form channels through which the ground
water could penetrate the non-watertight concrete of the final construction
spaces were also observed around the reinforcement bars.
Application of membrane is necessary

The experience gained in the construction of the first cross connection had
led to the fact that the vibrating formwork was adapted. Despite this measure, problems with the water tightness continued to exist, so too in the construction of the second cross connection. That is why, from the third cross
connection onwards, an extra membrane sealing was fitted between the
shotcrete (the outer lining) and the inner lining of reinforced concrete.
The membrane sealing consists of a drain foil, the actual sealing layer and
a studded protection layer. The single sealing layers were welded watertight
to each other and fastened to the flange which was welded around the door
of the cross connection. Thus the possibility of water seeping in via the
joints was counteracted. Especially the realization of the transition of the
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Cross Connections
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right-angled access to the oval shape of the cross connection appeared to

be an enormous and time-consuming job.
Steel inner lining
Due to the fact that, in the case of the first cross connection, a 100% guarantee of the life span of 100 years could not be complied with, a steel inner lining was built into it.This steel lining was calculated and measured for the total
ground and water pressures that act on the cross connections. In any case
during the excavations, leakages through the joints of the segments occurred
at various cross connections. In the first instance it was attempted to close
these leakages by means of injection during the digging process. However,
the low temperature has a negative influence on the reaction time of the injection resin, so this work always took a long time. At a later stage, all segment
joints were preventatively injected and no further problems occurred.
Fig. 13.18a
Formwork for the
casting of the inner
lining
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Fig. 13.18b
Formwork for the
casting of the inner
lining
Fig. 13.19
Application of the
membrane
construction
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14 CIVIL FITTING OUT AND

LOGISTICAL PROCESS
F.W.J. van de Linde and M. Thewes

Originally planned activities
Logistics
Optimizations and acceleration operation
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Introduction
A period of 64 months was available to construct the whole Westerschelde
Tunnel project, the building phase of which was started at the end of
November 1997March 2003. In this time, the access roads and civil engineering structures also had to be constructed in addition to the boring, construction and fitting out of the tunnel. In the original plans, 27 months were
reserved for boring the tunnel, which was started in July 1999. There were
only 15 months left for fitting out and testing the systems until the date on
which the tunnel was put into use which was contractually determined to
be 15th March 2003. This was too short a period to realise the project in
the way that was customary until that time, the (civil) fitting out work only
being started after the boring process had been completed. The relatively
short time period in which the project had to be completed required special planning and an unconventional approach. The solution involved carrying out a number of processes and subprocesses simultaneously. In the
first place, it was decided to construct both tunnel tubes at the same time
by deploying two tunnel boring machines. Furthermore, and this had never
been done in any other project until then, immediately after the lining had
been built inside the shield, the civil fitting out work was started behind
the boring machine: the laying of the road backfill which included a cable
gallery and the construction of the cross connections.
Logistics even more complicated due to acceleration measures
It is self evident that co-ordinating all the work was an enormous logistical
puzzle, a puzzle which incidentally became even more complex during the
boring process.
A considerable delay of more than 8 months arose due to a variety of
causes right from the start of the boring process. Without taking additional measures, this would have resulted in a completion date of 15th
November 2003. Motivated by a bonus for each day gained with respect
to the new completion date of 15th November 2003, the contractor took a
number of important acceleration measures, which for example resulted in
the further interweaving of the structural work with the fitting out work:
even more fitting out work was moved forward in time and carried out
simultaneously with the boring process.
This chapter first of all deals with the originally planned construction activities which were carried out at the same time as the boring process. Then
the logistics are discussed which would make it possible to carry out this
work. This describes the set-up of the construction site, the marshalling
yard and the design of the trailers and platform carriages behind the boring shield. Finally, the acceleration measures are discussed which were
taken to make up the planning delay.
Originally planned activities

Boring process determines tempo
The boring process and the structural work of the tunnel did of course determine the speed with which the project took shape. During the boring and
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Civil Fitting Out and Logistical Process
213
construction of the lining, trains constantly travelled backwards and forwards, supplying the segments for building the lining and grout for injecting the tail void. Furthermore all the pipes had to be extended every 12
metres. The greater the progress that the tunnel boring machines made, the
greater the transport needed for building the tunnel. In addition, the ever
increasing length of the tunnel resulted in greater and more complex logistical effort. At a planned average speed of 6 rings a day (12 metres), the boring
machine asked for 42 segments and 6 keystones every 24 hours; if the segments and other materials required for the construction of the lining (grout
for example) were not available in time, the boring process would stop.
Construction of cable gallery and building the roadbed

Immediately behind the second trailer which was pulled along by the tunnel
boring machine, the civil fitting out of the tunnel was started: installation of
cable gallery elements, laying drainage pipes surrounded by drainage
gravel, installing a geotextile and creating a stable roadbed with a backfill of
sand-cement.
These activities took place under the platform carriages, where travelling
cranes were mounted behind the trailers of the TBM.
Cable gallery
The cable gallery consists of prefabricated elements which were brought
right up to the rear of the tunnel boring machine by train.
Each of the cable gallery elements is 2 metres wide and weighs approximately
10 tons. A travelling crane, which was mounted under the platform carriages,
unloaded the elements and lifted them to the assembly position. Here they
were first placed on rubber disks which made it possible to adjust the height
of the elements to get a good connection with the part of the cable gallery
already in position. Then the space under the cable gallery was filled with
casting mortar.
Fig. 14.1
Train in the tunnel
under the platform
carriages
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Fig. 14.2
Construction of cable
gallery and building
road backfilling
Drainage pipe and filter gravel

After the cable gallery was put in position, a drainage pipe was laid at the
bottom of the tunnel on concrete blocks already installed there. The pipe was
of course transported by train. The next step was to pour filter gravel round
the drainage pipe. The gravel was supplied in containers and unloaded with
a travelling crane under the platform carriages.
Geotextile
The installation of a geotextile was required in order to prevent the segment
joints from filling up with sand-cement stabilisation applied at a later stage.
In addition, this cloth provides the drainage along the lining, if unexpectedly a leak should occur on the surface of the segment. The made-tomeasure geotextile was transported by train and cut into sections by hand.
The material was attached to the lining with temporary wooden pegs at a
slightly higher level than the final road level. The geotextile was then
attached to the part of the lining under the road level, laid on the gravel
round the drainage pipe and then folded over approximately 0.5 metres
against the cable gallery elements.
Sand-cement stabilisation
The actual road backfill consists of a sand-cement stabilization. The sandcement was prepared on the construction site in a large mixing plant and
poured into containers. A train transported these containers to the destination where the travelling crane under the platform carriages unloaded them.
The sand-cement was laid in 400 mm thick layers: a mini-excavating machine
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215
distributed the material after which vibration plates ensured systematic

compaction. The total volume of sand processed (and gravel round the
drainage pipe) amounted to approximately 185,000 m3. The top of the sandcement stabilisation was finally provided with a layer of phosphorous slag
serving as a road foundation.
Cross connections
The cross connections were constructed at some distance behind the tunnel
boring machine (also see Chapter 13 Cross connections). A range of work
took place in a restricted space, that was slightly more than half of the tunnel width, which also made the supply and removal of materials and equipment and their transport necessary. Building the cross connections first of
all made setting up a system for the boring of the freezing pipes necessary.
Then the freezing system was put in position and the lining was fitted
with stiffening girders and thermal insulation. After the ground had been
frozen, the excavation work could be started from the other tube, but before
that a heavy emergency door was fitted. Machinery was of course required
for the excavation work in the form of a milling cutter with a weight of
approximately 15 tons. After several cubic metres of soil had been excavated,
a manoeuvrable bob-cat picked up the excavated material, transported it
to a train that took it along the main railway track to the outside. When part of
the cross connection had been excavated, a process which incidentally took
place without stopping, a layer of shotcrete was applied immediately. This
concrete and the reinforcement incorporated in it had to be if necessary
immediately available for the tunnel builders to use. As soon as the exterior
wall was finished, waterproof sheeting was installed. Then the interior wall
was constructed: for which reinforcement, formwork and of course the concrete itself also had to be supplied.
After a cross connection had been completed, and as soon as the equipment
was no longer needed, it was moved to a new location (in as far as this had
not been done already) and the whole process was started again.
Fig. 14.3
Excavation of a cross
connection
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Logistics
Carrying out all the work simultaneously, required a very sophisticated logistical system. The layout of the construction site and the marshalling yard, the
equipment used (narrow-gauge railway) and the design of the trailers and
platform carriages behind the boring shield played a crucial role in this.
Layout of construction site and marshalling yard

The layout of the construction site to a large extent determined the success
of the logistical process.The size of the site (approximately 35 hectares) on the
southern banks of the Westerschelde was an advantage.This made it possible,
for example, to produce the segments in a concrete factory on the construction site; this was very advantageous because this meant that the fragile
products did not require to be handled very much.
The supply of raw materials and the removal of excavated soil (which could
be several thousand cubic metres a day) was done by ship.
The railway yard was the central part of the construction site and of key
importance for the progress of the logistical process. This was where various types of trains were assembled and loaded with all the materials and
equipment required for the various types of work. The marshalling yard
formed the logistical heart of the construction site around which all the
other activities were located:
concrete factory and storage of segments;
grout mixing plant;
storage of cable gallery elements and gravel;
sand-cement plant;
storage of materials and equipment for the cross connections;
siding for the transportation of people;
siding to workshops and train maintenance sheds;
siding to the living space (habitat) of the divers.
For each tunnel tube, a single railway track laid on the cable gallery ran into
the tunnel from the marshalling yard. There was no room for two tracks due
Fig. 14.4
Overview of
construction site
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217
Fig. 14.5
Storage of segments
Fig. 14.6
Diagrammatic
representation of
marshalling yard
Workshop
Train set-up
Tunnel segment storage
Personnel
Mortar
Storage cable gallery
Tunnel segment production
Access to tunnel
Materials for cross connections
Washing area
to space needed for the simultaneous fitting out of the civil engineering facilities, such as constructing the cross connections and building the cellars.
It was possible for the trains to pass each other every 1,000 metres on a
siding: trains coming into the tunnel had priority over the trains coming out
of the tunnel. In addition, there was an ending track at each cross connection
under construction, where trains loaded with material and equipment for
constructing the cross connections could be parked without obstructing
the other trains.
Of course the narrow-gauge railway also increased in length with the progress
of the boring process and the increasing length of the tunnel tubes.
Eventually, there was more than 20 kilometres of railway track, about 7 kilometres of which was in the above-ground marshalling yard.
The railway traffic was steered in the right direction from a signal tower
on the marshalling yard. Traffic control maintained radio contact with the
train drivers and the nine automatic points were operated from the marshalling yard. The other 46 points in the marshalling yard were operated
manually.
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Fig.14.7a and b
Diverging track in the
tunnel tube
(a)
(b)
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219
Logistics department
The Logistics Department, in which 90 people worked, was responsible for
all the ins and outs of the logistical process. All the interests of the parties
involved in the construction came together here and all the construction
activities had to be co-ordinated with each other. The staff of the department,
who were in close contact with the project managers of the various works
which were carried out simultaneously, consisted of site managers, mechanical
engineering experts who were responsible for the rolling stock, a logistics
co-ordinator and traffic controllers and yardmasters.
The yardmaster was responsible for the assembling of the trains. The traffic
controller controlled the goings of the trains and was responsible for delivering the right orders on time. Each driver was obliged to carry out the instructions which were given to him by traffic control.
Two rules formed the starting point for determining the priorities for the daily
flow of traffic in the tunnel tubes, which was the responsibility of traffic control:
personnel must be able to reach and leave the place of work punctually and
safely and the progress of the boring process must not be endangered.
In order to prevent special transport from obstructing the train traffic for the
boring process and the construction of the roadbed, this transport had to be
organised carefully to fit in between the standard transport. Work requiring
the use of railway-related cranes, which blocked the main railway track in the
tunnel, therefore required particularly careful planning.
The materials required for the boring process were ordered by the Shiftmaster from the TBM by fax to prevent any lack of clarity. The order went to
the central traffic control managers, who sent the order on to the (internal)
supplier of the grout, sand-cement, and the other materials required.
In order to prevent the supply of segments from stopping, there was always an
intermediate storage available outside the tunnel of two left-hand and two
right-hand rings loaded on train carriages. When a ring was ordered from this
intermediate stock, the stock was immediately supplemented again with the
same type of ring.
Fig. 14.8
The loading of a train
with segments
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Before a segment train could depart, first grout had to be manufactured. No

cement had been used in the grout right from an early stage in the boring
process, this meant that the mixture would stay processable for a longer
period. This also reduced the pressure of time and ordering became less critical. Besides the segments, the cable gallery elements were also ready and
waiting on the carriages. These were coupled to trains with backfill material
for constructing the roadbed: gravel and sand-cement stabilization. The
sand and cement mixture started to harden as soon as it was made and
therefore this order was processed at as late a stage as possible.
Rolling stock
Various types of trains were used to transport materials and people:
the so-called Tbbingezug (segment train) for supplying segments and
grout;
trains for supplying materials which were required for constructing the
roadbed and the railway track on which the trains travelled in and out of the
tunnel: rails, cable gallery elements, casting mortar, gravel, sand-cement
stabilization and geotextile;
trains for transporting personnel;
trains with which non standard transport took place, for example for constructing the cross connections, building the cellars, or the transport of
the pressure shuttle with which the divers were taken from their accommodation under pressure to the excavation front (and back again) during
(saturation) diving work.
The two types of trains which were used to supply the building materials
segments and grout on the one hand and cable gallery elements and backfill material on the other hand both travelled in a fixed arrangement. The
segment trains were composed, viewed from front to rear, of four carriages
Fig. 14.9
Train in tunnel
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each of which was 8 metres long for transporting segments and one grout
carriage.The segment carriages could take a load of a maximum of 2 segments
each weighing approximately 11 tons. The traction was provided by two tunnel locomotives each weighing 52 tons which pushed the train into the tunnel. These locomotives provided most (80%) of the braking force which was
required in view of the maximum gradient in the tunnel tubes of 4.5%. Two
locomotives were also coupled to trains loaded with the material for the road
backfill. The total weight of both types of trains was approximately 250 tons.
The maximum speed in the tunnel was 20 km/h, whereas the maximum speed
allowed on the marshalling yard was 10 km/h.
For lighter transport, locomotives of 25 or 35 tons were used which could
also be coupled to each other if required. In the end, the contractor acquired
additional plant and machinery, 12 heavy and 8 light locomotives, which
were available for all the transportation required. Transportation of personnel was by so-called rail buses. If necessary, 4 people could also travel on
the segment and backfill trains.
The undriven rolling stock consisted of about 110 carriages, some of which
were equipped with concrete pumps or rail cranes. A fire brigade and an
ambulance carriage was also available as well as a carriage specially fitted
out to transport divers to the excavation front.
Design of trailers for tunnel boring machine

In the completed tunnel section behind the TBM, space had to be available
for the delivery of tunnel segments by train, the delivery of pipes, grout
mortar and the arrival and departure of personnel. In addition, the roadbed
in which the cable gallery was laid was constructed directly behind the tunnel
boring machine.
In order to prevent the complexity of the logistical process from causing
problems, the trailers behind the first two trailers (1a and 1b) were designed
as platform carriages with hinged couplings. The platform of these carriages
was at the same level as that of the upper decks of the first two trailers.
Using sufficient numbers and lengths of all the carriages, including the trailers and platform carriages the tunnel boring machine was 195 metres long,
gave a certain degree of logistical freedom which made it possible to carry out
several tasks at the same time without them obstructing each other.
First carriage behind the TBM trailer 1a
The so-called Zubringerkran (transportation crane) travelled on continuous
track on the upper deck of the trailer immediately behind the TBM, trailer 1a
which had three decks. This crane moved the tunnel segments from the
intermediate store on the upper deck of the rear trailer 1b, and the platform
carriages to the segment erector. Furthermore, the upper deck was fitted
with the bentonite supply pipe and the ventilation duct.
The hydraulic drive unit, consisting of hydraulic pumps, control units, oil
reservoir with filter and cooling system, was mounted on the middle deck.
The transformer station with associated high and low voltage panels was
also set up here. The grout container and the grout pumps were on the lower
deck. The slurry discharge pump with driving gear was also fitted here.
Second carriage behind the TBM trailer 1b
A continuous track was also fitted on the upper deck of trailer 1b also with
three decks, which connected up to the track of trailer 1a. The crane which
travelled on this track lifted the tunnel segments from the tunnel train and put
them into intermediate storage on the platform carriages or on trailer 1b. In
addition, the bentonite supply pipe, the slurry discharge pipe and the ventilation duct were mounted on the upper deck.
221
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The control container as well as the air compressors with driers, standby
generator and the emergency compressor were mounted on the middle deck.
The grease system for the tail seal was also located here. The lower deck
housed the grout containers and grout pumps.
The platform carriages trailer 2 and further
The platform carriages were located behind the second carriage, as already
mentioned above the platform connected at the same height as the upper
decks of the first two trailers. The platform carriages were also fitted with a
continuous track on which the crane travelled that hoisted the tunnel segments from the tunnel train to the intermediate storage. The flexible coupling of the forward moving pipes supplying the bentonite (and discharging
the bentonite-soil mixture) to the fixed pipes in the tunnel was located on
the last platform carriage. Here the cable reels were also fitted with service
pipes for the high-voltage line and water supply and discharge.
2,000
(a)
PLATTFORM 2
PLATTFORM 3
PL
(b)
Fig. 14.10a and b

the tunnel boring
machine including the
trailers and platform
carriages
The roadbed was laid under the platform carriages with the cable gallery incorporated into it. An overhead travelling crane put the cable gallery elements in
position and supplied the sand-cement stabilization for the construction of the
roadbed. The narrow-gauge railway for the tunnel train was laid on the cable
gallery. The total length of the platform carriages was chosen so that a complete tunnel train was always able to park under the platform carriages.
Optimizations and acceleration operation

A number of problems had occurred right from the start of the boring process,
which together gave rise to a delay of at least 8 months. This meant that the
penalty clause included in the contract (penalty of 136,000 euro for each day
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223
of the delay up to a maximum of 13.6 million euro 100 days delay) was no
longer an incentive for the contractor to finish the project quickly.
In order to find a solution to this, the client and the contractor agreed to a socalled package deal on 6th December 2000 which meant that the contractual
completion date was moved forward to 14th November 2003. For each day
delayed there was a penalty of 136,000 euro, whereas a day gained with
respect to the completion date would provide a payment of 68,000 euro for
the contractor.
Prior to the agreement, the planning and logistics were gone into and mapped
out very carefully in an extensive joint study (by the client and the contractor),
in which the logistical process was simulated, for example, by means of computer models. The aim of the study was to give more insight into the very
complex process and to investigate whether, and where the possibilities were
for optimization. The study created a framework necessary to discover the
possibilities for improvement, to seize them and then to elaborate on them.
The bonus for gaining time which the contractor was offered functioned as an
important incentive for the contractor to also actually invest in a number of
measures to speed up and improve the process.
These measures did not result in fundamental changes in the layout of the
infrastructure. However, major changes were carried out in the field of management, organisation, capacity and maintenance of the logistical system
which were also prompted by the occurrence of unsafe situations. In addition, a large number of fitting out activities were moved forward in time
which was worked out in greater detail in a fitting out scenario.
New fitting out scenario
Metres
In May 2001, the building consortium presented a new fitting out scenario,
in which KMW, subcontractors and NV Westerscheldetunnel had jointly
elaborated the fitting out activities in the tunnel both technically and systematically. The results of this were being processed in a progress diagramme,
which made clear where and when a fitting-out activity had to be carried out.
7000
Progress diagramme
In order to guarantee
the tight time schedule,
KMW uses progress
diagrammes.These
accurately show which
activity must take
place when and where.
6000
5000
4000
COMPLETION
14/03/2003
3000
2000
Boring process
Cross connections
Dismantling of boring
facilities and track
Cellars
Step barrier inside
inside 35%
12/05/03
10/02/03
11/11/02
12/08/02
13/05/02
11/02/02
12/11/01
13/08/01
14/05/01
12/02/01
13/11/00
14/08/00
15/05/00
14/02/00
1000
Date
outside 35%
complete
Installations cable gallery
Installations traffic tube
Roadworks
SAT and SIT tests
Step barrier outside
Fig. 14.11
Progress diagramme
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In general, the slowest activity determines the time required for the completion process. Speeding up this activity would mean shortening the completion
time. The ultimate completion scenario was realised by optimizing the slowest activities.
The scenario provided, amongst other things, for the early installation of the
heat-resistant cladding, the earlier fitting out of the cross connections, moving
forward in time of laying the systems in the cable gallery and the accelerated installation of the other systems.
An important verification point within the scenario was formed by the point
in time in which the boring machines reached the receiving shaft. After the
arrival of the TBM, the whole railway track had to be completely removed
immediately from the tunnel so that the (more flexible) road transport could
be used for carrying out the other activities: installation of the concrete safety
barrier (step barrier), emergency posts and the systems above the road surface.
The road surface had to asphalted as late as possible so as not to obstruct
other activities. And finally, the tunnel systems had to be tested.
Extra personnel, tightening-up procedures

In view of the vital function of the logistics system, the staffing of traffic control and the maintenance team was extended, additional boring teams were
deployed and procedures were tightened up. Furthermore, the introduction
of an incentive system meant an extra motivation for the borers which was
beneficial for the progress of the boring process.
More time for systematic maintenance; extremely

important for safety
The logistical capacity was extended twice by the acquisition of extra
locomotives. As a result of this, and by deploying extra maintenance staff,
more time and capacity became available for systematic maintenance to the
Fig. 14.12
Construction of
installation building on
top of the caisson
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trains and the infrastructure; a very important aspect, because although the
infrastructural layout was basically good, the maintenance the system required
was underestimated. This translated, for example, into the occurrence of
derailments of the trains in the tunnel and on the marshalling yard, but also
into the spontaneous uncoupling of train carriages. These situations, some of
which were serious, not only produced delays and material damage, but were
also a threat to the safety of the people who were working in the tunnel.
Furthermore, the contractor purchased an extra tower crane and an extra
siding was laid on the marshalling yard to relieve the gantry crane of loading
the trains during peak hours. In addition, another boring system and two
freezing systems were deployed to construct the cross connections.
In order to start the fitting out work of the caisson on the northern bank earlier,
the contractor changed the design. Originally, the fitting out work could only
begin after the arrival and dismantling of the boring machines. The revised
design, however, provided for a completely new installation building on top
of the caisson, so that the assembly of the electrical and mechanical installation did not have to wait for the boring machines.
Electrical equipment cellars and pump cellars

From April 2001, an immediate start was made, within the framework of the
acceleration operation, on the construction of the concrete electrical equipment cellars on both sides of the cross connections as soon as the lining of
a cross connection had been finished.
Pump cellars for the drainage of the tunnel also had to be built at the deepest points of the tunnel: in total there were 58 cellars in the tunnel, with 5
cellars in each tunnel tube under construction at the same time. The cellars
could not be made of prefabricated parts but had to be cast in situ. When
carrying out the work, the same spatial restrictions applied as when the
cross connections were constructed.
Earlier start with application of heat-resistant cladding

An important measure was also the earlier application of the heat-resistant
cladding, an activity which was originally planned after the lining had been
completed. A study made it clear that this work could be started at an earlier
stage, albeit with a great deal of trouble.
Trains could not, however, be used to apply the sprayed cladding and transport the materials required; this would be too heavy a load for the railrelated transport and result in delays to the boring process. It was therefore
decided to deploy transport which was not rail related.
Application of heat-resistant cladding
The heat-resistant cladding, with a thickness of 45 mm, protects the lining
above road surface level, a total area of about 240,000 m2 for two hours
against a tunnel fire in accordance with the RWS fire curve. Before applying
this layer, the lining was first fitted with stainless steel mesh reinforcement
anchored in the lining. Then the lining was cleaned with water under high
pressure at a temperature of about 80 C.
Two robots specially developed for this work, one for each tunnel tube,
sprayed by means of a spray arm the heat-resistant layer onto the lining.
Before doing this, the robot scanned the lining to be sprayed at three points.
Then the best angle was chosen for applying the mortar, the ideal distance to
the tunnel wall being about 2 metres. The spray mortar was mixed with air in
the nozzle, so that the mortar gained speed and the compaction of the mixture was promoted. The nozzle turned with the curve of the tunnel and
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Fig. 14.13
The application of the
reinforcement mesh of
the heat-resistant
cladding
applied the mortar very evenly in strips on the wall. If this work was done manually, the angle would all too quickly vary and as a result of this, also the thickness of the layer. One robot was able to treat about 50 m2 of tunnel wall an hour.
Precision work
The use of the robots was unique: elsewhere in the world robots had been
used for applying spray mortar, but the thickness of the cladding was usually
about 150 to 200 mm, much thicker than the 45 mm required in the
Westerschelde Tunnel, which required a very large degree of accuracy.
The tolerance on the thickness of the cladding was 2 and 5 mm. In order
to check whether the correct thickness had been achieved, fluorescent pegs
Fig. 14.14
The spraying robot in
action
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227
attached to the lining were used. The layer was thick enough when these
pegs were no longer visible. During a testing period, it was checked on a
daily basis whether the cladding was well attached.
Simplification of the logistics with respect to manual application
The use of spray mortar turned out to be more attractive economically than
attaching sheeting. In addition, the spray mortar could be applied directly onto
the lining in contrast to the sheeting and this subsequently made possible a
simplification of the logistical process with respect to the manual application of a fire-resistant layer.
Train only 35 metres long
The robot together with the water supply, concrete pumps, mixing machine
and feed tanks formed a travelling system, approximately 35 metres long. One
person was required to operate the controls and four people to fill it up.
A consequence of applying the heat-resistant cladding earlier than originally
planned was that the total area of the lining could not be treated in one go:
part of the tunnel tube was still covered with all sorts of tubes and pipes
(air supply, 10 kV cable for power supplies, bentonite and water pipes, and
suchlike). Only after the boring process had been completed and all the pipes
and tubes had been removed was it possible to finish this job.
Further fitting out and asphalting

The fitting out in a limited sense fitting the installations such as ventilators,
emergency posts, lighting, surveillance cameras, road signs and suchlike
started after the boring process had been finished. This was not possible any
earlier because access platforms had to be deployed regularly to carry out
work at the top of the tunnel, which could not be combined with the boring
process. After the boring machines had reached the receiving shaft, the whole
track was removed from the tunnel tube as quickly as possible. From that
moment, road transport was used which made it possible to operate in the
tunnel in a more flexible way and therefore with more logistical freedom.
Fig. 14.15
The track is removed
from the tunnel
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A job that required special attention was the asphalting of the road surface.
This work, the asphalt was applied in three layers, was carried out as late as
possible to minimize any obstruction to other activities.
The lower layer consisted of crushed rock asphalt concrete with a thickness of
75 mm. Synthetic mesh reinforcement intended to prevent crack formation in
the asphalt was placed on top of this at the location of the cable gallery and
the electrical equipment cellars. The second layer consisted of open asphalt
concrete with a thickness of 55 mm in which detection loops were laid. The
third layer the top layer of dense asphalt concrete was 40 mm thick.
Study on the effects of asphalting in the tunnel on working conditions
As it was unknown beforehand what the effects would be on the working
conditions of the asphalting work in a very long tunnel, a very extensive
study was carried out on this. The study particularly focussed on the
increase in temperature in the tunnel and on the release of noxious fumes.
The study, based on a mathematical model, showed that increases in temperature could be controlled well, provided that the work was carried out in
the opposite direction of the ventilation. The air temperature in the tunnel
would be roughly 22 C at a height of 2 metres above the road surface. In
practice, the situation was even more favourable.
Fig. 14.16
Asphalting activities in
the tunnel
The release of possibly poisonous asphalt fumes, such as PAHs, also stayed
within the permitted limits, especially due to the fact that the temperature of
the asphalt fell very quickly. PAHs are only released at temperatures above
100 C and the emission of these substances goes down by half with each fall
in temperature of 10 C. The Health and Safety Inspectorate did point out that
due to the lack of experience with asphalting such long tunnels in the
Netherlands, the need to measure PAHs remained valid.
Acceleration measures have an effect
Carrying through the acceleration measures meant that the tunnel could be
opened to traffic on 14th March 2003. The backlog of 8 months had therefore
been caught up entirely.
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15 TUNNEL INSTALLATIONS
P. Fournier, J.P.M. Verhoef and N. Nass

Tunnel installations
Operating philosophy and operating design
The operating design
Installations
Lighting
The testing of electrical and mechanical installations
Theoretical framework
Testing trajectory Westerschelde Tunnel
Learning experiences
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Introduction
A tunnel is an extremely complex entity and the Westerschelde Tunnel is
no exception to this. On the contrary: never before had a tunnel of such
magnitude been constructed in the Netherlands, moreover, at depths which
were unheard of in the Netherlands and by making use of a technique
the boring in soft soil which had only been done once before in the
Netherlands, at the construction of the Second Heinenoord Tunnel. For the
design, use could barely be made of the knowledge and experiences
gained at other tunnels in the Netherlands.
This not only applies for the method of construction, but certainly also for
the monitoring and operating. The large number of installations is directly
related to the tunnel length and causes the operation of the tunnel to be
extremely complex as a whole.
The systems are operated in a combined form: in part they function
autonomously and in part they are operated centrally by means of an operating system especially designed for the Westerschelde Tunnel. The main
purpose alone the guaranteeing of a safe tunnel operation made it necessary to fully and thoroughly test the functions and systems. That also clarifies that, although the apparent purpose of testing is the finding of faults in
systems, it actually concerns the limiting of risks. In this way for example the
failure of the tunnel ventilation could have far-reaching consequences for the
users in the tunnel, certainly in the case of smoke development.
In this chapter, firstly the operating of the installations and the tunnel installations themselves are dealt with. This is followed by the importance of a
thorough testing trajectory and the experiences gained with this trajectory
at the Westerschelde Tunnel project.
Tunnel installations
Operating philosophy and operating design
As part of the safety philosophy adopted for the Westerschelde Tunnel, a
number of installations have been placed in the tunnel to ensure the safety
of the users and the tunnel itself. The large amount results in a large number of detections which must simultaneously be processed, and most
certainly in the case of incidents. In order to put the operator in a position
to effectively cope with this, it was necessary to develop a clear operating
philosophy.
Such a philosophy shows how information about the comings and goings of
the tunnel and the users inside it is presented to the tunnel operator and in
which manner he is enabled to react to it. As a basis of the operating philosophy there is an inventory of all eventualities that the operator may possibly
come across, the so-called environment analysis. A second step is formed by
the analysis of the various actions that an operator has to take to deal with
those eventualities. Finally, in the so-called operating analysis, the possibilities of actions to be taken are provided in the automatic handling (control)
and operator instructions. The manner in which the tunnel monitoring and
operating of the installations is made up in practice, plays a key role in the
guaranteeing of the required high level of safety.
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Tu n n e l I n s t a l l a t i o n s
Integral safety
plan
Schedule of
requirements for
tunnel installations
Operating philosophy
Environmental analysis
Task analysis
Operating analysis
Monitoring and
operating design
The operating design; as much automatic handling as possible

by the operating system
An important brief for the operating design of the Westerschelde Tunnel was
the fact that it is difficult for an operator to take the right decision at every
moment and in every circumstance. It is human to err and that is why the taking of crucial decisions should be handled automatically by the operating
system as much as possible, or if this is not possible to be recorded in
procedures. This is of particular importance because in general, a complex
situation could occur rather suddenly from a condition of relative calmness,
and generate a large number of detections in a short space of time, which
must be handled directly and effectively. This sudden transition from calmness to major tension increases the chances of human error. The equipment
available to the operator, however makes it possible for him to make unambiguous choices and where possible in a menu-like manner.
A large number of commands with a single button
Commands that are complex, which logically follow on to each other or
can be logically combined, are grouped into a group command as much as
possible which can be activated by means of a single push of the button.
An example of this is the emergency button in which a large number of
commands are given simultaneously, including the releasing of the emergency doors, the starting up of the fire extinguishing pumps, the activation
of (a section of) the tunnel ventilation and the increasing of the lighting
level. The simultaneously activated commands can each be separately
switched off in the normal manner, if necessary. The activated commands
are therefore indicated in a separate dialogue on the monitoring screen.
This increases the operators overview of the situation and gives him the
opportunity to withdraw unnecessary commands, if the situation in the tunnel is different to that originally thought it to be.
The operator is safe-guarded from mistakes
The operator is therefore safe-guarded against making mistakes. When he
takes a decision which could lead to serious consequences the lowering of
231
Fig. 15.1
Diagrammatic
representation of
operating philosophy
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Fig. 15.2
The emergency
buttons
Fig. 15.3
Operating panels
the barrier gates for example, without first switching the traffic light to red
then the carrying out of this command is not possible and it is drawn to the
operators attention. Aside from that, when he takes a decision which could
lead to problems in the long run, he is asked for a confirmation.
Only useful information
For the monitoring and operating of the traffic it is not desirable that the
operators attention in the interim, is drawn to signals which dont concern
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233
the handling of traffic. Thus it is not useful to the operator to receive signals
from equipment that is functioning normally. Only at the time that a detection is in direct or indirect relation to the handling of traffic is this brought to
the attention of the operator. It could then concern for example, an important power failure, or the failure of a section of the tunnel lighting.
Suppressing of follow-on signals
Signals which are logically the result of a certain situation but dont necessarily lead to renewed intervention (follow-on signals) are suppressed: a
detection of standing still will lead to new standing still detections in a number of cases, because other cars also stand still behind the stopped vehicle.
If it concerns standing still in another section of the tunnel, then this signal
is not suppressed.
Fig. 15.4
An operator in the
operating area
The operating system

The operating system has the following functions:
the providing of all the desired information to the operator;
the passing on of the operators commands to the tunnel installations;
the passing on of returning signals from the installations to the operator;
the carrying out of a number of grouped commands on the operators
instructions;
the autonomous carrying out of a number of monitoring functions;
the taking care of data storage, television and audio recordings.
The Open Transmission Network (OTN) forms the (physical) basis of the
operating system. This is a glass fibre network onto which the tunnel installations and the automated operating desk are connected. Glass fibre is insensitive to faults such as lightning and can transport huge amounts of data
without any time delay. All the equipment is controlled by the OTN: TV cameras, loudspeakers, intercom, pump installations, fire extinguishing installations, jet-fans, light fittings, emergency power facilities, and detection loops
in the road surface. The OTN is a redundant type. That means that when a
connection fails, automatically a new route is selected without the users
noticing it.
The co-ordination of the commands takes place in the man-machineinterface (MMI). That is where the operator monitors and controls the tunnel.
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Installations
Power supply
On both banks the tunnel is provided with a medium voltage connection
(10 kV) to the public network. The connection points are in the tunnel
entrance buildings in Zeeuwsch-Vlaanderen and at Zuid-Beveland. The power
(consumption) amounts to approximately 6 megawatts per connection point.
For the electrical installation, 25 kilometres of 10 kV cable was installed. In
the entrance buildings and in all electrical equipment cellars under the road
surface of the tunnel, there is a distribution substation with a 10 kV690 Volt
transformer followed by a distribution subsubstation which reduces the voltage even further to 400 and 230 Volts. These E-cellars also house the switchboards which are connected via the so-called Programmable Logic Controller
(PLC) to the operating system. This PLC replaces the earlier control panel full
of relays.
Both public networks from which the energy is supplied, are independent
from each other. The chances of them failing simultaneously has been estimated at once per century. A very small chance, but in case the power does
fail totally, there is a so-called Uninterruptible Power System (UPS) in every
E-cellar. This emergency power supply consists of batteries 130 in every
electrical equipment cellar which can supply all vital tunnel installations
with electricity for one hour.
Besides that, the entire power supply is also a redundant type: in order to
avoid a total disruption of installations in a single tunnel tube when one of
the two power supplies fails, every 10 kV cable feeds a section of the installation in its own tunnel tube and a section of the installations in the other
tunnel tube.
Fig. 15.5
Electrical equipment
cellar
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Lighting
The tunnel is provided with SON lighting (high pressure sodium). At the tunnel entrance counter beam lighting has been applied which achieves a gradual transition of the light level from outside the tunnel to the light level inside
the tunnel. In the transition zones a gradual transition has been created from
the outer light level (on sunny days 80,000 Lux) to the inner light level
(30 Lux). The lighting level in the transition zones is automatically adjusted to
the light outside the tunnel; bright light outside also means more light in the
transition zones. This automatic control of the lighting level can by overruled
by the tunnel operator if so required.
The lighting in the tunnel always remains switched on and has a relatively
low level in the central section being a minimal luminance of 30 Lux measured on the road surface. With this, the lighting level in the tunnel in any
case, is higher than the street lighting at night on highways, which has a
value of approximately 5 Lux. In the zone at the exit the lighting level is
increased from 30 to 100 and then to 300 Lux.
Pump installations
A tunnel is never completely dry albeit only because rainwater is carried in
by vehicles via the access ramps and from the water used during cleaning
activities. Furthermore, certainly in cases of a disaster, liquid substances
could leak from vehicles and the fire brigade uses fire-fighting water. Pump
installations take care of a controlled discharge of the water and other liquid
substances.
In the entrance buildings on both banks there are two identical pump installations. Each one has two separated water systems for clean water and dirty
water. The rain water that enters from the surface level within the surrounding dykes is caught up in the clean-water cellars; the water that runs off the
road surface and verges is collected in the dirty-water cellars.
Water in the tunnel is pumped from within the central pump cellar to a dirtywater cellar. Per tunnel tube, there are two central pump cellars constructed
under the road surface in the tunnel. The water in the clean-water cellars can
be discharged directly into the Westerschelde. The water in the dirty-water
cellars is first purified. The water cellars are buffers particularly during
heavy rain storms. Aside from the buffer function, the central pump cellars
also have a safety function. As a result of an accident or disaster, firehazardous substances could possibly end up on the road surface. That is why
the grids along the road surface are flame-extinguishing and the electrical
installations in the dirty-water cellars are explosion-proof.
The reliability of the pump installations is guaranteed because the main
functions have been doubled, whereas the pumps can be supplied with
power (redundant power supply) from the northern as well as from the
southern bank. The pump installation works automatically. During a disaster
no water gets pumped from the dirty-water cellars because it could be seriously polluted. This remains contained in the water cellars and can be discharged with tankers at a later stage.
The pump chambers are provided with a continually operating excess pressure ventilation in order to avoid an uncontrolled spread of explosive gases
from the water cellars to elsewhere.
Ventilation
The tunnel is equipped with a longitudinal ventilation system which is not
active under normal circumstances. The longitudinal ventilation caused by
the travelling vehicles is normally adequate for the freshening of the air.
On exceeding the maximum allowable air pollution the ventilation starts up
and supports or increases the air flow which is generated by the traffic. The
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ventilation also ensures that the air pollution in the tunnel tube does not
exceed the permissible level when traffic stands still. During a fire, the longitudinal ventilation system is capable of discharging the released smoke
and fumes in a controlled manner in the desired direction.
The tunnel ventilation is activated or de-activated automatically on the basis
of CO measurements and visibility readings in the tunnel tubes. The jet-fans
then always blow the air in the driving direction.
Fig. 15.6
Jet-fan in the tunnel
Automatic activation during a fire The operator can control the ventilation
from his control desk, in which a reversal of the ventilation direction is also
possible.
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When a burning (smoking) vehicle drives through the tunnel and thus passes
a visibility measuring device, the tunnel ventilation starts up automatically.
Smoke and other fumes are then discharged in the driving direction so that
traffic that has stopped in front of the fire does not experience any hindrance.
The tunnel ventilation is also activated automatically on detection of a slow
moving vehicle (speed is lower than 18 km per hour). The automatic activation commences 60 seconds after such stagnancy detection. Anyway, this
activation value can be set between 0 and 300 seconds. In this interim period
the tunnel operator can interrupt the automatic activation if there is cause,
for example for a false alarm. This facility was installed in order to have control of the tunnel ventilation to safeguard the stranded traffic from smoke
and burning fumes if stagnancy is coupled with fire.
The jet-fans are booster fans and have an outer diameter of 1.70 metres, are
5.75 metres long, weigh 1,690 kg and have a power of approximately 85 kW.
The measured momentum is 2,400 N. Each tunnel tube is provided with 40
jet-fans. The jet-fans are suitable for use in a surrounding temperature of
250 C for one hour. The mutual distance between the jet-fans was chosen as
such, that in case of fire only some of the jet-fans may fail as a result of the
temperatures being too high. If this causes the number of activated jet-fans
to be less than the minimum number required, it can be compensated by
activating jet-fans elsewhere in the tunnel tube.
In the design of the jet-fans, a lot of attention was paid to the noise output.
In connection with the clarity from the intercom system and the loudspeakers,
a noise volume of 107 dB is not exceeded; this is not the audible sound level
(in dB(A)), but an uncorrected calculation value. The audible sound in the tunnel tube has a level of approximately 96 dB(A), when all the jet-fans are on.
Excess pressure ventilation The cross connections (escape corridor)
between both tunnel tubes have been provided with an excess pressure
ventilation which is activated in cases of disaster. This excess pressure
ventilation blows air from the non-incident tube into the cross connection, so
that on opening the doors to the cross connection, no polluted air can enter
from the incident tube into the cross connection and the non-incident tube.
Fire extinguishing system
On the right-hand side of the road in the tunnel, there is an emergency post
placed at every 50 metres. Here, the stranded motorist will find a telephone
which connects him directly to the control room at the toll square. When an
emergency post is opened, this is automatically signalled in the control
room and a camera is (automatically) directed towards the emergency post.
Thus the operator sees immediately what is happening. In the emergency
post there is a foam-spraying extinguisher and a fire hose on a reel to be
able to extinguish starting fires. The professional fire brigade can connect
onto a fire hydrant in the emergency post which has a capacity of 2 m3 per
minute. Here the emergency services personnel can connect their electrical
equipment into a socket.
With a mixture of water and a foam-forming agent, the foam-spraying
extinguisher has a capacity of 100 litres per minute and is suitable for the
extinguishing of oil and petrol fires. The fire hose has a length of 50 metres
so that, if an emergency post is unreachable because of a fire, it is still
possible to reach the fire. The fire-fighting water is automatically mixed
with a foam-forming agent for 25 minutes. Thereafter, extinguishing is still
possible with water only. However, by that time the fire brigade should
already be on location.
Water supply to the fire hydrant for the fire brigade occurs from the land
ends of the tunnel where, on both sides, there is a water reservoir of 120 m3
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Fig. 15.7
Emergency post
and a pump installation. The quantity of water of each reservoir is sufficient

to extinguish for 2 hours at full capacity. The extinguishing system works
automatically: when the nozzle is removed, the extinguishing pumps start
and the system reaches an active pressure.
When the water supply to the tunnel fails because the reservoirs are
empty or the installation is faulty at each tunnel building the fire brigade
has the possibility to feed the system with their own means and to put it
under pressure by means of an external compression connection at surface
level.
Communication facilities
Telephone installation In the first place the telephone installation is meant
for communication amongst the maintenance personnel. They could also
use the connection if necessary, to make contact with the tunnel operator.
There is a telephone present in all plant rooms. Aside from their own
communication means, the public emergency services have the special
telephone connections of the Westerschelde Tunnel at their disposal during
disasters.
Intercom system The intercom is a connection between the road user and
the tunnel operator. Every emergency post has an intercom connection
which looks similar to a normal telephone. When the road user picks up the
receiver there is an automatic connection with the tunnel operator. The
sound volume of the telephone receiver adjusts automatically to the surrounding noise in the traffic tube: the tunnel operator almost only hears the
person who is speaking. After a call on the intercom, the tunnel operator
receives an acoustic signal and sees which intercom is making contact. An
image of the relevant emergency post is automatically displayed by the correct
TV camera. Besides, the operating system selects the correct loudspeaker
group on its own, so that if desired, the tunnel operator can inform the
people present in the relevent tunnel section directly via the loudspeaker
system. Intercom equipment is also present in the form of an intercom post
at the tunnel entrance, at the position of the traffic lights, the barrier gates,
the movable central barrier (MCB) and the vehicle height-detection device.
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All incoming and outgoing intercom conversations are recorded onto a

recorder and can be archived if necessary.
Loudspeaker system Two loudspeakers have been fitted above the road
surface in the traffic tunnel at every 50 metres. These are automatically
switched in 3 blocks of 50 metres, whereby a reach of 150 metres is attained.
This reach was chosen to bring about a maximum audibility.
Sound travels at a rate of 300 metres per second through air and that is why
a difference delay has been applied between the blocks to prevent echoes.
The loudspeaker amplifiers are set automatically to the environment noise in
the tunnel tube. The amplifying of the sound spectrum can also be set causing the audibility of the spoken message to be substantially improved. The
environmental noise of travelling vehicles and tunnel ventilators has a great
influence on the audibility, and the shape of the tunnel tube and the nature
of the tunnel wall cladding also contributes towards this. A standard and a
measuring method have been developed by TNO in which the audibility of a
sound system can be measured. This standard is expressed as the STI value
(Speak Transmission Index). During the test phase, the loudspeaker system
was tested for this standard.
The tunnel operators audibility is also of importance. Thus it is possible,
in cases of disasters, to broadcast previously recorded instructions via the
loudspeakers or HF systems.
Fig. 15.8
Camera and
loudspeakers
HF System Radio signals can be simultaneously received and transmitted in

the tunnel by means of the HF system (High Frequency). Having this, the public
emergency services can continue using their own communication connections
during disasters in the tunnel. Further, three public radio frequencies are
broadcast: Radio 1 and 2 and the regional Zeeland radiostation.
The tunnel operator has the possibility to interrupt these frequencies and
thus be able to provide the motorist with information. Personnel who carry
out controlling and maintenance activities also make use of the HF system
for communications.
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TV camera installation A total of approximately one hundred colour

television cameras have been mounted inside and directly outside the
tunnel which are spaced 150 metres apart. The idea is that a persons
recognisable image should be able to be seen at all places. As nobody is
able to oversee a hundred images at the same time, a choice is continually
made between the tunnel sections for the providing of images from the
tunnel. The moment that a slow moving vehicle or a vehicle that is too high
is detected, or when someone opens an emergency post, the image of the
tunnel section where this occurs is automatically displayed. Further, the
tunnel operator can also always make the choice himself.
Television images can also, if necessary, be recorded on a video recorder.
Fig. 15.9
Monitors in the
operating area
CO measuring and visibility readings

The air in the tunnel tubes is constantly polluted by the traffic through
exhaust fumes and smoke. For the sake of safety and comfort, the degree of
pollution of the tunnel air at a number of places in the tunnel tube, is measured by means of a CO measurement and a visibility reading. If the pollution
reaches above a certain value, then the ventilation activates automatically.
Fire detection and alarm systems
The technical electrical areas, cable galleries and the low-voltage substations
and transformers in the tunnel are provided with a fire detection system
which signals a fire at an early stage.
Ionisation smoke detectors have been installed in the general areas in the
service buildings and in the low-voltage substations and transformer areas
in the tunnel.
The tilting outwards of a fire hose reel, the removal of an extinguisher or the
depressing of the activating button in the emergency posts, in principle are
treated as a fire alarm.
Guiding the traffic
The tunnel has a traffic guiding system. This guides the traffic when there is
a breakdown or a disaster and it is possible to optimize the traffic during
blockages. Besides, the system is also essential to make a proper winding up
of contra traffic possible when all the traffic is guided through a single tube.
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With the traffic guiding system it is possible to:

set up a speed restriction;
prevent the cause of a traffic jam in a too crowded tunnel, by means of
admitting incoming traffic in doses by means of traffic lights outside the
tunnel.
block a driving lane;
clear the left-hand driving lane of traffic within a matter of seconds;
stop the traffic;
close off the tunnel;
effectuate contra-traffic (or block traffic) in the tunnel tubes.
The traffic is provided with information via matrix signalling boards, traffic
lights and possibly by means of fixed indications adapted to the local situation. The signalling boards are fastened to the ceiling of the tunnel tube with
so-called portals. The points of fastening are spaced 250 metres apart, a distance whereby the motorist always has at least one signalling board in sight.
Due to the fact that the traffic from both directions is sometimes accommodated in a single tunnel tube, two opposingly directed signal boards have
been mounted each time on every portal above a driving lane inside the
tunnel; one opposite to the normal driving direction and one in the normal
direction.
Fig. 15.10
Matrix signalling
boards
Movable safety barrier

In order to reduce the chances of congestion and traffic jams as much as possible in the event of a possible blockage of one of the tunnel tubes, the central reservation barrier ahead of and after the tunnel is relocated so that all
the traffic can be guided into the non-blocked tunnel tube. This guarantees the
safety of the road user as well as the road worker as best as possible.
The movable safety barrier operates fully automatic and can be operated from
within the traffic control centre as well as on location. The Westerschelde
Tunnel is the sixth tunnel in the Netherlands which is provided with an MCB
system. In Switzerland various tunnels have also been equipped with this
system.
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Traffic detection
The tunnel is provided with an automatic traffic detection system (speed
detection system) by means of detection loops in the road surface. The
detection loops are applied per driving lane and are spaced 60 metres apart.
The automatic traffic detection is used to measure the intensity and the
speed of the traffic per driving lane and to detect the coming about of traffic
jams. The information supplied by the detection system activates the TV
installation and starts up the tunnel ventilation when a vehicle has come to
a standstill in the tunnel.
Height detection
In order to avoid damages and collisions with equipment, height detection
takes place ahead of the tunnel entrances. Height indication alarms occur in
two phases: after the ignoring of a first warning, the traffic is automatically
brought to a halt by means of the traffic system (a flashing orange light,
followed by red traffic lights).
The testing of electrical and mechanical

installations
Introduction
From the description of the installations it has been made clear that in the
Westerschelde Tunnel it involves a complex composition of systems and
functions. The systems are operated in a combined form: in part they function autonomously and in part they are operated centrally by means of an
operating system especially designed for the Westerschelde Tunnel. The
main purpose alone the guaranteeing of a safe tunnel operation made
it necessary to fully and thoroughly test the functions and systems. That also
clarifies that, although the apparent purpose of testing is the finding
of faults in systems, it actually concerns the limiting of risks. In this way the
failure of the tunnel ventilation could have far-reaching consequences for
the users in the tunnel, certainly in the case of smoke development.
In the following, firstly a theoretical framework is outlined, whereafter a
number of learning experiences are dealt with in a nutshell.
In the building industry it is a relatively new development that the proper
operation of systems more and more, is being determined by software and
no longer by hardware. This calls for differing knowledge and skills; it is no
longer adequate to select a good pump, a nice ventilator or a clever sensor.
A sound (co)operation of these parts within a cohesive system has become
far more important. On the one hand this development has been instigated
by the increased attention for safety (certainly in tunnels) and on the other
hand by the advancing developments in the field of technology. At the
Westerschelde Tunnel there is, for example, a disaster and evacuation scenario entirely steered by software, which operates all kinds of subsystems in
a formally prescribed manner, and shows the operator what events take
place. This, and more applications which are similar, will more and more be
built into all kinds of objects, because the technology allows for it and the
safety (of the user) benefits by it. Yet a consequence is, that in the setting up
of a testing trajectory for a tremendously complex system configuration
which is the case at the Westerschelde Tunnel, from an extremely early stage
(during the designing), a great deal of attention has to be geared, more so
than in the past, towards the role of information and communication technology. A role so it seems of which the importance is not always
assessed correctly.
During all phases of the project (the contracting phase, the tendering phase,
the design phase, the implementation phase and the completion phase)
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the testing of installations deserves attention. In order to fulfil a testing trajectory successfully, it is important to recognise the following:
testing of software is a profession;
testing is part of the software development process;
testing is part of a system of guaranteeing quality;
testing is one of the most important management measures in respect of
risk management on software;
when a tunnel installation consists of a combination of more than two
systems, then at least three systems must always be tested: firstly system
a, secondly system b and finally the system that brings about a cohesive
functioning of systems a and b together (system c).
Theoretical framework
The importance of testing
The purpose of testing is to objectively show the functioning of a system in
accordance with requirements which are set beforehand. In order to do that,
the characteristics of the product (or system) to be tested must be measurable, and in a certain sense that can be difficult: a composed system such as
that at the Westerschelde Tunnel, cannot simply be defined in terms of a
series of product characteristics. Systems also have a certain composed
functionality.
The defining of the characteristics of a product calls for a great deal of insight
into the application. Thus, in the case of a tester, a pump is only a pump when
it is fitted in the proper manner, installed at the correct location, demonstrably
has the right capacity and functions in the agreed manner. The pump in question is only adequately tested when the installation at the final location, sustainably provides the prescribed performance in conjunction with other
systems.
Phasing system development and the relationship with testing
In the system development, desires (purposes and functions) are transformed into a functional design. A technical design is drawn up from the
functional design and then the system realisation is dealt with. A much used
model that goes from desire to expectation is also called the V-model. What
is important in this model, is that once it has been defined what the system
must do, it also describes how this can be shown. In other words, within the
V-model the testing trajectory is inextricably linked to the design trajectory.
Testing phase
Project phase
Expectation
Desire
Functional design
Technical design
System realisation
Acceptance test
System test
Programme and
integration test
Fig. 15.11
The V-model
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Architecture and structure of the system

System architecture concerns the fundamental organisation of a system as
this is given shape by its components, their mutual cohesion and the cohesion with the environment, as well as the principles which act as a guide for
the design and evolution. In order to be able to develop an EM system from
the schedule of requirements (desires), the desired functionality must continually be subdivided into small uncomplicated functional units. This division
is also determinative for the realization of a function in hardware, software
or both. The architectural approach is so important, because it not only supports a cohesive concept of the system to be realized from the very start, but
also provides guidance and sets limiting conditions to design decisions. A
recognisable technical structure has gradually been created from within the
architecture of the Westerschelde Tunnel system. The architecture as well as
the system structure are (contextually) the most important reference frameworks in the setting up and elaboration of a functioning testing programme.
Fig. 15.12
Technical structure
system
Application/functionality of subsystems in the control and operating systems (181 and 189)
Basic functions of control and operating systems (182, 183, 184) (firmware/communication drivers)
Hardware of control and operating systems (182, 183, 184)
Energy
(110)
Lighting
(120)
Traffic
(141,
142)
Drainage,
ventilation
(130, 135)
Video
(161)
Fire
extinguishing
(150)
HF
(162)
Intercom,
Public address
(163/164)
Telephone
(165)
Building
security
(172)
Fire alarm
detection
(174)
VRIs
(145)
Transmission system (185)
Functioning testing programme

The development of a functioning testing programme is of importance in
order to be able to determine if the EM systems comply with the schedule of
requirements. A functioning testing programme is a trajectory which
encompasses multiple steps and which runs bottom up, contradictory to a
design trajectory: it starts with small independently functioning parts of
which it is determined, by means of testing or by means of a document
review, or by means of a combination of both, whether the parts comply
with the requirements. Gradually these units become larger and more complicated until eventually the entire integral system is tested. Combined with
this method, the components are firstly tested at the factory level and eventually in their full composition, preferably in a test bed first and then at the
final location. Although it is a managed approach, it should not be forgotten
that a component may comply with the requirements, while the functioning
of the composition of components is not acceptable. For acceptance in this,
in principle the requirements on the higher level apply. A ventilator can for
example, function in accordance with the standard, but when it appears that
the whole ventilation system does not work because the operating software
is inadequate, this means that the entire system cannot be accepted. In
redesigning, it is then possible that other ventilators must be applied.
To summarize, the scope of the functioning testing programme encompasses:
the determining of the proper working per component;
the determining of the proper working per system;
the determining of the proper working of the cohesive system.
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Hardware
Fig. 15.13
The functioning testing
programme
Software
Main design
Detailed design
Functional design
FAT
Inspection (100 list)
FAT
Inspection (300 list)
Software Integration test
SAT
SIT
IBS
Scope Functioning
Testing Programme
Dividing into subtests

Per phase, the following tests are differentiated within the testing trajectory:
FAT: the purpose of the factory acquisition test (FAT) is to validate that the
working of a (sub)system concurs with the requirements. Sometimes
there are specific testing facilities at the production location, sometimes
certificates or product information suffice;
SAT: the purpose of the site acceptance test (SAT) is to validate that the
working of a (sub)system, after fitting and installation at the final location,
concurs with the working as it was after the FAT. A site acceptance test
has three different appearances. The first is a document review from
which it can be determined whether a specific requirement set in the
schedule of requirements is complied with by means of an accepted
(design) document. The second is an inspection. In general, this is a visual
inspection in which the client locally determines whether a specific
requirement set in the schedule of requirements is complied with. The last
is the testing of the working of a (sub)system in which it is determined
whether the relevant object functions in accordance with the requirements set in the schedule of the requirements.
Prior to a site acceptance test the cabling must be tested for continuity and
is secured so that subcomponents function correctly. Furthermore, it is necessary to determine that the software does not cause any problems.
SIT: the site integration test (SIT) concerns the expected behaviour of the
entire tunnel system. In this test the main and subsystems are tested in
their entirety, aided with storyboards of various events and the expected
system behaviour.
Performance measurements: both the SAT and the SIT are mainly functional measurements. Pumps for example, must however provide a set
flow rate and the lighting must emit a measurable set amount of light. Such
data is gathered under the denominator performance measurements.
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Testing trajectory Westerschelde Tunnel

Defining the product characteristics
The basis for a test is the determining of the characteristics to be measured.
These details are set in the schedule of requirements and its elaboration the
functional designs. The characteristic to be measured must be translated into
objectifiable terms.
In a verification process it is common to record all the (sub)systems to be
tested, together with characteristics to be measured, into a so-called verification matrix. Although it merely seems to suffice with a summary of functional requirements to which the system must comply, in practice it appears
that this is inadequate. From the general briefs the tunnel must be dry,
it must be light, have air available and be safe for the road user the clear
functional formulation of what those (abstract) requirements exactly (actually) mean, calls for a sound architectural approach and knowledge of the
tunnel to be built in its environment. Furthermore, there is a multitude of
laws and regulations applicable. All in all this led to a difficult transformation of requirements from functional to technical, in which an unintentional
mix of these two types of requirements came about. Due to this, it appeared
that particularly specific requirements sometimes made the functionally set
requirements unrealisable.
Verifics
Due to the mix of various types of requirements and the extent of the system
at the Westerschelde Tunnel, the set up of a manageable verification matrix
had become impracticable, a solution was sought in the use of a software
package (Verifics) which was developed from the methodology of Product
Knowledge Management (PKM).
PKM is a theoretical framework which is the basis from which the data of the
project, product and process can effectively be managed, recorded and
opened up in an easily accessible manner. PKM assumes the principle, that
designing is a multi-disciplinary activity and that there are 11 different methods
of consideration which are important within the design process. In addition,
the framework takes the entire lifecycle of an object into consideration in
which six phases are differentiated (as required, as proposed, as designed,
as built, as maintained and as demolished).
Verifics is a software application in which the theoretical PKM framework
is operationalised whereby specific applications are possible. Verifics was
applied within the Westerschelde Tunnel project for the managing of tests and
the verification of the manner in which the schedule of requirements was
interpreted by the contractor. By means of hyperlinks (web technology), the
package is capable of causing a relationship between all the different requirements set, and makes the complicated structure of the design accessible at all
levels, whereby it also permits all possible cross sections of the design.
Powerful instrument
For the designers of the PKM framework and Verifics, the application within
the Westerschelde Tunnel was an immediate test to see if the package which
was developed from the theory, would be suitable for application onto a
conventionally set schedule of requirements.
It appeared that with this instrument, it was possible to link up and to relate
the requirements which were formulated from different models with each
other; the relations between functional requirements, technical requirements and the design could be made instantly visible. This made it possible,
per requirement, to indicate with which type of test the compliance or not
with this requirement could be shown. By directly including the reference to
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247
the test description or the test scenario in Verifics, a powerful instrument

was created which could be used to guard that all the requirements were
shown. In the various search possibilities offered by the reporting functionality of Verifics, an overview of and insight into all the tests carried out on
a (sub)system and the results and measuring details thus found, can be
given quickly. In addition all source documents (like design philosophy) and
result documents (drawings) are directly accessible.
Design model
Explanation
Example(s)
Objective
Contains targets which have to be fulfilled

by the result. Typical is that basically
multiple solutions are possible.
Guaranteeing road-users
safety
Function
Contains performance requirements in

respect of the system to be supplied.
Power
Capacity
Operation (!)
Technology
Contains information about the operating

principles to fulfil the function.
Electrical submersible pump

PLC control
Push-button switch
Topology
Contains physical elements of the

geometry and positioning in the area.
Breakdown structure
Dimensions
Positioning
Component
Describes product parts at implementation level.
Activity
Describes the activities which contribute towards

the realisation process and services, but no
activities of the product itself.
Designing
Maintaining
Calculating
Event
Describes the sequence, dependence and

required capacity of the activities.
Deadlines
Inspection times
Release
Organisation
Describes the factors involved in the project.
Client
Production department
Inspector
Document
management
Contains all project documents, interfaced

to the digital (source)files.
Building specification
CAD drawings
Choice justification
Material
Price
Colour
Supplier
Learning experiences
The necessary acceptance trajectory for complex EM apparatus and installations as described above, is not a novelty within the ICT and processing
industry, but unfortunately in the building industry this is most definitely the
case. For the building industry as mentioned in the introduction it is a relatively new development that the proper working of systems more and more
is primarily determined by software and no longer by hardware. In other
words, it is not only of importance that a pump, as an independent system
part, displaces a certain pre-set amount of water; the system as a whole,
only functions when all the different system parts (co)operate in the proper
manner in the system. The steering by software has thus become of far
greater importance and that calls for differing knowledge and skills more
than ever before, to make a system successful. At the Westerschelde Tunnel
for example, it involves a fully fledged software-steered disasters-andevacuation scenario, which controls all kinds of subsystems in a formally
prescribed manner and shows the operator what events take place. This, and
more of such applications to an increasing degree, will be built into all kinds
Fig. 15.14
The models used in
Verifics (PKM)
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of objects, because the technology allows for it and the safety of the user
benefits by it.
Attention for testing at a late stage
Where it concerns testing of systems, it is essential that the party being
commissioned is duly aware of the crucial role that information and communication technology plays within the entire system. Furthermore taking
into consideration the complexity and the integral character of the system
it is of extreme importance to think about and effectuate the testing trajectory at an early stage as possible (already during the design phase).
With regard to the effectuation, in general it can be stated that the implications of the testing of the Westerschelde Tunnel system was not recognized
in its full scope and the testing trajectory was only thought about at a very
late stage after the design had been realised. Due to this, it could not
timeously be clarified what the consequences for the EM apparatus would
be. In the finishing-off of the project, the main contractor subsequently did
not consider the testing trajectory as being of utmost importance for the
completion of the tunnel. This caused the finishing-off of the acceptance trajectory to drag most laboriously until the opening of the tunnel.
In the case of the Westerschelde Tunnel it involved a design and construct
contract. In this, amongst other things, it was arranged that the contractor
had to prove that the schedule of requirements was complied with. However,
in the contract it was not clearly described in what way the contractor had
to show the proper functioning of the system. In other words, the contract
provided for very little footing for the setting up of a functioning testing programme with adequate profundity which clearly describes how the evidence
of good functioning would be provided. Eventually this was solved by means
of establishing a testing team who, in a joint effort, designed an approach
which was then presented to the client for acceptance.
In general, on the basis of the experiences within the Westerschelde Tunnel
project, it could perhaps have been stated, that it was of extreme importance that the client should not merely leave it to the contractor to determine the manner in which he, the contractor, must actually prove that the
systems indeed comply with the requirements set. The client themselves
should also think about this.
Implementation of tests
For the subsystems and apparatus, factory tests (FAT) were organised by the
supplier(s). Due to the fact that it mainly concerned standard apparatus, a
standard test or a certificate would suffice. The choice was made by the subcontractor for a set-up to show per subsystem, the functionality as described
in the functional design per main system on a stand alone system. However,
these subsystems operate together via a control from a higher level.
Normally this control is shown in a system test at the factory. For this the
manufacturer builds a so-called test bed in which all the systems are linked,
where necessary, equipped with simulators and test boxes to simulate the
applicable environment. The testing of a system in a test bed gives the tester
the opportunity to learn about all the systems faults and to find a solution for
this before the system is installed at the final location in this case the tunnel.
However, the contractor deliberately chose to have the integration tests take
place directly in the tunnel environment. In his view this was possible,
because the design was set up on the basis of multiple occurring logical uniform building blocks, so-called software typicals. Its operation as was
assumed could effectively be shown in the FAT tests.
In the choice to carry out the integral system test within the project, the fact
was neglected that this places demands on the progress of the civil construction and fitting out activities. Actually this meant that the opportunity
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to discover faults in the system could only occur at a very late stage
approximately one month prior to putting the tunnel into operation which
then lead to a problematic course of the testing trajectory.
In order to limit the risks in future calls for tenders, it would have to be determined prior to the granting the assignment, that the potential supplier not
only understands what he is being asked, but also that he has sufficient knowledge and experience available to manage a proper finalization of such
projects. Furthermore, the client must recognise that such knowledge and
experience and the associated efforts such as the building of a test bed will
have repercussions for the project planning and the build up of costs. In the
Westerschelde Tunnel project it appeared that the planned amount of time and
money for the managed and proper course of the testing trajectory, were tight.
Due to the fact that in practice it does not happen that a faultless system is
delivered, it is common to record the acceptance criteria beforehand in the
form of types of faults and the maximum amounts thereof. In the contract
and schedule of requirements, no attention was paid to this and the contractor did not dare to take the (entrepreneurial) risk to record this anyway
prior to the commencement of the testing. Yet it is better to do this, because
the recording of clear acceptance criteria of a system beforehand, prevents
many discussions.
Fig. 15.15
Testing
Verifics successfully applied

The recording of the requirements in Verifics aided with the PKM model,
appeared to be a most successful intervention which made the managing of
the scope of the testing trajectory possible. It was only possible to define the
necessary tests and testing set-ups through the clear insight into the
requirements. In the process that lead to the dividing up of the tests into
phases and to the contextual definition of the various tests, it appeared that
the designing of systems is a skill, but likewise that the designing of tests is
equally an expertise.
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16 AESTHETIC ASPECTS
C.L. Rockx

Road design
Toll square
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Introduction
The construction of infrastructure often has a major influence on the environment. Aside from the tunnel with its access ramps, this tunnel project
encompassed various such as bridges and viaducts, a toll square and of
course the approach roads. In order to fit these objects in as well as possible prominent landmarks in the Zeeland countryside a landscaping
concept was developed. The following starting points were focussed on
for the fitting-in of the landscape:
the roads and engineering structures had to provide the road user with
an image which is as peaceful and unambiguous as possible;
the fitting-in had to tie-in as best as possible to the character of the surrounding landscape.
Further, the route as a whole had to have a recognisable image. The concept
was elaborated in a landscaping plan and an architectural policy document.
The architectural policy document was geared towards the architecture of
the engineering structures and buildings in and along the approach roads,
which included amongst other things, the bridge with a U-shaped cross section supported in a special way (cable suspended U-shaped bridge), the
viaducts, the acoustic barriers and the offices and installation buildings.
The architectural policy document also contained a design concept for the
closed tunnel section. Eventually this concept was only applied for the transition zones near the entrances. The design aspects for the remaining section of the tunnel are mainly determined by the requirements in respect of
safety. Due to this the landscape in the tunnel has a very peaceful image
with the image emphasis on the safety facilities.
The specific measures required for the fitting-in of the approach roads in the
various landscaping types were described in the landscaping plan. Sequentially from north to south they are: the industrial environment of the Sloe
area, the polder landscape at Zuid-Beveland, the industrial environment near
the DOW Chemical complex directly on arrival in Zeeuwsch-Vlaanderen and
followed by the landscape of creeks at Hoek. The total length of the approach
roads measures approximately 15 kilometres of which 9 kilometres are
at Zuid-Beveland and more than 6 kilometres in Zeeuwsch-Vlaanderen.
Road design
For the most part, the approach roads are carried out as a motorway with
2 1 driving lanes. Here consideration has been taken into account with the
possibility of extending to a highway with 2 2 driving lanes, at the time
that it is necessitated by an increased traffic intensity. For this reason the
width of the viaducts have already been constructed for 2 2 driving lanes.
Most of the road is situated at surface level and is only higher or lower where
it was deemed necessary from a technical point of view, for example at the
intersection with the water-restraining dykes surrounding the access ramps,
or where the road onto which it connects is situated higher.
The local roads intersect the motorway with viaducts. In Zeeuwsch-Vlaanderen
the tunnel road crosses the Dow Chemical railway line. Initially it was
assumed that the road would run over the track. However, this would have
meant that the road at this point, would be situated about 11 metres above
the surface and would become a major image-determining element in
the environment. From the fitting-in of the landscape point of view, that
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Aesthetic Aspects
Middelburg
A58
N254
Fig. 16.1
Route with approach
roads
Goes
N254
Bergen op Zoom
Vlissingen
Kruiningen
Toll square
Borssele
Westerschelde
Everingen
Ellewoutsdijk
Perk polder
Breskens
Middelplaat
Westerschelde Tunnell
Pas van Terneuzen
Dow
N61
Hoek
Terneuzen
N61
Sas van Gent
was not desired. That is why it was examined whether a crossing under the
track could be a possibility. Eventually this solution appeared to be feasible,
although the track itself would have to be raised about 2 metres in order
to prevent that the road construction would be situated below the ground
water level, which would have lead to an expensive open tunnel structure.
For the railway line itself, the most suitable solution for the viaduct
appeared to be a prestessed U-shaped beam in which the track is situated.
During the detailed elaboration, the eventual choice was made for the
so-called cable suspended U-shaped bridge, in which the U-shaped beam is
suspended by two vertical cables on each of the two pylons.
253
Cable suspended
U-shaped bridge
Fig. 16.2
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Fig. 16.3
Cable suspended
U-shaped bridge
Theme: round shapes and sea green colouring

In designing the approach roads, the most important briefs were the maintaining and enhancing of the various landscape types, and the creation of a
peaceful and recognizable road image for the road user. In order to achieve
this, the design of the roads and engineering structures were inspired by a
central theme: the round shapes of the tunnel and the sea green colouring
of the waters of the Westerschelde.
This design theme has been carried through as consequentially as possible
for the road users recognition. The circular shape chosen can be found in
the design of all technical elements such as the viaducts and the slopes on
either side of it. Due to the choice of the solution with pylons, extra attention
was paid to the looks of the cable suspended U-shaped bridge.
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Aesthetic Aspects
255
Fig. 16.4a
The design theme:
roundness and sea
green colouring
(guardrail)
Fig. 16.4b
Installation building
Fig. 16.4c
Office building (south)
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Taking the briefs of the architectural policy document into consideration, the
circular shapes can be found here too, in the pylons and the U-shaped beam
itself.
Where the road passes residences a short distance away, the acoustic barriers
have been placed on a circular rise.The posts are shaded in sea green, whereas
the screens themselves are transparent making a view of the surroundings
possible. Arched sea green lighting masts and the viaducts with rounded
sea green elements provide a coherent road image. At the access ramps
Fig. 16.5
The design of the
transition is round
angular at the
entrance of the tunnel
A stylized
landscape of creeks
at the link-up to
H.H. Dowweg
Fig. 16.6
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Aesthetic Aspects
consideration has been taken into account of the transition of the dyke bodies to the walls of the access ramp, which in turn merges into the circular
shape of the tunnel tubes. These walls are enlivened through shades based
on the sea green theme.
Characteristics of the landscape are also reflected along the road. In this way
the toll square has the same square layout as the Renaissance polder in which
it is situated; there is a herbaceous vegetation located along the roadsides;
and the roadside ditches have environmentally friendly banks. The spaces of
the loops at the turn-offs are the clearest reflection of the surrounding landscape: in Zeeuwsch-Vlaanderen at the link-up to H.H. Dowweg a stylized
creek was designed in the in-between spaces and at the link-up to the N61
there are various dykes with trees.
Dyke pattern
The choice was made for sound bunds along the route in Zuid-Beveland and
for acoustic barriers in Zeeuwsch-Vlaanderen. The reason for this was, that
the route in Zuid-Beveland runs parallel to the existing dyke pattern,
whereas in Zeeuwsch-Vlaanderen, the route runs at right angles to the
dykes. For the recognition and readability of the landscape, the elements
that have a differing function may not be given the same shape. In order to
accentuate this detail even more, the sounds bunds have also clearly been
given a different shape to the dykes. On the inside the walls have a rounded
shape and on the outside they have a slight slope.
TOLL SQUARE
Green room
At a distance of five kilometres from the northern tunnel entrance, the toll
square forms a green room in the polder landscape of Zuid-Beveland: a
257
Fig. 16.7
The toll square during
construction; the
square has been given
the same square
layout as the polder
landscape in which it is
situated
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rectangle of some 300 by 250 metres which is framed by a high hedgerow

of poplar trees. The trees form a green wall which brings to mind the windbreaks around the orchards in the vicinity. The relationship with the
surrounding orchards is also reflected in the choice of the type of trees at
the square itself: ornamental cherry trees (Prunus) in a rigid pattern, determine the image. Use has also been made of green elements in the layout of
the square: privet hedges take care of the guidance of the traffic flows. Aside
from that, the acoustic barrier around the square reflects a natural character
through the application of an ivy (Hedera helix).
The proportions of this square, situated in a renaissance polder, were taken
from the normative proportions of the village Borssele which was constructed according to the golden section method.
Fig. 16.8a
Artists impressions of
the toll square
Fig. 16.8b
Artists impressions of
pedestrian bridge
Service building
In the service building at the toll square, not only the services of the toll collections have been accommodated, but the tunnel is also operated from
there. The stretched out building which is situated along the eastern side of
the road, consists of a glass upper construction which extends into a sharp
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Aesthetic Aspects
259
point and is angled slightly towards the road to emphasize the view on the toll
collecting. The servicing area is situated on the first floor. Here, the workstations for the chief toll collector and the operators have been housed. Both
functions are fulfilled 7 days per week 24 hours per day. There is also a resting
area for the toll collecting personnel and a spacious meeting room.
The supportive functions have been housed in the black basaltic lower
construction. Located here, amongst other things, are the computer room
and a room for installations. In the lower construction a waiting room and
a resting room have also been created for passengers and bus drivers
respectively.
Fig. 16.9
the service building
with work of art
Design toll booths

A single large canopy has been designed above the toll booths which are
situated at right angles to the service building. In both driving directions the
Fig. 16.10
Towards the toll
square
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canopy curves upwards on the side of the queue space in front of the toll
booths: this has created a waving roof surface which protects the toll collecting from the weather and makes an inviting gesture to the oncoming
road users. This gesture is emphasized more in the evenings and at night
through the illumination of the underside of the roof edge. The canopy is
integrated with a pedestrian bridge above the toll booths which makes it
possible for pedestrians to cross the road.
Unambiguous design
The toll booths under the canopy have a direct functional relationship with
the service building. The brief was therefore to match their appearance to
this. To the motorist on the cash register side the booths are transparent,
light and horizontally articulated, but on the opposite side they are massive,
dark and heavy.
The remaining buildings at the square have also been related to the bridge
or the service building in their design and use of materials.
Further, there are car-pool parking places and bus stops at the square.
Fig. 16.11
Toll square
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17 THE CONTRACT AND PROJECT

MANAGEMENT
J. Heijboer, L.C. Makkinga, L. Smid and J. Bredenoord

Assumed advantages of the DBM contract
Risk and project management
Experiences
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Introduction
In June 1996, Minister Jorritsma of the Ministry of Transport, Public
Works and Water Management on behalf of NV WesterscheldeTunnel
(public company in the process of formation) and KMW building consortium, signed the contract for both the design and the construction of the
Westerschelde Tunnel as well as the access roads with the corresponding engineering structures. In addition, the contract obliged the contractor
to carry out tunnel maintenance for a period of ten years after it was put
into operation. The contractor also bears the risk of shortcomings and
defects during this period. The completion date of the tunnel was determined in the contract as 15th November 2002.
The agreement with the building consortium was a so-called design,
build and maintenance contract. The 800 pages of the contract, the result
of a negotiation procedure that was set up right from the first tender in
1992, reflects the extensiveness and complexity in both the technical and
legal sense.
Assumed advantages of the DBM contract

A design, build and maintenance contract (DBM) can have several major
advantages for the client as was the assumption compared with the
more traditional methods of putting out to tender:
the design process is focussed on implementation and because of this,
can result in shortening the implementation period, reducing the loss of
time due to delays and result in effective organization of the engineering
(more efficient way of working);
the choice of design within a design, build and maintenance contract is
also determined by the possibility of an efficient implementation;
the design takes into account good accessibility for manpower, equipment and materials (logistics);
better use of the creativity of the market;
unambiguous definition of liabilities;
link between maintenance (M) with design and building (D&B) has the
potential to produce a high quality structure.
A disadvantage compared with more traditional types of contract is, however, the smaller number of possibilities for the client to influence the construction process. In addition, the pricing is established at an early stage in
the project. As a result, the client has less insight into what such a project
should actually cost. This last disadvantage can, however, be an advantage:
the client knows at an early stage what the price ticket is.
Reason for choosing a DBM contract for the Westerschelde

Tunnel project
A reason for choosing a DBM contract for the construction of the Westerschelde Tunnel was the lack of expertise that existed in the Netherlands on
bored tunnels. The building consortium had (and has) this expertise and
therefore it was natural to conclude such a contract. In addition, political
reasons also strongly influenced the choice: the politicians wanted to be
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The Contract and Project Management
263
sure of the price of the project and it therefore seemed attractive to determine a fixed price for the design and construction.
The construction requirements of the client were laid down in reference preconditions which was the basis of the Westerschelde Tunnel contract. It was
then up to the contractor to make a design that fulfilled this requirement. After
the client had appraised and accepted the design, the contractor was able to
start the construction work.
It was stipulated by contract that the contractor when carrying out the construction work was expected to work subject to quality assurance, a type of
self accreditation. This would make it possible that the client should be able
to supervise the implementation phase of the project with a fairly limited
organization.
Part of the contract was also the stipulation that the contractor would be
liable for any defects for a period of ten years. No distinction was made here
between design and implementation faults; the contractor was liable in both
cases. In addition to a design and build contract, an agreement was concluded with KMW for the maintenance of the Westerschelde Tunnel for a
period of ten years after completion.
The client was responsible for land acquisition, spatial planning and issuing
permits for the definitive work, communication with the neighbourhood
and aesthetic aspects. The contractor had to take care of the permits for the
implementation/construction.
Province of Zeeland
(5% shares)
Board of Commissioners
Government
(95% shares)
NV Westerscheldetunnel
(Client)
Water Management, Zeeland Department
(Spatial Planning, Land Acquisition and
Issuing of Permits)
Civil Engineering Division, DirectorateGeneral for Public Works and

Water Management
(Design and Construction
Consultant and Supervisor)
KMW
(Contractor)
Although the contract enabled the client to remain more in the background,
compared with a traditional type of contract, the final result was not completely in accordance with the original requirement of a fully turn-key solution:
much more interaction was involved between the contractor and the client
than had been originally desired. Furthermore, the client also bore the
so-called ultimate risks (disasters, etc.) and risks associated with man-made
objects in the soil larger than 0.5 0.5 0.5 metres.
Risk and project management

Managing risks form an important key for the success of a mega project
such as constructing the Westerschelde Tunnel. Based on risk analyses made
in 1997 and 1998, the risk management was set up in a structural form. This
enabled NV Westerscheldetunnel to control the risks involved in a rational
way and to manage them.
As soon as a project is started, it is of course the intention that it will be
completed within the time and budget available and what is more, meets
the quality requirements set. It is of essential importance that the project is
Fig. 17.1
Organization chart
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managed well. Managing means looking ahead: if the main risks with which
the project might be confronted are mapped out beforehand, all the measures
against this can also be taken; the project organization for example can insure
against damage which occurs during construction; or a project organization
can obtain information beforehand about all the permits required to implement the project and about the time involved for applying and issuing permits.
The management of time, money and quality related risks were particularly
of great importance for NV Westerscheldetunnel: the earlier the tunnel was
completed, the earlier the income from charging a toll would come in, with
which the costs of the investment could be recouped. In addition, a lot of
attention was given to the quality aspects related to the requirement of a
minimum life span of 100 years.
General starting points of project management are:
good preparation based on risk analyses and risk management is of crucial importance for the organization of the project; first of all the risks
must be mapped out. Only when these risks are identified, is it possible
for the organization to be set up;
commercial awareness being well informed about what specifically the
contract means is of crucial importance for the success of a project;
so that surprises do not occur during the implementation, good
co-operation between subprojects and the various disciplines is of essential importance. A mega project such as the Westerschelde Tunnel requires
a multidisciplinary approach;
a project is carried out by people; their safety during the implementation
comes before everything else;
the quality of the final product stands or falls on the quality of the personnel. Making savings here is at the expense of the final result;
the progress of a project is helped by a problem solving attitude, aimed
at co-operation;
the aims of an organization should be simple: time, budget, result and
quality.
Risman method
Risk management is certainly not the exclusive sphere of activity of the risk
manager. It is true that he is the one who draws up the risk profile of a project, he collates, orders and statistically processes data, informs all the parties involved and keeps the process going, but being alert to everything
which might endanger the progress of a project is a matter for everybody
involved in the project.
In the Westerschelde Tunnel project, the RISMAN method was used to analyse
and manage the risks. This method makes it possible to give insight into the
main risks with which a project can be confronted.The RISMAN method makes
it possible to process the risks statistically and to quantify them. Although
mapping out the risks does not mean that they go away, it does provide a
handle for taking adequate management measures: risk management.
Cyclic process
Risk management plays a role at all the stages of a project. It is a cyclic
process which is constantly gone through during the project.
Every stage of a project starts with a risk analysis. This analysis makes it
clear what risks can occur in the project, which could interrupt the progress
of the project. The risks are mapped out systematically and from various
points of view for the entire project process. This not only involves technical
risks but also aspects of a political, legal and organizational nature which
could form a threat to the project. Once all the possible problem areas have
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been specified, then a start is made to map out the measures which could
be taken against these risks. In addition, an estimate is also made of the
expected effect of these management measures. Based on this, a choice can
be made from the various alternatives. The effect of the risk management
measures is assessed regularly and the risks are identified again.
Actualization of risk analysis
After the risk management measures have been evaluated, the RISMAN
cycle has in fact been completed and the risk analysis is actualized. This
means that any new risks which might occur should be analyzed again. It is
then necessary that the specification of new risk management measures
is carried out again to be able to manage the new risks; the process is gone
through again. It is important to have a good picture of the risks in the new
project stage particularly when changing to a new stage in the project.
Risk sharing between contractor and client

In the negotiations prior to the effectuation of the contract, sharing the risks
associated with the mega project played an important role. In sharing the
risks, it is of primary importance that they are assigned to the party that is
also able to bear the risks. A client prefers not to run any risks at all, but if
everything is put on the shoulders of the contractor, this has the effect of
greatly increasing the costs. The question also arises here as to whether it is
at all desirable to dump all the risks at the contractors door. Not only
because confining specific risks is not part of the contractors core business
but also because the client often ends up having to deal with the consequences of certain risks anyway. This is mainly because the environment
forces the client to fulfil its traditional client role, contrary to concluded contracts; eventually the consequences of certain risks come back via legal procedures to the client. In the agreement with KMW, the customary risks for a
design and build contract are covered. Two important stipulations (penalty
clause and boring and building risk) are dealt with in outline below.
Maximizing the penalty
It is customary to include a penalty clause to compensate the loss which the
client suffers, in the case of late completion (including no income from toll
charges). The ideal situation for a client would be that the penalty would
have no maximum attached to it and the contractor is motivated to finish
and complete the work as quickly as possible. In the case of an exceptional
project such as the construction of the Westerschelde Tunnel there is a
chance that the boring process goes wrong completely: numerous disasters
can occur which can cause considerable delays. For contractors there is of
course a limit to the risk that they can bear, also where it concerns the ability of financing penalties. The motivation for tackling such a project in this
way will not be very great if at the same time it could mean that the continued existence of your own company is in danger. In addition, the compulsory liquidation of a building consortium does not help a client because
another party has to be found to finish the work. It was therefore decided in
consultation with KMW to agree to a penalty of 136,000 euro for each day
that completion was delayed with a maximum of 13.6 million euro, a maximum that would be reached after a delay of 100 days.
Building and boring risk
It was agreed in the contract that a number of specific risks would be explicitly included in the implementation risk taken by the building consortium
KMW. Especially important here are the risks concerning the condition of
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the soil: the soil risk was contractually laid down with the contractor whereby
a number of specific matters in this arrangement are excluded. In a project
such as the construction of the Westerschelde Tunnel, the soil which is bored
through is an important source of uncertainty and any obstacles in the ground
to be bored through form an important matter for concern. In the neighbourhood of Terneuzen there was for example the possibility of a primeval forest
of which the petrified remains might possibly cause problems. Old shipwrecks, erratic boulders or old foundations could also block the tunnel boring
machines with all its consequences. Smaller obstacles could be removed but
man-made objects in the soil larger than 0.5 0.5 0.5 metres could result
in lengthy delays and possibly even in the loss of a tunnel boring machine.
This uncertainty can be translated into either additional (cost-increasing)
facilities which the contractor provides, or into liability afterwards due to
unforeseen cost-increasing circumstances. In order to limit the costs for the
client, it was advisable to have a more detailed soil investigation carried out
by the contractor and to share the soil risks between the parties as explicitly
as possible. This also happened during the negotiation process from the first
offer right up to the final contract.
Fig. 17.2
Inside the IBM
Experiences
General
The expected advantage of a good integration between design and implementation which should result from the design, build and maintenance contract, did not live up totally to its promise. In fact there was little difference
from more traditional ways of working. The reason for this is that various firms
of consulting engineers were engaged for the design work and the implementation for a large part was usually undertaken by subcontractors that set
to work with or without an invitation to tender. Various subprojects were
concerned (design, concrete production, roads, tunnel, operation and suchlike)
which indeed contractually connected to each other by the main contractor but
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267
without there really being optimum co-ordination between design and implementation. As in the traditional situation, designing and building are separate
worlds, this separation in actual practice at the Westerschelde Tunnel was not
eliminated in many cases, in spite of the design and build contract.
General contractual clause about unforeseen risks causes interference
The boring, building and design risks were defined within the contract in
addition to a standard (umbrella) article concerning unforeseen risks, intended
for other matters. This nevertheless caused unnecessary interference. It
would perhaps have been more advisable if a number of large risks had been
elaborated in the contract based on research, and to reach agreement about
penalty arrangements (spread of risks concerning costs) and not to have
included an article about unforeseen risks.
Environment sets new safety requirements

A project can also after a contract has been signed be confronted with
new requirements which are set by the environment. The safety of underground structures was right at the centre of interest in the Netherlands in
the mid 1990s. Next to the statistical estimate of safety risks carried out, a
scenario analysis was also required and from this the requirements were
strengthened. This specifically translated into doubling the number of cross
connections between the tunnel tubes from 13 to 26. Bearing in mind a
possible disaster, an escape route had to be created every 250 metres
instead of every 500 metres. Furthermore, the heat-resistant cladding of the
lining also had to be considerably thicker.
Fig. 17.3a
Extending the scope;
cross connection
under construction
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Fig. 17.3b
Extending the scope;
cross connection
under construction
In order to include these additional safety precautions as additional work, the

already concluded contract was renegotiated and this resulted in a proportionally large cost item: the amendments to the contract due to the safety precautions were 50% of the total costs of modifications. The most desirable
situation is therefore that everything to do with safety which requires permits is provided for prior to the contract being (finally) concluded and this is
perhaps a point of improvement for a DBM contract. Perhaps dividing the
contract into phases can provide a solution here.
Procedures
With respect to the boring part of the project, it can be concluded that the
contract had a certain degree of effectiveness, a conclusion that, however,
did not apply to the roads and engineering structures. The reason for this is
that environmental influences were such that the client had to make too
many changes to the reference preconditions with the result that the tendering advantage which the client had, was lost. Negotiating about changes
after the contract has been concluded see also the above has very little
advantage for the client.
A large number of procedures had to be undertaken about 400 of which
especially the land acquisition which was necessary to carry out the project,
was a tricky problem. A delay of 4 months arose, partly due to delays during
the land acquisition procedures and partly due to the extension of the contract (for example including the additional cross connections). The consequence of this was that the completion date of 14th November 2002 was
postponed to 15th March 2003.
Ownership of land is one of the most legally protected matters all over the
world, and certainly in the Netherlands. The acquisition of land therefore
requires great precision. Compulsory purchase of land is only possible by
law, if it can be proved with 100% certainty that the project is going through
and in addition the client must be able to show what the project will look like.
This means that the design has to be extremely detailed, and agreement has
to be reached with the authorities granting the permits. Only after this, formal compulsory purchase can begin, which is delicate and requires at least
14 months to go through, whereas the contractor wants to start immediately
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269
in a manner of speaking with the construction work. The necessity of the

compulsory purchase has to be proven because it is a mortal sin to wrongfully compulsorily purchase (too much) land.
Immediately after the contract was concluded, the client started all the procedures, which had to be gone through. The details of the design, which the
contractor was working on at that time, however, lead to a number of substantial modifications. The client under pressure from the region had also
decided to make major changes to the design. The result was that the procedures which had to be undertaken also had to be revised. This eventually
resulted in a huge pressure of time. It was agreed with the contractor that it
would be able to start the construction work on a certain date and failure to
fulfil this agreement would result in a claim for compensation. In order to
prevent these claims and to speed up the land acquisition procedures, land
had to be purchased at higher prices.
Fig. 17.4
For the construction of
the approach roads a
substantial amount of
soil had to be acquired
Go, no go clause in the contract

The reason that the construction of the tunnel was started on the southern
bank was also dictated by problems concerned with fitting in with the
spatial planning. Not only was the construction of the starting shaft in
Zeeuwsch-Vlaanderen relatively easy technically speaking, the infrastructure required was also present and the zoning plan already provided for a
fixed river crossing with approach roads. This was not the case on the northern side: the Municipality of Borssele was being obstructive and the zoning
plan was scrapped after the contract was concluded with KMW so a new
procedure had to be started up.
The contract provided for a go, no go clause in the event that it would turn
out not to be possible to complete all the procedures successfully: the work
until then merely engineering and preparation could be cancelled until mid
August 1997 whereby the contract could be dissolved. The contractor would
then be paid compensation of 10 million euro.
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Since a new zoning plan procedure had to be undertaken in the Municipality

of Borssele, the project came under pressure. The options were:
continue in full and run the risk that the project would be cancelled at a
later stage due to the dissolution yet again of the zoning plan, which was
being drawn up in Borssele. The costs involved in this risk were about
165 million euro;
continue conditionally, whereby the contract would be dissolved. The
project could be restarted later, when the zoning plan of Borssele had
been finalized. The costs of this option: 10 million euro.
The client was of the opinion incidentally also on the basis of a risk analysis carried out that the likelihood was very small that the zoning plan
which was being drawn up again would be dissolved, and was in favour of
continuing the project in full. The chance of having to pay 10 million euro
in continuing conditionally, was 100%, whereas in contrast there was only
a small chance that, in the case of continuing in full 165 million euro
would have to be paid. The minister for Transport, Public Works and Water
Management decided to allow the project to go ahead in full.
On 19th March 1999, the Council of State declared that all the objections to
the Westerschelde Oeververbinding zoning plan of Borssele were unfounded.
The zoning plan was therefore irrevocable.
Management of the surroundings and stakeholder-management

It is self evident that infrastructure projects have an enormous impact on
the surroundings, an impact that is not always experienced as being equally
desirable: owners of land, people living in the neighbourhood and administrative bodies often have other interests than those of the initiator and this
possible conflict of interests carries risks.
In order to be able to adequately anticipate, respond to and prevent the project running into delays with all the financial consequences of this, management of the surroundings is of crucial importance. This involves constantly
listing the bottlenecks and being in contact with the surroundings, for example an association of owners, looking for solutions together.
As soon as the classical method of land acquisition threatened to get
stuck, one of these solutions was found in the client issuing an offer of a
co-operation premium: if land owners abandoned legal procedures, they
received an amount for their land that was 20% higher than the value of the
land; a measure which turned out to be extremely effective.
It is important that the client itself takes responsibility for the management of
the surroundings and it is not passed onto the contractor. Not only does this
not form part of its core business, the contractor in addition is not a permanently involved party and will therefore show less interest in the surroundings.
In other words, striving for a long-term relationship does not have priority
for the contractor. The client is also always the first to be held accountable,
even if issues are concerned such as implementation permits which, contractually speaking, certainly come under the responsibility of the contractor.
In other words, this is not easily compatible with the principles of a design
and build contract.
Communication
Communication plays a large role in the management of the surroundings.
A project such as the Westerschelde Tunnel can only be realized if public
support for this is sufficiently great and there is political will for it. Long
before the first spade went into the ground, communication concerning the
Westerschelde Tunnel project was therefore primarily aimed at propagating
goodwill for the project and was characterized by an active and very open
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271
set up. This policy worked well: initially it was a matter of a hostile project
environment, gradually public opinion turned around and the project was
received with increasing enthusiasm.
Problems with the boring

The greatest project risks were related to boring the tunnel tubes and it was
precisely here that the restrictions in the contract were clearly visible. First
Fig. 17.5a
Damage to the lining
Fig. 17.5b
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of all, a 6-week delay arose at the start of the boring process due to problems with boring through the impermeable block. The next 300 metres were
bored without too many problems, but the deeper the boring machines
went on their way to the deepest part of the boring trajectory and the
pressure was increasing, the more a structural pattern of damage became
evident in the construction of the lining. The problem first had to be investigated and the boring process was stopped. After a solution had been found
for the dimensioning problem of the segments, the boring process was also
restarted. All too soon, at that time the boring machines had nearly reached
the deepest point, new problems arose: the shields of both machines
appeared to be distorted and the boring process was stopped again to
investigate this problem and to find a solution.
Delay of at least 8 months; no more incentive
All the problems taken together resulted in a delay of at least 8 months, of
course depending on the later progress. This meant that the penalty clause
included in the contract (penalty of 136,000 euro for each day of the delay
up to a maximum of 13.6 million euro 100 days) was no longer any incentive for the contractor to complete the project quickly. The client feared that
the contractor would only focus on cost optimization, which could mean
that fewer people would be employed for example, to save the high wage
costs for overtime. The idea that the project would be completed during
regular working hours was not very attractive for the client.
The client then had to make the choice of whether to go to court or not. Central
factors when considering this were particularly the planning in relation to
terminating the ferry crossing and the loss of toll charges as a result of later
completion. The client decided not to go to court, but to reach agreement
with the building consortium. The result of this was a so-called package deal.
Introduction of bonus/malus system
It was agreed in the package deal that the completion date would be shifted
to 14th November 2003 and the penalty of 13.6 million euro incurred until
then would be waived. A very important element was the introduction of a
bonus/malus system: for each day delay, the contractor had to pay a penalty
of 136,000 euro, whereas a day gained with respect to the completion date
would give the contractor a bonus of 68,000 euro.
Fig. 17.6
One of the acceleration
measures concerned
the construction of the
installation building at
the northern access
ramp on the caisson
which served as the
receiving shaft. In this
way the fitting out
could be started
sooner
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This prospect of a bonus turned out to be extremely effective and by taking

additional measures the speed of the boring process and the fitting out work
went ahead by leaps and bounds. The tunnel was eventually put into operation on 14th March 2003, 8 months earlier than was agreed in the package deal.
Positive incentive works better than a penalty
The conclusion would seem justified that the introduction of a continuous
positive incentive in the form of a bonus payment has a much greater effect
on the progress of a project than if there is only a (limited) penalty arrangement. However, for the client it is not always easy to assess what a feasible
plan is and to determine within what period such a project can be reasonably realized. There was hardly any experience with bored tunnels in the
Netherlands, and although many projects had already been carried out
abroad, these experiences could not be copied exactly: each project has its
own specific circumstances and therefore no hard statements could be
made about the boring speeds to be realized.
Until the date on which the package deal was concluded, much less progress
was made than the previously expected 12 metres per day and nothing indicated that this production rate would suddenly go ahead by leaps and bounds.
The completion date of 15th November 2003 therefore seemed to be very realistic. The fact that the contractor was able to complete the project much earlier
is chiefly due to logistical and organizational measures: there was still an awful
lot that could be optimized, however, not without considerable investments.
Not only were delays as a result of logistical problems solved to a large extent,
also the introduction of a competitive element and a remuneration system
within the building consortium certainly improved the boring process.
External quality assurance

Monitoring versus supervision
The quality of the way in which the construction of a tunnel is carried out
and the quality of the construction itself are of enormous importance for the
final result. The building in of tunnel rings, for example is an irreversible
process. Once part of the lining, the segments can no longer be removed and
replaced, even though this might well be desirable, for example because of
damage.
The stipulation was included in the contract that the contractor would carry
out the project subject to quality assurance and with this would check
and control the quality of its own working method and of its products. The
idea behind external quality assurance is that the client can monitor the
implementation of the work from a relatively large distance. If it turns out that
the contractor is not able to deliver the agreed quality, this monitoring can be
converted into supervision, whereby it is checked much more explicitly
whether the contractor is carrying out its work properly. If the contractors
quality system works well, it is possible to supervise the work less intensively.
Assessment plan
The client uses an assessment plan to answer the question as to whether
the contractors quality plan functions as it should. This includes three
types of assessments: system assessment, process assessment and product assessment.
These assessments must make clear whether the contractor carries out
all the quality assurance measures in accordance with its quality plan, whether
the checks carried out by the quality assurance personnel also actually
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take place and whether they are correct as far as contents are concerned.
The better the contractors quality assurance system works, the more the
clients attention can switch from product assessments to process assessments and system assessments.
System assessment
A system assessment focuses on the system with which the contractor checks
and guarantees its quality. This assessment considers whether the planned
assurance measures are carried out. In addition, attention is also focussed
on business operations, which it is true, do not directly result in a product,
but which do create conditions to enable the production process to run well.
Process assessment
A process assessment focuses on the process in which a product is realized.
All of this is described in the working method descriptions drawn up by
the contractor, the so-called implementation schedule and work plans.
Following the work processes on the site, such as ring construction, fitting a
heat-resistant covering, or installing a step barrier, are examples of process
assessments.
Product assessment
A product assessment focuses directly on the finished product. Based on
tests and checks, the client assesses the products on the degree to which
they fulfil set requirements and/or technical specifications. Product assessments provide information with which the quality records made by the contractor can be assessed for their reliability. Measuring the compaction of a
sand bed, verifying a measurement, taking asphalt and concrete samples
and checking a drawing, are all examples of a product assessment.
Fig. 17.7
The cable suspended
U-shaped bridge;
as a result of quality
problems, repairs had
to be carried out
shortly after opening
Experience with external quality assurance contractor quality

assurance
During the Westerschelde Tunnel project, the client established that the contractors quality assurance did not always function optimally. Deviations
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were determined too often by the client and not by the contractors assurance
organization. As a result, the client was obliged to put the emphasis more
on product assessments and to go from system and process-oriented monitoring to product control or even supervision.
A factor making the situation more difficult was that the contract did not
provide for the sanctioning of defects which had been determined during
the process and system assessments. Only when critical deviations of the
product were established, could payments be withheld.
In practice, it turned out that the contractor was still not sufficiently
familiar with working under external quality assurance. For the personnel
working on the primary process, quality assurance did not generally have
the highest priority; it was more important to bore and build as quickly as
possible. Due to the enormous financial interests that are at stake, the question is justified as to whether it is at all desirable to carry out such a large
project under external quality assurance. The financial interests of a contractor are so great that it is perhaps going too far to ask the contractor to
reject its own product if it does not meet the quality requirements.
The inadequate functioning of the quality assurance system has resulted,
within the experience of the Westerschelde Tunnel project as already
mentioned above, in the client altering the assessment strategy from monitoring at a distance to a stricter supervision, certainly when the essential
parts (which cannot be repaired later or capital intensive parts) of the project were concerned. A big concomitant advantage of this is that the client
can have its own file; in the case of any claims, he can fall back on his own
observations.
Safety during the construction stage

In December 1999, a major accident occurred in the western tunnel tube:
four carriages loaded with concrete segments became detached and travelled at high speed into the tunnel where they crashed into the back of the
tunnel boring machine. Fortunately, nobody was injured, but the material
damage was considerable. As a result of this accident, the Health and Safety
Inspectorate stopped the work for several weeks.
After the accident, the client adopted a much more active safety policy. In
addition to including safety care in the project plan, specific measures were
taken such as the formation of a Safety Collaboration Group and the recording of accidents for trend analyses and improvement measures. The analysis,
determination of trends and carrying out improvement measures was a
continuous process from that time.
Initially, the NV Westerscheldetunnel and KMW both had their own safety
teams, whereby the clients team checked the contractors team. Both were
responsible for safety but could interpret this differently and also assess
(un)safe situations differently. With the setting up of the Safety Collaboration Group, the two safety teams were combined, so that all expertise
and capacity was collected together and the topic of safety could be worked
on more efficiently and effectively. The team, in which a lot of expertise
was brought in from the process industry, consisted of so-called higher
safety experts, who worked part-time and under the supervision of the chief
quality assurance officer of the client and the responsible contractors
group head.
The safety team focused on working out a series of specific measures, particularly with respect to the recording and analysing of accidents, incidents,
dangerous situations, promoting safety consciousness and drawing up
additional rules and regulations.
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Fig. 17.8a
Train incident
Fig. 17.8b
Train incident
New measures
In spite of all the measures, the safety team once more observed a worrying
downward trend in the first quarter of 2001. Incidents and near accidents
increased, while advice from the safety officers was ignored and regulations
were not complied with. Agreements which had been made with managerial staff were not consistently carried through and it also turned out that
there was insufficient checking of the agreements made. In the monthly
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277
safety report for January 2001, a remarkably high number of incidents were
reported with trains in the tunnels and on the marshalling yard. A number of
improvement measures eventually resulted in an increase in the safety
level:
increasing the traffic control and the maintenance personnel;
tightening up of procedures;
more time for systematic maintenance to trains and the track.
Attention to safety
In conclusion, it can be stated that safety had low priority in the first stage of
the implementation; the attention was especially on the innovative nature of
this equally unique, large and complex project and safety scored low. Not in
the last place, because in the event of defects, there are hardly any systems
in place to sanction failure, such as is the case for example in the process
industry. In the next stage of the project compelled by circumstances and
mainly initiated by the quality management of the client the passive safety
policy was turned into an active policy. In this phase, a continuous process
of recording, analysis and taking improvement measures was started. This
resulted in a continuous fall in the number of accidents and incidents.
Fig. 17.9
Alls well that ends
well; arrival of the
tunnel boring machine
in Ellewoutsdijk
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18 MAINTENANCE ASPECTS
F.W.J. van de Linde and D. Grevink

Development of monitoring system
The importance of inspections and monitoring
Investigation into monitoring possibilities
Conclusions of investigation
Maintenance system of the Westerschelde Tunnel
Maintenance policy document
Maintenance concept of NV Westerscheldetunnel
Maintenance plan
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Introduction
The Westerschelde Tunnel is the first bored tunnel in the Netherlands with
a large diameter to be constructed at such great depth and in a corrosive
environment (salt water). Due to the visibility onto the concrete tunnel
walls being eliminated because of the application of the road foundations
and the heat-resistant cladding, it is not easy to assess the condition of
the lining. However, inspection and monitoring is of vital importance: a life
span requirement of 100 years has been set on the design, but does the
tunnel also comply with this in practice; does the reinforcement, particularly at the repair spots for example, corrode sooner than expected? What
maintenance is necessary, should repairs be carried out and what are the
costs involved in this? The contractor is responsible for the maintenance
of the tunnel in the first 10 years. Yet, to ensure adequate maintenance,
the first requirement is to have a good picture of the processes which
being out of sight play a role in the lining. This is particularly important
because specifically during the starting phase of the construction of the
tunnel, damages came about to the tunnel lining.
However, at the start of the project the monitoring of bored tunnels was
still rather virgin territory. The specific design requirements in combination
with the exceptional implementation aspects and their consequences,
therefore made it necessary to initiate new developments in the field of
inspections and monitoring. The client therefore actually decided to have
a pilot carried out which incorporated various detection technology tests
in order to examine how a monitoring system could be designed.
Firstly, this chapter deals with the development of a monitoring system for
the Westerschelde Tunnel, thereafter the maintenance system is dealt with.
Development of monitoring system

The importance of inspections and monitoring
In 1999 the importance of inspections and monitoring was again clearly
emphasized due to a serious incident which occurred in a tunnel in Japan: as
a consequence of negligent maintenance a heavy piece of concrete (1,800 kg)
fell out of the tunnel wall in a train tunnel. Monitoring and inspecting must be
geared as such, that every possible damage factor is recognised timeously, so
that the tunnel can be optimally managed and maintained on this basis.
As mentioned before, the Westerschelde Tunnel was designed for a life span
of 100 years, in which the corrosion of the reinforcement of the tunnel wall
has been taken as the normative service limit state. Corrosion comes about
in places on the inner surfaces and joints of the segments due to the penetration of CO2 (carbonatation) and on the outer surfaces due to the penetration of chloride which comes from the salty ground water. The inner surfaces
and joints are also exposed to the penetration of chloride due to leakage of
the salty ground water and thawing salts. The limit state is a service limit
state in which a reliability index of at least 1.8 applies. This means accepting
a 1% chance that reinforcement could corrode within 100 years.
Damage during the implementation
In calculating the design of the segments on life span, no consideration was
taken into account of damage occurring to the lining during the construction
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Maintenance Aspects
281
phase. However, during the implementation there was damage to the concrete segments as well as to the rubber sealing sections which take care of
the waterproofing. In the first phase of the boring process the number of
cases of damage were quite high, but were soon substantially reduced due
to the taking of a number of implementation measures. The damage spots
were repaired as much as possible, but it remained unclear whether the
result in respect of the quality, was comparable to the original materials.
Also, damage on the outside of the segments could not be detected and so
could not be repaired.
Fig. 18.1
Although the repair spots are no longer visible, it is known where they are
situated: every segment is provided with a sequence number with which all
the details concerning the relevant segment are accessible. This information
not only concerns the manufacture of the segment, but also the location
where the segment has been built in. Besides, in the cases of damage a
record was made as to what repairs have been undertaken.
In view of the desired life span, it is most desirable to have instruments
available with which one can establish how the repair spots behave. These
instruments (inspection and monitoring technology) must provide an
insight into:
leakages; leakages can act most destructively on concrete, but also on
heat-resistant cladding;
stresses at the spots of repair and of cracks caused as a result thereof;
the degree of ageing and deterioration of the repair materials;
the loosening or loose repair spots;
the risk of corrosion of the reinforcement steel due to the penetration of
chloride;
the location where macro-cell corrosion occurs or can occur due to the
penetration of chlorides;
the location of major damages to the outside of the tunnel wall which
occurred during the construction phase;
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Fig. 18.2
Repair work
possible shifts of the tunnel rings and segments due to changes in pressure;
deterioration of the sealing between segments and rings;
changes in the quality of the heat-resistant cladding.
Macro-cell corrosion One of the problems which could occur due to the
relatively thin lining of the Westerschelde Tunnel in respect of other tunnel
types, is macro-cell corrosion. This factor could occur when the reinforcement
of a concrete cross section which has been saturated with water on one side,
continues from the saturated section through to the non-saturated sections.
Fig. 18.3
The principle of macrocell corrosion
Water containing
chloride
Cl
Anode
Air (inside)
Adequate electrical
conductivity?
2H2O ?
2Fe2
2Fe(OH)2
4e
O2
Cathode
Moisture front
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Maintenance Aspects
With this type of corrosion, also known as galvanic corrosion, the reinforcement steel becomes depassivated due to chloride in the saturated side,
whereby simultaneously on the side which is not saturated with water the
aerated side adequate oxygen can enter.
Attention for this factor is of direct importance to the WesterscheldeTunnel: the
reinforcement on the outside of the tunnel could corrode due to an oxygen
supply on the inside of the wall. This could occur in the short term at places
where the reinforcement on the outside has little or no covering, for example
due to (unknown) damages which occurred during the building-in process.
Investigation into monitoring possibilities

As mentioned, the client undertook investigations into the possibilities to
monitor aspects in the Westerschelde Tunnel which are relevant for the life
span and the management of the tunnel. To this end, a pilot monitoring system was built-in during the construction and fitting out of the tunnel. The
most important limiting condition for the investigation was that the monitoring on the life span aspects had to be geared towards the determining of
the exceeding of the service limit states. This provides the operator of the
tunnel with the possibility of intervening, prior to the chance of an ultimate
service limit being exceeded becoming unacceptably big.
Prior to the design and building-in of the pilot monitoring system, it was
firstly determined on the basis of a so-called potential investigation, what
the most suitable locations in the tunnel were to undertake the measurements. Low potentials could indicate corrosion and thus possible damage
to the outside of the lining. It is precisely these critical locations which provide the most relevant and informative data for a monitoring system, certainly where it concerns warning detection sensors. Besides, the locations
in the tunnel preferably had to be well accessible and hopefully would provide altered data in the short term. Particularly the places where repairs also
had been carried out on the inside of the tunnel, pre-eminently made these
locations suitable for monitoring.
Monitoring repairs
The spots of damage which arose during the construction of the rings were,
where possible, repaired with a cement mortar. The possibility exists that
these repair spots would loosen from the lining in the course of time. The
direct consequences of this may not be serious, because the stainless steel
reinforcement net in the fire-resistant cladding acts as a safety net. The
chances that pieces of rubble end up on the road surface are therefore
extremely small: the loose repairs are more or less kept in place. At the
same time this means that the loosening of repaired spots would generally
not be visible, certainly not at the bottom of the tunnel, where the lining is
covered with the sandcement stabilization.
However, it is of extreme importance for the management and maintenance
of the tunnel, to have an insight into the behaviour of repairs. Not only has
the protective function of a loosened repair been lost, it also means an
improper load of the reinforcement network of the heat-resistant cladding.
In order to determine the loosening of repairs, there was a possible choice
of various types of sensors: resistance strain gauges, displacement transducers (with a wider range) and the use of a breaking strings with which
cracking can be determined. The choice was made for the use of distortion
sensors based on the resistance strain gauge principle. This provided the
best chance to observe an altered signal in the short term and thus distortion. The resistance strain gauges were especially developed for application
in concrete and positioned as such, that the loosening of a repaired spot
could be determined in two directions.
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Monitoring moisture
Leakages can occur when the rubber sealing sections surrounding the segments fail as a result of damage or age.
It is very difficult to make firm (and accurate) statements about the behaviour of these sealing sections in relation to the life span of the lining. The
reason for this is, amongst other things, that prolonged investigation into
rubber sections cannot or can hardly be accelerated. Therefore, laboratory
tests dont provide a solution. Aside from that, the prolonged behaviour of
rubber, to a major degree, is determined by the stresses and distortions
which are present in the sections. These forces particularly played a part
during the building-in of the tunnel ring segments, and details about the
sizes of the stresses and distortions and the creep and relaxation which
were associated therewith, were hardly available. Besides, the composition
of the rubber varies from manufacturer to manufacturer and sometimes a
manufacturer supplies a number of compositions or he changes the composition in the course of time. This makes the gathering of reliable information for prolonged investigation difficult.
Fig. 18.4
Damage to the rubber
sealing section
Discharge pumps There is hardly a single tunnel which is fully watertight

and that is why there are always pumps present which pump the water
away from the tunnel. Per tunnel tube, the Westerschelde Tunnel has two
pump cellars, located at the deepest points of vertical alignment, one under
the Pas van Terneuzen and one under Everingen. There are two pumps in
every cellar. The measuring of the discharge of the four pump systems
provides amongst others important input for the monitoring of the total
leakage in the tunnel.
Leakage detection Aside from measuring the total quantity of water which is
pumped out of the tunnel, the location of a leak can also be determined
relatively simply. The presence of water can be shown by means of a certain
type of sensor cable, and also in a certain configuration the location of
the leak can be traced. The choice for this type of sensor was made because
the presence of (conductive) water could be shown immediately, and the
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Maintenance Aspects
monitoring of a large portion of the lining was possible in a relatively cheap

way. There had not been any experience yet in civil engineering applications
with this type of sensor, but during the monitoring of, for example computer
rooms, cellars and storage areas, already a lot of experience had been
gained.
The cable Sensor Cable Resistive (SCR) consists of two or four cores. At
the outer end two cores are connected via a resistor. The sheath of these two
cores is perforated across the full length. When the cable comes into contact
with water and there is a short circuit between both cores in the cable, the
resistance of the entire system will reduce strongly. By means of added
cores in the cable, the location of the moisture load can be determined reasonably accurately.
Positioning moisture front The monitoring of moisture is not only of
importance in view of leakages, but also because of the possible occurrence
of macro-cell corrosion in the tunnel segments. In order to be able to make
a statement about this, it is important to know where the moisture front in
the concrete is located. A (ground) water pressure is permanently present
on the outside of the tunnel wall. Through evaporation the concrete can dry
out to a certain depth inside the tunnel, so that oxygen may freely enter the
inner reinforcement. Aside from this, it is important to determine what role
the heat-resistant cladding plays in the water regime in the lining. To be able
to answer these questions, some multi-ring electrodes were built in.
Fig. 18.5
Representation of
positioning of
moisture front
Moisture front
H
x
(d x) air
H2O vapour
evaporation
H2O
Penetration and absorption
A multi-ring electrode measures the electrical resistance of the surrounding

concrete and this resistance forms an indirect measurement of the moisture
content: the higher the moisture content in concrete, the lower the resistance. In any case, it is not the absolute moisture content that is measured,
but the measurements provide a picture of the development of the quantity
of moisture in the course of time.
The best results are achieved when the sensors can be cast into the concrete, but there was also some experience with the electrodes having been
built-in afterwards. The electrode consists of multiple metal rings spaced a
short distance from each other. The multi-ring electrodes are placed into a
drilled hole in the concrete, and the space between the rings is filled with
grout which has an electrical resistance comparable with that of the surrounding concrete. Using this technique, an indication of the moisture
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content can be attained at various depths (7 till 42 mm, with 5 mm steps)

under the concrete surface. This range is related to the cover of 50 mm.
Monitoring macro-cell corrosion
It is of importance to establish to what extent the lining is exposed to the
macro-cell corrosion factor. The expectation is that there are damage spots
on the outside of the lining whereby the reinforcement of segments could
possibly be in contact with salt water. This could cause the coming about
of macro-cell corrosion, which in any case would also be dependent on the
positioning of the moisture front in the concrete.
Based on the extensive potential measurements, it appeared that in a number
of segments a rather low potential was present. Especially in the keystones,
almost twice as many lower values were present than in the other segments.
If that potential is reduced further, the chance of corrosion increases. It is
therefore of importance to be able to monitor the potential changes in the
course of time. In this, use can be made of reference-electrodes.
There is a wide choice of reference-electrodes at hand for the carrying out
of potential measurements. The choice was made for the building-in of
manganese dioxide electrodes due to their utmost reliability and extensive
stability. Manganese dioxide electrodes (MnO2) consist of a paste of manganese dioxide on a graphite core material in a 0.5 molar NaOH-solution
with a cement-bonded plug for the contact with the surrounding concrete.
Aside from that it was also considered to monitor the chloride content in the
concrete. Various chloride sensors are being developed, but all of them have
the disadvantage that they are still insufficiently stable in the time-scale that
chloride penetration takes place. No tests were therefore done with such
sensors.
The measuring of atmospheric circumstances in the tunnel
Aside from the abovementioned measurements, it is useful to measure the
temperature, relative humidity and the carbon dioxide content at a number
of locations in the tunnel tubes. These atmospheric circumstances are of
influence for the damage factor which could occur on the inside of the
lining. The measuring of the atmosphere inside the tunnel is of importance
for the interpretation of the monitoring results and for the designing of new
tunnels.
Conclusions of investigation
When it was decided to carry out the investigation, a large portion of the
Westerschelde Tunnel had already been fitted-out: the lining was completely
finished and to a large extent the fire-resistant cladding had been applied.
Sensors could be placed relatively simply only at the places where there
was not yet a heat-resistant cladding. It is therefore strongly recommended
for new bored tunnels which are to be constructed in the Netherlands, that
the monitoring of life span aspects are already included in the design stage.
It is only then that an optimal monitoring system can be designed. Besides,
the costs are then much lower than if the sensors have to be built in
afterwards.
With the pilot test it was proven that it is possible to successfully build
the different sensors into a bored tunnel and this was reason enough for the
client to decide to set up a monitoring system based on the pilot system.
During the test period all the sensors placed provided confidence-inspiring
measuring values. Due to the events for which the sensors have to warn,
not being expected in the first years of the existence of the tunnel, it will still
take a while before the sensors will actually be able to prove themselves.
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Fig. 18.6
Reading of sensor
information
There are different possibilities for automating the readings of the sensors.
For the leakage detection cable for example, a permanent monitoring system with a warning by means of an LED is possible, but for this, the measuring cabinet must be connected to the supply mains. A similar solution can
also be realised for other means of detection. Aside from that it is possible
to read all the sensors remotely, so that analysis of the data is possible by
means of a computer in the tunnel operating centre. For this, a connection
must be made to the information systems present in the tunnel.
In any case the resistance strain gauge measurements are carried out permanently and recorded locally in the transmitter in the tunnel roof near the
sensors. This data can be downloaded onto a laptop computer situated at
road level.
Maintenance system of the Westerschelde

Tunnel
Aside from the design and the construction of the Westerschelde Tunnel and
the approach roads, the contracting combination KMW is also responsible
for the maintenance of the tunnel and the approach roads for the first 10
years after completion. The most important requirement set for this maintenance, is that the maintenance must be carried out as such, that the river
crossing still complies with the functional requirements incorporated in the
reference limiting conditions after 10 years.
The starting point for the development of the maintenance system was the
Maintenance Policy Document, which was part of the offer by the contracting combination KMW for the design, construction and maintenance of the
tunnel. The policy document, of which the first written version already
appeared in the early 1990s, stems from 1995. The assumption was that
KMW would take on all the tasks with regard to management, maintenance
and monitoring. Exceptions to this were the policy making in the field of
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management, the monitoring and guiding of the traffic and the monitoring
of the tunnel system from the control room in the service building.
Maintenance policy document

In respect of the maintenance to be carried out to the various sections of the
river crossing, the maintenance policy document provided for a differentiation between the daily surveillance, the visual and technical inspections
and the annually recurring maintenance. The method of maintenance was
specified for the installations in which scheduled preventive maintenance,
condition-dependent maintenance, usage-dependent maintenance and
corrective maintenance were differentiated. Dependent on the importance
(vital, important, or not important) of the various sections of the river crossing, one of these methods could be applied. This was drawn up in a schedule for all activities during the first ten years after the tunnel has been put
into operation. This schedule indicated at what frequency the described fixed
activities (inspection, maintenance, replacement) would be carried out:
the maintenance to roads and roadsides outside the tunnel is limited to a
maximum of one driving lane during a working day between 09.00 and
16.00 hours.
in order to carry out maintenance activities in the tunnel, every two
weeks one tube will be closed off from Friday 20.00 hours to Saturday
08.00 hours.
for technical inspections and major maintenances which are carried out
once every fifteen years, one tunnel tube will be closed for 3 weeks from
Monday to Friday between 20.00 and 07.00 hours.
Fig. 18.7
Maintenance work
Requirements for the design and construction in view of maintenance

Requirements were set for the design and the construction of the tunnel
which concerned the maintenance during the operational phase. In the first
instance the design and the elaboration of the (main)sections had to be
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maintenance-friendly. Aside from that, inspection facilities had to be applied

with which the life span and the reliability of the various (main)sections of
the structure could be determined. In addition, the (main)sections had to
be accessible, and finally the cable gallery had to be accessible from both
mainland ends. The last two conditions were amply complied with. Both
cable galleries are accessible from both ends and extensive attention was
paid to the accessibility of all (main)sections.
Maintenance-friendly design In respect of the first condition a
maintenance-friendly design it can be noted that the attention in the first
instance, was particularly geared towards the realization of functionality,
whereas the check pertaining to a maintenance-friendly implementation or
design occurred to a limited degree. The maintenance-friendly design was a
recurring theme during the preliminary consultations between KMW and
NV Westerscheldetunnel. This is reflected particularly in the layout of the
tunnel, in which almost all the installations are accessible for maintenance
when a single driving lane (and not a whole tunnel tube) is closed off.
Monitoring system In order to determine the reliability of the tunnel
construction, inspection facilities have been applied on a limited scale so
as to (particularly) monitor the leak water and the quality of repairs to the
lining. With the facilities that were applied in the first instance however, it
was insufficiently possible to be able to make credible statements about
the quality of the lining. That is why an arrangement was made with the
contractor to further extend the monitoring programme into a representative
measuring programme.
Aside from the quality of the lining, the functioning of the tunnel installations is naturally of critical importance for the tunnel users. In order to keep
an eye on the reliability of the installations, two tracks were worked out: on
the one hand a large number of faults are signalled directly to the tunnel
operator which meant that an on-line monitoring programme as it were,
was used. On the other hand the inspection schedule is worked out in the
maintenance plan on the basis of a chance-of-failure analysis. In this the
results of the inspections are expressed in a chance-of-failure, which if necessary, provides the input for the actual maintenance activities.
Fig. 18.8
Maintenance
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Maintenance concept of NV Westerscheldetunnel

At the time of signing the contract in which, as mentioned before, it was
arranged that the contracting combination was responsible for the maintenance of the tunnel in the first ten years after being put into operation,
a clear concept of the maintenance was still missing on the clients side;
a gap which was filled in the summer of 2001 with the establishing of the
Maintenance Concept Westerschelde Tunnel Complex. Later, in the 4th
quarter of 2001 and the 1st quarter of 2002, a link-up was sought with the
contract documents with KMW.
The concept can be summarised as follows: steering during the operational
phase can be viewed as the taking of measures on the basis of signals
received. These signals can be divided into two categories:
signals which indicate that the usage no longer complies with the
expectations;
signals which indicate that the usage possibly no longer complies with
the expectations.
Maintenance targets The first category mainly deals with company
targets such as the desired/expected yield on invested capital, the safety for
the users and the accessibility of the Westerschelde Tunnel. If the targets are
not realised, the cause must be established and it must be investigated to
see if it is possible to remedy the bottlenecks by means of certain investments.
Strategic decisions are mainly the basis of this manner of steering.
Upkeep On the other hand and this is the second category of steering
the Westerschelde Tunnel of course is subjected to an ageing process which
can lead to the fact that the tunnel (and its use) no longer complies with the
expectations; this is the field of maintenance. On the basis of inspection
parameters it has to be assessed whether the object can continue to comply
with the expectations, or predicted when certain measures have to be taken.
This assessment is placed next to the determined intervention levels and
then gives insight into the development (degeneration process) of the object
(including installations). This is particularly important to be able to make
statements about major maintenance activities in the future. These measures
must fit in with the company targets described above. This means that the
roads and the tunnel must remain accessible to a maximum, the maintenance
must take place at the least costs and the safety is guaranteed at all times.
The cohesion of these factors determines the upkeep strategy of the NV
Westerscheldetunnel.
From concept to maintenance plan: steering towards functionality
The moment the concept was complete, it was immediately clear that this did
not link up to the existing Maintenance Policy Document and Maintenance
Agreement. As already indicated above, the Maintenance Policy Document
was based on frequencies of activities and not on steering on the basis of signals. An important limiting condition in the elaboration of the concept given
to KMW, was that this concept was not allowed to lead to extra costs for the
NV Westerscheldetunnel. That is why, in the 4th quarter of 2001 and the 1st
quarter of 2002, a link-up was sought between the maintenance concept and
the contract documents with KMW. In this the most important item was, that
the steering on the basis of fixed frequencies of the maintenance activities
should be abandoned; instead, steering had to take place on the functionality
of the civil structures and installations. In order to get this arranged, the reference limiting conditions and the contractual paragraphs about the availability
as being important testing criteria, were further elaborated upon.
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Maintenance Aspects
Fig. 18.9
Maintenance
Maintenance plan
Reference limiting conditions and maintenance plan
The reference limiting conditions made up the checking document in the
design and construction phase. In this, the functionality and lifespan to
which the work had to comply with on delivery, were described. The crux of
the contract with the contracting combination KMW, is that the river crossing still has to comply with the reference limiting conditions after 10 years.
This means that KMW is continually tackled about the functionality and
life span of all sections. KMW was requested to set up the maintenance plan
as such, that steering would take place on the functionality while the development of the life span was being monitored. This means that on inspection,
the functionality would be tested and on that basis, the maintenance activity would be determined. The determined maintenance frequencies were
thus finalised.
Naturally there is a fixed scheduling for the smaller annually recurring maintenance. This includes, amongst other things, the lubricating of installations
and the preservation of steel structures; the basic activities to upkeep the
project.
In light of the steering towards life span, it is important that the degeneration process of the different sections is mapped out. That is why, amongst
other things, the previously mentioned arrangement was made with KMW
to place sensors in the lining as part of a monitoring system. With this the
degeneration process of the tunnel is (partially) put into picture.
Availability and maintenance plan
The maintenance policy document as shown previously provides for
time frames in which the maintenance must take place. In principle this
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Fig. 18.10
Maintenance
is 12 hours every four weeks per tunnel tube. In this time, scheduled maintenance takes place. Aside from this period, the tunnel must remain fully
available to the NV Westerscheldetunnel. In fact this means that no unscheduled maintenance may take place in which the tunnel must be fully or partially closed. With this, KMW was requested to carry out a chance-of-failure
analysis for those systems which are crucial for the operation of the tunnel
from a user-safety point of view. On the basis of this analysis, a classification
was made by KMW of the type of maintenance for installations, being: condition-dependent, usage-dependent and corrective maintenance. The inspection regime is also geared towards the size of the chance-of-failure and the
noticeable or not (via signals to the operator) failure of an installation. On
the basis of this, an optimum was created in the limiting of unscheduled
maintenance and keeping the tunnel fully available.
The above approach has been incorporated in the maintenance plan which
was accepted. This means that it involves a dynamic schedule of activities
(particularly annually recurring maintenance and inspections) and also that
reference documents have been established, which determine when which
maintenance activities are carried out on the basis of observed defects and
faults.

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Authors (chapter): N.V. Westerscheldetunnel:

Copyright 2004 Swets & Zeitlinger B.V., Lisse, The Netherlands

J. Heijboer1, J. van den Hoonaard2 and F.W.J. van de Linde2

A.A. BALKEMA PUBLISHERS / LISSE / ABINGDON / EXTON (PA) / TOKYO

Copyright 2004 Swets & Zeitlinger B.V., Lisse, The Netherlands

TransL Vertaalbureau, L. van Gerrevink-Genee & M. van Gerrevink, Warmond

Copyright 2004 Swets & Zeitlinger B.V., Lisse, The Netherlands

ISBN 90 5809 597 5

Copyright 2004 Swets & Zeitlinger B.V., Lisse, The Netherlands

PARTNERS IN THE REALISATION OF THE WESTERSCHELDE TUNNEL

Ministry of Finance, The Hague, NL

N.V. Westerscheldetunnel, Goes, NL

Copyright 2004 Swets & Zeitlinger B.V., Lisse, The Netherlands

GEA Grenobloise dElectronique et dAutomatismes, Meylan, F

Copyright 2004 Swets & Zeitlinger B.V., Lisse, The Netherlands

2. The Westerschelde Tunnel: History and Background

3. The Design of the Westerschelde Tunnel in a Nutshell

5. The Protection of the Westerschelde Tunnel Against Fire

6. A Life Span of at Least 100 Years

8. Access Ramps: Design and Implementation

9. The Tunnel Lining

10. Tunnel Boring Machines

11. The Boring and Tunnelling Process

12. Separation Plant and Boring Spoil

13. Cross Connections

14. Civil Fitting Out and Logistical Process

15. Tunnel Installations

16. Aesthetic Aspects

17. The Contract and Project Management

18. Maintenance Aspects

Copyright 2004 Swets & Zeitlinger B.V., Lisse, The Netherlands

Ir. J. v.d. Hoonaard

Copyright 2004 Swets & Zeitlinger B.V., Lisse, The Netherlands

Explanation of Dutch terms

PAS VAN TERNEUZEN

Copyright 2004 Swets & Zeitlinger B.V., Lisse, The Netherlands

1 A PIONEERING MEGA PROJECT:

Contents of this chapter:

Copyright 2004 Swets & Zeitlinger B.V., Lisse, The Netherlands

Copyright 2004 Swets & Zeitlinger B.V., Lisse, The Netherlands

A Pioneering Mega Project

Tour de force, a pioneering project

Copyright 2004 Swets & Zeitlinger B.V., Lisse, The Netherlands

Recent sea sand

Copyright 2004 Swets & Zeitlinger B.V., Lisse, The Netherlands

A Pioneering Mega Project

Sas van Gent

The many advantages of the bored tunnels

Copyright 2004 Swets & Zeitlinger B.V., Lisse, The Netherlands

Copyright 2004 Swets & Zeitlinger B.V., Lisse, The Netherlands

A Pioneering Mega Project

Government as a shareholder in the NV

Copyright 2004 Swets & Zeitlinger B.V., Lisse, The Netherlands

Planning and costs

Construction site south

Copyright 2004 Swets & Zeitlinger B.V., Lisse, The Netherlands

A Pioneering Mega Project

logistics of the construction process. In addition, all the installations which

Copyright 2004 Swets & Zeitlinger B.V., Lisse, The Netherlands

A subscribers discount of 25% is applicable.

Copyright 2004 Swets & Zeitlinger B.V., Lisse, The Netherlands

2 THE WESTERSCHELDE TUNNEL:

Contents of this chapter: