11/02/2015

ActivatedSludge

Activated Sludge
Published on SSWM (http://www.sswm.info/)

Activated Sludge
Compiledby:

Eawag(SwissFederalInstituteof
AquaticScienceandTechnology),
DorotheeSpuhler(seecon
internationalgmbh)

An activated sludge process refers to a multichamber reactor unit

that makes use of highly concentrated microorganisms to degrade
organics and remove nutrients from wastewater to produce a high
quality effluent. To maintain aerobic conditions and to keep the
activated sludge suspended, a continuous and welltimed supply of
oxygen is required.
[noecompendium]Activated sludge consists of flocs of bacteria, which are suspended and mixed with
wastewater in an aerated tank. The bacteria use the organic pollutants to grow and transform it to energy,
water, CO2 and new cell material. Activated sludge systems are suspendedgrowth type and are used in
conventional hightech wastewater treatment plants to treat almost every wastewater influent as long as it is
biodegradable. A physical pretreatment unit, a postsettling unit (a clarifier) from which active sludge is re
circulated to the aerated tank, and excess sludge treatment, are compulsory for appropriate treatment. The
process is highly mechanised and thus mainly adapted for centralised systems where energy, mechanical spare
parts and skilled labour are available. Provided the reactor is well operated, a very good removal of organics
and suspended solids can be achieved, though pathogen removal is low.[/noecompendium]
In

Out

Blackwater, Brownwater, Greywater, Nonbiodegradable Wastewater, Treated

Energy
Water

Water,

Fertigation

[noecompendium]

Introduction
The term activated sludge refers to suspended aerobic sludge consisting of flocs of active bacteria, which
consume and remove aerobically biodegradable organic substances from screened or screened and presettled
wastewater. Activated sludge systems can treat blackwater, brownwater, greywater, faecal sludge and
industrial wastewater as long as the pollutants to be treated are biodegradable.

Schematic of the aeration tank and secondary settling tank (clarifier) of an activated sludge system. Source:
http://www.sswm.info/print/764?tid=771

1/10

11/02/2015

ActivatedSludge

Tilley et al. (2014)

Activated sludge reactors are aerobic suspendedgrowth type processes (in opposition to fixedfilm or
attachedgrowth processes (e.g. RBCs). [/noecompendium]Different configurations of the activated sludge
process can be employed to ensure that the wastewater is mixed and aerated in an aeration tank. Aeration and
mixing can be provided by pumping air or oxygen into the tank or by using surface aerators. The
microorganisms oxidize the organic carbon in the wastewater to produce new cells, carbon dioxide and water.
Although aerobic bacteria are the most common organisms, facultative bacteria along with higher organisms
can be present. The exact composition[noecompendium] of bacteria[/noecompendium] depends on the
reactor design, environment, and wastewater characteristics.
The flocs (agglomerations of sludge particles), which form in the aerated tank, can be removed in the
secondary clarifier by gravity settling. Some of this sludge is recycled from the clarifier back to the reactor.
The effluent can be discharged into a river or treated in a tertiary treatment facility if necessary for further
use. [noecompendium]
In the view of reuse of the effluent in agriculture, it is not beneficial to remove all nutrients while standards
for pathogen removal are barely met.
As the system is also of high complexity and strongly mechanised, it is mainly adapted for centralised systems
where energy, mechanical and technical spare equipment and skilled staff are available.[/noecompendium]

DesignConsiderations
Activated sludge processes are one part of a complex [noecompendium]wastewater [/no
ecompendium]treatment system[noecompendium] (U.S. EPA 2002)[/noecompendium]. They are usually used
following primary treatment ([noecompendium]including screening [/noecompendium]that removes
settleable solids)[noecompendium], include one or more main aerated treatment chambers, aeration devices,
a device for appropriate mixing to keep the sludge in suspension, a secondary clarifier to separate the biomass
from the treated effluent and collect settled biomass, generally a nonlinear, highly complex circulation
regime (e.g. recirculation loops, bypassing etc.)[/noecompendium] and are sometimes followed by a final
polishing step (see tertiary filtration and disinfection). The biological processes that occur are effective at
removing soluble, colloidal and particulate materials. The reactor can be designed for biological nitrification
and denitrification, as well as for biological phosphorus removal.
The design must be based on an accurate estimation of the wastewater composition and volume. Treatment
efficiency can be severely compromised if the plant is under or overdimensioned. Depending on the
temperature, the solids retention time (SRT) in the reactor ranges from 3 to 5 days for BOD removal, to 3 to 18
days for nitrification.
The excess sludge requires treatment to reduce its water and organic content and to obtain a stabilized
product suitable for enduse or final disposal. It is important to consider this step in the planning phase of the
treatment plant). [noecompendium]

Complete overall process flow scheme of a conventional largescale activated sludge system. Wastewater is
pretreated (screening and settling), passes to the activated sludge chamber, is then postsettled in a
secondary clarifier, eventually filtered and finally disinfected if required. Excess sludge is digested, thickened
and then incinerated. Source: ENDRESS+HAUSER (2002)
http://www.sswm.info/print/764?tid=771

2/10

11/02/2015

ActivatedSludge

Example of a complete activated sludge treatment system (London). Source: CITY OF LONDON(n.y.)
Large amounts of injected oxygen allow maintaining aerobic conditions and optimally mixing the active
biomass with the wastewater to be treated. To maintain a relatively high amount of active microorganisms
useful in removing organic substances from the wastewater, the sludge is separated from the effluent by
settling in a secondary clarifier (UNEP 2004) or by membrane filtration and kept in the process by
recirculation to the aeration tank. Several modifications of this basic process have been developed, including
different aeration devices, different means of sludge collection and recycling to the aeration tank or primary
clarifier, and process enhancement trough the addition of an inert media area on which biofilm can grow
(combined fixedfilm/suspendedgrowth process).Although aerobic bacteria are the most dominant
microorganisms in the process, other aerobic, anaerobic and/or nitrifying bacteria along with higher organisms
can be present. Thus, besides the removal of organic matter, nutrients (organic ammonia, phosphorus) can
also be removed biologically by nitrification/denitrification and biological uptake of phosphorus. The exact
composition of microorganisms depends on the reactor design, the environment and the wastewater
characteristics (TILLEY et al. 2008). To achieve optimal conditions for both, organic and nutrients removal, a
sequences of changing aerobic and anaerobic chambers are used.
Detailed Treatment Process
After screening sand and similar heavy particles are removed next in a grit chamber where they settle to the
ground. This chamber only wants to remove coarse grit and the wastewater spends only a relatively short
period (some minutes) in it (UNEP & MURDOCH 2004). Smaller solids are removed in a settling or
sedimentation tank. In this unit, the wastewater spends more time (about one hour) to allow for a good
separation. The sludge from this mechanical primary treatment (including screening and settling in the grit
chamber and the sedimentation tank) is called primary sludge and, as all excess sludge, requires an advanced
further treatment chain.
After this primary treatment, the main unit containing the activated sludge follows. The pretreated
wastewater is mixed with the concentrated underflow activated sludge from the secondary clarifier in an
aerated tank. Aeration is provided either by mechanical surface agitators or by submerged diffusers of
compressed air (WSP 2008). Aeration provides oxygen to the activated sludge and at the same time thoroughly
mixes the sludge and the wastewater (UNEP & MURDOCH 2004). During aeration and mixing, the bacteria form
small clusters or flocs (TILLEY et al. 2008). Under these conditions, the bacteria in the activated sludge
degrade the organic substances in the wastewater. They use the organic substance for energy, growth and
reproduction. The end products are carbon dioxide (CO2), water (H2O) and new cells.
After a few hours in the aeration chamber, the mixture then enters the secondary settling tank (clarifier),
where the flocculated microorganisms settle and are removed from the effluent stream. The settled
microorganisms (the activated sludge) are then recycled to the head end of the aeration tank to be mixed
again with wastewater and continue to grow and form new sludge and to degrade organics. To maintain an
optimal amount of sludge in the system, the rate of recirculation of settled sludge varies from 20 to 100%.
Excess sludge produced each day (waste activated sludge) must be processed in a further treatment chain
http://www.sswm.info/print/764?tid=771

3/10

11/02/2015

ActivatedSludge

together with the sludge from the primary treatment facilities. A conventional excess sludge treatment chain
consists in anaerobic digestion, thickening, incineration and the safe disposal, e.g. in a landfill. A more
sustainable way would be to compost the sludge (either before or instead of digestion) in order to reuse the
nutrients in agriculture.
Hydraulic retention times in the whole systems range from some hours up to several days for the liquid phase.
Proceeding of excess sludge can take somehow longer depending on the type of thickening and anaerobic
digestion applied. The effluent from a properly designed and operated activatedsludge plant is of high
quality, usually having BOD and TSS concentrations equal to or less than 10 mg/L (CRITES & TCHOBANOGLOUS
1998). The removal of both, biological oxygen demand (BOD) and suspended solids (TSS) generally lies within
80 to 100% depending on the influent concentrations, the system setup and temperature (UNEP 2004; SANIMAS
2005; WSP 2008).
Nutrients such as nitrogen and phosphorus are also removed in activated sludge process but require a setup of
different aerated and nonaerated chambers in hybrid activated sludge systems. Biological removal of nitrogen
is first achieved by the transformation of organic nitrogen into ammonia, followed by the aerobic conversion
of ammonia (NH4+) to nitrite (NO2) and then nitrate (NO3) and the anaerobic transformation of nitrate to
gaseous nitrogen (N2), which is then released to the atmosphere. The transformation of ammonia to nitrate via
an intermediate step of nitrite is called nitrification. The transformation of nitrate to gaseous nitrogen is
referred as denitrification. Thus, a combination of both, aerobic and anaerobic (anoxic) processes are required
to achieve complete elimination of nitrogen from the wastewater. In many activated sludge treatment
systems, An anaerobic tank is either integrated after the aerated basin and before clarification (post
denitrification); or just before the aeration tank (predenitrification). In the case of predenitrification,
nitrification takes place in the aerated tank after the aerobic pretank. Denitrification only occurs when the
effluent from the aerated tank, containing nitrite, is recirculated like the sludge.
The removal of phosphorus in activated sludge systems can be done chemically or biologically. Biological
elimination of phosphorus in conventional wastewater treatment system occurs through the uptake of
phosphorus by some bacterial cells. However, only little phosphorus can be removed this way, as the
phosphorus mass fraction in volatile sludge is only about 2.5% (HAANDEL&LUBBE 2007). This results in an
effluent concentration of about 2 to 7 mg P/L for municipal sewage with a COD concentration of 500 mg/L
(HAANDEL&LUBBE 2007). However, it will in general be required to lower the effluent phosphorus
concentration to a value 1 mg P/L.
Another biological process is the enhanced biological phosphorus removal. Enhanced biological phosphorus
removal is based on the cultivation of some special phosphorus accumulating bacteria, which, compared to
2.5% P in conventional activated sludge, can lead to up to 38% of P accumulation in the sludge
(HAANDEL&LUBBE 2007).

http://www.sswm.info/print/764?tid=771

4/10

11/02/2015

ActivatedSludge

Different system configuration for combined biological nitrogen and phosphorus removal. Source:
HAANDEL&LUBBE (2007)
When both nitrogen and phosphorus are to be removed, the combination becomes even more complex.
Enhanced biological phosphorus removal requires generally an anaerobic stage (for PAO cultivation), an anoxic
stage (for denitrification) and an aerobic stage (for nitrification and phosphorus accumulation) in series.
Nowadays, activated sludge systems, where valuable nutrients (phosphorus and nitrogen) and organic matter
are incinerated instead of recirculated to the food production in agriculture are not perceived as sustainable
any more. The introduction of nitrogen removal into an activated sludge plant increases the reactor volume
significantly and leads to higher energy consumption of approximately 60 to 80% for aeration (MAURER 2003).
The elimination of phosphorus requires either the addition of chemicals and subsequent disposal of inorganic
sludge or an increase of complexity and reactor volume for enhanced biological phosphorus removal.
[/noecompendium]To achieve specific effluent goals for BOD, nitrogen and phosphorus, different adaptations
and modifications have been made to the basic activated sludge design. Well known modifications include
sequencing
batch
reactors (SBR),
oxidation
ditches,
[noecompendium]deep shafts,
[/no
ecompendium]extended aeration, moving beds and membrane bioreactors.[noecompendium]
Sequential Batch Reactors (SBRs)

http://www.sswm.info/print/764?tid=771

5/10

11/02/2015

ActivatedSludge

Primary storage reactor and sequential batch reactor for activated sludge treatment. Source: SANIMAS (2005)

Sequencing Batch Reactor process scheme including the five essential process steps: (1) fill, (2) react, (3)
settle, (4 and 5) draw and idle. Source:CESAME & UCL (2005).
The process can be operated in batches, where the different conditions are all achieved in the same reactor
but at different times (UNEP & MURDOCH 2004). The treatment consists of a cycle of five stages: fill, react,
settle, draw and idle. During the reaction type, oxygen is added by an aeration system. During this phase,
bacteria oxidize the organic matter just as in activated sludge systems. Thereafter, aeration is stopped to
allow the sludge to settle. In the next step, the water and the sludge are separated by decantation and the
clear layer (supernatant) is discharged from the reaction chamber (METCALF & EDDY 2007). Depending on the
rate of sludge production, some sludge may also be purged. After a phase of idle the tank is filled with a new
batch of wastewater (UNEP & MURDOCH 2004). At least two tanks are needed for the batch mode of operation
as continuous influent needs to be stored during the operation phase. (Very) small systems (e.g. serving small
settlements) may apply only one tank. In this case, the influent must either be retained in a pond or
continuously discharged to the bottom of the tank in order to not disturb the settling, draw and idle phases.
SBRs are suited to lower flows because the size of each tank is determined by the volume of wastewater
produced during the treatment period in the other tank (UNEP & MURDOCH 2004). For more information on
SBR activated sludge systems, please consult WSP (2007) or U.S. EPA (1999).
Oxidation Ditches

Oxidation ditch activated sludge system. Source: unknown.

Oxidation ditches are large round or oval ditches (channel reactors) with one or more horizontal aerators to
guarantee oxygen supply, and to mix and move the content around the ditch. Screened influent enters the
oxidation ditch, is aerated and circulates at about 0.25 to 0.35 m/s (SANIMAS 2005). Operation can be
continuous or intermittent. Primary sedimentation is usually not required, but secondary sedimentation tanks
are generally used. The required treatment volume per capita is about 1 m (SANIMAS 2005). Oxidation ditches
are suitable for areas where land availability is high. They have the advantage that they are relatively easy to
maintain and are resilient to shock loads that often occur in smaller communities (e.g. at breakfast time and
in the evening). Typical hydraulic retention time is between 24 to 48 hours with a sludge age of 12 to 20 days
http://www.sswm.info/print/764?tid=771

6/10

11/02/2015

ActivatedSludge

(Wikipedia 2010). For more information on oxidation ditches, please refer to U.S. EPA (2000), WSP (2007) or
WSP (2008).
Deep Shafts

Sewage treatment in a deep shaft activated sludge system. Source: Whole Water Systems (2012)
Where land is in short supply, sewage may be treated by injection of oxygen into a pressured return sludge
stream, which is injected into the base of a deep columnar tank buried in the ground. This type of activated
sludge reactor is called deep shaft. Such shafts may be up to 100 m deep. As the sewage rises the oxygen
forced into solution by the pressure at the base of the shaft breaks out as molecular oxygen. This provides a
highly efficient source of oxygen for the microorganisms contained in the activated sludge. The rising oxygen
and injected return sludge provide the physical mechanism for mixing. Mixed sludge and wastewater influent is
decanted at the surface and separated into supernatant and sludge components. The efficiency of deep shaft
treatment can be high but they require skilled professionals for construction, operation and maintenance; and
additionally a large amount of energy (adapted from Wikipedia (2012)).
[/noecompendium]
[ecompappropriateness]

HealthAspects/Acceptance
[noecompendium]Operation and maintenance of activated sludge system is generally carried out by skilled
labourers, which should be sufficiently well trained regarding any health risks. [/noecompendium]Because of
space requirements and odours, Centralized Treatment facilities are generally located in the periphery of
densely populated areas. Although the effluent produced is of high quality, it still poses a health risk and
should not be directly handled[noecompendium] but undergo an appropriate disinfection treatment before
discharge (e.g. UVlight, chlorination)[/noecompendium]. In the excess sludge pathogens are substantially
reduced, but not eliminated. [noecompendium]Excess sludge contains even higher amounts of
microorganisms, as well as phosphorus and heavy metals if they are present in the influent wastewater. This
can be the case because the wastewater treated in such reactors generally comes from an array of different
sources (domestic, industrial and stormwater), which makes it a hardtotreat mixture and therefore also a
difficult resource to recycle. Hence, the sludge generally needs to be thickened and incinerated with the ashes
being stored in a controlled landfill.[/noecompendium]

Operation&Maintenance
http://www.sswm.info/print/764?tid=771

7/10

11/02/2015

ActivatedSludge

Highly trained staff is required for maintenance and troubleshooting. The mechanical equipment (mixers,
aerators and pumps) must be constantly maintained.[noecompendium] A continuous supply of oxygen and
sludge is essential (WSP 2008). Control of concentrations of sludge and oxygen levels in the aeration tanks is
required and technical appliances (e.g. pHmeter, temperature, oxygen content etc.) need to be maintained
carefully.[/noecompendium] As well, the influent and effluent must be constantly monitored and the control
parameters adjusted, if necessary, to avoid abnormalities that could kill the active biomass and the
development of detrimental organisms which could impair the process (e.g., filamentous bacteria).
[noecompendium]Two of the most serious problems with the activatedsludge process are (1) a phenomenon
known as bulking, in which the sludge from the aeration tank will not settle, and (2) the development of
biological surface foam (CRITES & TCHOBANOGLOUS 1998). Bulking can be caused either by organisms that
grow in filamentous form instead of flocs and will not settle, or the growth of microorganisms that incorporate
large volumes of water into their cell structure, making their density near that of water. Foaming is caused
most often by the excessive growth of an organism called Nocardia (CRITES & TCHOBANOGLOUS 1998).
Filamentous organisms can be controlled by the addition of chemicals (e.g. chlorine or hydrogen peroxide) to
the recycled activated sludge; the alteration of the dissolvedoxygen concentration in the aeration tank; the
addition of nutrients and growth factors to favour other microorganisms etc. Nocardia can be controlled by
avoiding the recycling of the skimmed foam or the addition of a chemical agent (e.g. polymers or chlorine) on
the surface (CRITES & TCHOBANOGLOUS 1998).

AtaGlance
Activated sludge consisting of suspended flocs of active bacteria is mixed with the
wastewater. The organic pollutants are used for growth by bacteria and thereby
Working Principle transformed to water, CO2 and new cell material. Nitrogen is removed by
nitrification/denitrification and phosphorus is either removed chemically or biologically
and accumulated in the excess sludge. Excess sludge requires a further treatment chain.
Hightech centralized system, not adapted for small communities. Almost every
Capacity/Adequacy wastewater can be treated as long as it is biodegradable. Usually applied in densely
populated areas for treatment of domestic wastewater.
80 to almost 100% BOD and TSS removal. High nitrogen removal. P accumulated in biomass
Performance
and sludge. Low pathogen removal. HRT of some hours up to several days
Very high construction and maintenance costs; operation very expensive due to
Costs
requirement of permanent professional operation, high electricity consumption and costly
mechanical parts.
Selfhelp
System parts not locally available; implementation only possible by experienced
Compatibility
consultant firms.
O&M
Activated sludge units require professional operation and maintenance providers.
Reliability
Fails in case of power failure or fallout of technical equipment.
Main strength
High removal efficiency for large range of wastewaters.
Highly mechanized system requiring expert design, operation and maintenance as well as
Main weakness
mechanical spare parts. Large energy requirements (e.g. for aeration).
[/noecompendium]

Applicability
An activated sludge process is only appropriate for a Centralized Treatment facility[noecompendium] (SASSE
1996; TILLEY et al. 2008)[/noecompendium] with[noecompendium] the construction of long distance sewage
channels,[/noecompendium] a welltrained staff, constant electricity[noecompendium], technical
equipment (e.g. spare parts, monitoring appliances), the funding for all of this,[/noecompendium] and a
highly developed management system that ensures that the facility is correctly [2396operated and
maintained].
Because of economies of scale and less fluctuating influent characteristics, this technology is more effective
for the treatment of large volumes of flows [noecompendium]of municipal wastewater from medium to large
towns (WSP 2008) of 10000 up to 1 million population equivalent (SANIMAS 2005; TILLEY et al. 2008)[/no
ecompendium].
An activated sludge process is appropriate in almost every climate[noecompendium] for the removal of both
http://www.sswm.info/print/764?tid=771

8/10

11/02/2015

ActivatedSludge

settable (physical primary treatment) and dissolved, colloidal and particulate organic matter and nutrients
(biological removal in the activated sludge)[/noecompendium]. However, treatment capacity is reduced in
colder environments.

Advantages
Resistant to organic and hydraulic shock loads
Can be operated at a range of organic and hydraulic loading rates
High reduction of BOD and pathogens (up to 99%) at after secondary treatment
High nutrient removal possible
High effluent quality
Little land required compared to extensive natural system (e.g. waste stabilisation ponds)
Can be modified to meet specific discharge limits

Disadvantages
High energy consumption, a constant source of electricity is required High capital and operating
costs
High capital and operating costs
Requires operation and maintenance by skilled personnel
Prone to complicated chemical and microbiological problems
Not suitable for application on community level
Not all parts and materials may be locally available
Requires expert design and construction [noecompendium] supervision [/noecompendium]
Sludge and possibly effluent require further treatment and/or appropriate discharge

References
ASANO, T.; BURTON, F.; LEVERENZ, H.; TSUCHIHASHI, R.; TCHOBANOGLOUS, G.; METCALF & EDDY Inc. (Editor) (2007): Water Reuse:
Issues, Technologies, and Applications. New York: McGrawHill.
BAHRI, A. (2009): Managing the other side of the Water Cycle Making Wastewater an Asset. (= TEC Background Papers, 13). Stockholm:
Global Water Partnership (GWP) Technical Committee (TEC). PDF
CESAME (Editor); UCL (Editor) (2005): Schematic view of an activated WWTP using the Sequencing Batch Reactor. Belgium: CESAME. URL
[Accessed: 14.07.2014].
CITY OF LONDON (Editor) (n.y.): Activated Sludge Process. London, Canada: City of London. URL [Accessed: 22.05.2012].
CRITES, R.; TCHOBANOGLOUS, G. (1998): Small and Decentralized Wastewater Management Systems. New York: The McGrawHill
Companies Inc.
ENDRESS+HAUSER (Editor) (2002): Guide to Instrumentation in Wastewater. (DVD). ENDRESS+HAUSER.
HAANDEL, A.C. van; LUBBE, J.G.M. van der (2007): Mechanisms involved in Biological Phosphorus removal. In: HAANDEL, A.C. van;
LUBBE, J.G.M. van der (2007): Handbook Biological Wastewater Treatment. Design and Optimisation of Activated Sludge Systems.
Leidschendam, 188191. URL [Accessed: 22.03.2010]. PDF
JUNGEBERBEROVIC, R.; University of Applied Sciences Waedenswil. (Editor) (2001): Possibilities and Limits of Wastewaterfed
Aquaculture. Waedenswil: University of Applied Sciences Waedenswil. URL [Accessed: 19.02.2010]. PDF
LUDWIG, H. F.; MOHIT, K. (2000): Appropriate Technology for Municipal Sewerage/Excreta Management in Developing Countries,
Thailand Case Study. In: The Environmentalist 20, 215219. Lincoln: Institute of Environmental Management & Assessment (IEMA). URL
[Accessed: 19.08.2014].
MAURER, M.; SCHWEGLER, T.; SCHWEGLER, P.; LARSEN, T.A. (2003): Nutrients in urine: energetic aspects of removal and recovery. In:
Water Science and Technology 8 1, 3746. PDF
ROSE, D.G. (1999): CommunityBased Technologies for Domestic Wastewater Treatment and Reuse options for urban agriculture. (=
Cities Feeding People (CFP) Report Series., 27). Ottawa: International Development Research Center Canada (IDRC). PDF
SANIMAS (Editor) (2005): Informed Choice Catalogue. pdf presentation. BORDA and USAID. PDF
SPERLING, M. von; LEMOS CHERNICHARO, C.A. de (2005): Biological Wastewater Treatment in Warm Climate Regions Volume 2. London:
International Water Association (IWA) Publishing. URL [Accessed: 01.11.2013]. PDF
http://www.sswm.info/print/764?tid=771

9/10

11/02/2015

ActivatedSludge

TCHOBANOGLOUS, G.; BURTON, F. L.; STENSEL, H. D.; METCALF & EDDY Inc. (Editor) (2003): Wastewater Engineering, Treatment and
Reuse. (= Fourth Edition). New York: McGrawHill Companies, Inc..
TILLEY, E.; ULRICH, L.; LUETHI, C.; REYMOND, P.; ZURBRUEGG, C. (2014): Compendium of Sanitation Systems and Technologies. 2nd
Revised Edition. Duebendorf, Switzerland: Swiss Federal Institute of Aquatic Science and Technology (Eawag). URL [Accessed:
28.07.2014]. PDF
TILLEY, E.; LUETHI, C.; MOREL, A.; ZURBRUEGG, C.; SCHERTENLEIB, R. (2008): Compendium of Sanitation Systems and Technologies.
Duebendorf, Switzerland: Swiss Federal Institute of Aquatic Science and Technology (EAWAG) and. URL [Accessed: 15.02.2010]. PDF
See document in FRENCH
U.S. EPA (1999): Sequencing Batch Reactors. (= Wastewater Technology Fact Sheet, EPA 832F99073). United States Environment
Protection Agency (U.S. EPA). PDF
See document in SPANISH
U.S. EPA (Editor) (2000): Oxidation Ditches. (= Wastewater Technology Fact Sheet, EPA 832F00013). United States Environment
Protection Agency. URL [Accessed: 18.01.2011]. PDF
U.S.EPA (Editor) (1980): Onsite Wastewater Treatment Systems Manual. (= EPA 625/180, 12). United States Environmental Protection
Agency, Office of Water Office of Research and Development. PDF
UNEP (Editor) (2004): A Directory of Environmentally Sound Technologies for the Integrated Management of Solid, Liquid and Hazardous
Waste for SIDS in the Caribbean Region. Nairobi: United Nations Environment Programme Global Programme of Action (UNEPGPA)) and
Caribbean Environmental Health Institute (CEHI). PDF
UNEP (Editor); MURDOCH UNIVERSITY (Editor) (2004): Environmentally sound technologies in wastewater treatment for the
implementation of the UNEP/GPA "Guidelines on Municipal Wastewater Management". The Hague: United Nations Environment
Programme Global Programme of Action (UNEP/GPA), Coordination Office. PDF
WHOLE WATER SYSTEMS, LLC (Editor) (2012): Sewage treatment in a deep shaft activated sludge system. Seattle: URL [Accessed:
19.08.2014].
WINBLAD, U.; SIMPSONHERBERT, M. (2004): Ecological Sanitation revised and enlarged edition. (pdf presentation). Sweden:
Stockholm Environment Institute. URL [Accessed: 04.08.2010]. PDF
WIKIPEDIA (Editor) (2010): Belebtschlammverfahren. URL [Accessed: 22.05.2012].
Language: Spanish
24. WIKIPEDIA (Editor) (2012): Activated sludge. URL [Accessed: 23.03.2010].
WINBLAD, U.; SIMPSONHERBERT, M. (2004): Ecological Sanitation revised and enlarged edition. (pdf presentation). Sweden:
Stockholm Environment Institute. URL [Accessed: 04.08.2010]. PDF
WSP (Editor) (2007): Philippines Sanitation Source Book and Decision Aid. pdf presentation. Washington: Water and Sanitation Program.
PDF
WSP (Editor) (2008): Technology Options for Urban Sanitation in India. A Guide to DecisionMaking. pdf presentation. Washington: Water
and Sanitation Program. URL [Accessed: 26.03.2010]. PDF

For further readings, case studies, awareness raising material, training material, important weblinks or
the related powerpoint presentation, see www.sswm.info/category/implementationtools/wastewater
treatment/hardware/semicentralisedwastewatertreatments3

http://www.sswm.info/print/764?tid=771

10/10