CHAPTER 2: DIODE CIRCUITS AND SPECIAL PURPOSE DIODES

2.1. Load-line Analysis

Load-Line a tool used to find the exact value of the diode current and
voltage.

Example 2-1
For the series diode configuration of the given figure employing the
diode characteristics, determine (a) VDQ and IDQ, (b) VR

Si

ID

+ VD
VS

+
VR

10V
+
VR

RL

Problem 2-2
Repeat Problem 2-1 with RL = 2 k

RL
=1k
ID (mA)
10

VS VD I D R 0
Applying KVL:
Plotting the Load Line:
Determine first the two points of the load-line.
a. SATURATION POINT represents the maximum current across
the load.
@ Saturation, VD = 0

I D ISAT

V
S
R

b.

CUTOFF POINT represents the minimum current across the

load.
@ Cutoff, ID = 0
VD Vcutoff VS

A straight line drawn between the two points will define the load
line.

8
6

10

ISAT

2
VD (V)

2
VD (V)
1

10

ID

ID

10

+ VD
VS

Diode characteristic

+
VR

Q-pt

+ VT
RL

VS

+
VR

RL

VD VT

IDQ

Load-line
Q-POINT quiescent (meaning still, unmoving) point
VD
Operating
point.
0
VDQ
Vcutoff

2.2. Diode Configuration with DC Inputs

Series Configuration
The state of the diode is first determined for it will be replaced
with appropriate equivalent model.
ON STATE

ID

ID (mA)

VR VS VT

ID
+ VD
OFF STATE
VS

ID IR
+
VR

RL

VR
R

VS

ID=0
+ VD

+
VR

R1L

Problem 2-6
Determine VO, I1, ID1, and ID2 for parallel diode configuration of circuit
below.
330
I1

VD VS VOC
ID 0
VR 0

ID2 +

ID1

10V

Si

Si

Note:
An open circuit can have any voltage across its terminals, but the
current is always zero.
A short circuit has a 0-Volt across its terminals, but the current is
limited only by surrounding network.
Source Notation:
+10V

Problem 2-5
Determine I, V1, V2,and Vo for the series dc configuration.

5V

+ V1
5V

10V

or

Problem 2-3
Determine Vo and ID for the series circuit shown.
Ge
Si
VO
+12V
5.6k

Problem 2-4
Si
DetermineSiID, VD2 and Vo
+12V

+ VD2

VO
5.6k

Vo

5V

+10V 4.7k

Si
I
2.2k

VO
+
VO

5V

Problem 2-7
Determine the current I for the given network.
Si
2.2k
4V

20V
I
Si

Parallel and Series-Parallel Configurations

Reason for placing diode in parallel: Current across the diode will be
limited to a safe value.

Problem 2-8
Determine the voltage Vo for network shown.
+12V
Ge

Si

OR Gate
B
0
1
0
1

OUT
0
1
1
1

AND Gate
B
0
1
0
1

A
0
0
1
1

2.4. Zener Diodes

OUT
0
0
0
1

Note: Two levels of voltage are assigned to represent logic 1 and 0.

Analysis of AND/OR gates is made measurably easier by using
the ideal equivalent for a diode

VO
2.2k

Problem 2-9
Determine the current I1, I2 and ID2 for the given network.
3.3k
Si
ID2

10V

A
0
0
1
1

Problem 2-10
Determine V0 for the network shown given the input values in the table.
Determine which circuit is AND and OR gate.
D1
V1
V1
V2
VO
0-V
0-V
D2
0-V
10-V
V
Vo
2
10-V
0-V
10-V

10-V

Designed for operation in the reversebreakdown region.

maintains a nearly constant dc voltage source
under the proper operating conditions
A major application for zener diodes is as a
type of voltage regulator for providing stable
Anode (A)
voltages for power supplies, voltmeters, and
other instruments.
Heavily doped to reduce the breakdown
voltage.
Commercially available breakdown voltages of 1.8V to 200V.
Breakdown Characteristics
VR
V @I
Cathode (K)

ZT

IZK(zener knee current)

IZT(zener test current)

1k

I1
IZM(zener maximum current)

Si

I2

5.6k

V1
0-V
0-V
10-V
10-V

2.3. AND/OR Gates

AND Gate the output level will be logic 1 if all of the inputs are 1
OR Gate the output level will be logic 1 if one or all of the inputs are
1.

V2
0-V
10-V
0-V
10-V

VO

V1
V2

D1

D2

Vo
1k

IR
The internal resistance, also called zener impedance, begins
to decrease as the reverse current increases rapidly.
From the bottom of the knee, the zener breakdown voltage
remains essentially constant although it increases slightly as
the zener current increases.
A minimum value of reverse current, IZK, must be maintained in
order to keep the diode in breakdown for regulation.
A maximum current, IZM, above which the diode may be
damaged due to excessive power dissipation

Zener Equivalent Circuit

10V

VZ

The Ideal model of a zener diode in

reverse breakdown has a constant
voltage drop equal to the nominal
zener voltage.

Practical model of zener where zener

Problem 2-13
An 8.2V zener diode has a positive temperature coefficient of 0.05%/C.
What is the zener voltage at 60C?

+ impedance, ZZ, is included.

ZZ
VZ
ZZ
VZ
I Z

a.

IR

_ In most cases, it can be assumed that Z Z is

constant over the full linear range of zener
current values and is purely resistive.

RS

Vi

Problem 2-11
Calculate the zener impedance if the change in zener voltage is 100mV
for a 20 mA change in zener current on the linear portion of the
characteristic curve.

Determine the state of the zener diode by removing it from the

network and then calculating the voltage across the resulting
open ckt.

+
Voc

+
VL

IL
RL V=

If Voc VZ, the zener diode is ON, otherwise, the zener diode is OFF
Zener Power Dissipation and Derating
MAXIMUM DC POWER DISSIPATION, PD(MAX) Maximum power a zener diode
specified to operate.

PD VZ I Z
The maximum power dissipation of a zener diode is typically specified
for temperatures at or below certain value. Above the specified
temperature, the maximum power dissipation is reduced according to a
derating factor. The maximum deratted power can be determined with
the following formula:
PD ( deratted ) PD ( MAX ) ( mW / C ) T

Problem 2-12
A 1N4736 zener diode has a ZZT of 3.5 . The data sheet gives VZT =
6.8V at IZT = 37 mA and IZK = 1mA. What is the voltage across the zener
terminal when the current is 50mA? When the current is 25 mA.

b.

Substitute the appropriate equivalent circuit and solve for the

desired unknown.
ON state
OFF State

VZ

VZ
VZ> Voc > 0

Problem 2-14
A certain zener diode has a maximum power rating of 400 mW at 50C
and a derating factor of 3.2mW/C. Determine the maximum power the
zener can dissipate at a temperature of 90C.

Basic Zener Regulator

Analysis:
Temperature Coefficient
Specifies the percent change in zener voltage for each C
change in temperature.

VZ VZ TC T
where: VZ is the nominal zener voltage at 25C, TC is the temperature
coefficient, and T is the change in temperature.

IR
Vi

RS

IZ
VZ

IL
RL

Where:
Vi = input voltage
RS = series resistance
RL = load resistance
IR = series current
IZ = zener current
IL = load current

Problem 2-15
(a) For the Zener diode network, Determine VL, VR, IZ and PZ.
(b) Repeat part (a) with RL = 3k.
IR
16V

1k

IZ
VZ

VZ = 10V
PZM=30mW

+
VL
_

ZENER REGULATION WITH A VARIABLE LOAD

Due to the offset voltage VZ, there is a specific range of resistor values
which will ensure that the zener is in the ON state
IR

IL

RS

Vi

1.2k

IZ
VZ

+
VL
_

IL
RL

Problem 2-16
(a) For the network shown, determine the range if RL and IL that
will result in VRL being maintained at 10V.
(b) Determine the maximum wattage rating of the diode.
IR
50V

To determine the minimum load resistance that will turn the zener
diode ON, simply calculate the value of R L that will result in a load
voltage VL = VZ

Once the diode is in the ON state, the voltage across R S remains

fixed

1k

IZ
VZ

IL
RL

VZ = 10V
IZM=32mA

and IR
The zener current

Since IZ is limited to IZM as provided on the data sheet, it does affect

the range of RL and therefore IL. Substituting IZM for IZ establishes
minimum IL as
and the maximum load resistance as

ZENER REGULATION WITH A VARIABLE INPUT

The input voltage must be sufficiently large to turn the zener diode ON.
IR

RS

Vi

IZ
VZ

+
VL
_

Problem 2-18
Determine the output voltage for each zener limiting circuit.
Source Input
10V

IL
RL

The Minimum turn-on voltage Vi =Vi(min) is determine by

The maximum value of Vi is limited by the maximum zener current

IZM, since IZ = IR IL,

3.3V

VS

5.1V

10V

Zener Limiting
Zener diodes can be used in ac applications to limit voltage
swing to desired levels.
R

Output Voltage

VZ

VS

1k

Since IL is fixed at
R

the maximum Vi is defined by

1k

20V
VS

VZ

VS

6.2V
15 V

20V
Problem 2-17
Determine the range of values of Vi that will maintain the zener diode in
the ON state
IR
IL
220
IZ
VZ = 20V
VZ
Vi
1.2k
IZM=60mA

VS

D1
D2

2.5. Varactor Diodes

Also known as variable-capacitance

diodes because the junction capacitance
varies with the amount of reverse-bias
voltage
Specifically designed to take advantage of
this variable-capacitance characteristics.
Commonly used in electronics tuning
circuits used in communications.

2.6. Optical Diodes

2.6.1. Light-Emitting Diode (LED)
Light Emitter
When the device is forward biased,
electrons cross the pn junction from the ntype material and recombine with holes in
the p-type material. When recombination
takes place, the recombining electrons
release energy in the form of heat and
light.
Electroluminescence the process of releasing light energy by
recombination of electrons in a semiconductor
made of GaAs(emit infrared), GaAsP(produce either red or
yellow visible light), and GaP (emits red or green visible light)
Typically, the maximum VF is between 1.2V and 3.2V
Reverse breakdown is typically 3V to 10V.
Common type of display device is seven-segment display.
Applications: Used for indicator lamps and readout displays on
wide variety of instruments, IR-emitting diodes are used in
optical coupling applications often in conjunction with fiber
optics.

2.7. Other Types of Diodes

2.7.1. Current Regulator Diode
Often referred to as a constant-current Diode
The forward current becomes a specified constant value at
forward voltage ranging from 1.5V to about 6V
Nominal regulator currents ranging from 220A to 4.7mA

Laser light is also called coherent light, single wavelength.

Laser diodes and photodiodes are used in pick-up system of
compact disk..

2.7.2. Schottky Diode

used primarily in high-frequency and fast-switching
applications.
Also known as hot-carrier diodes.
Formed by joining a doped semiconductor (usually n-type) with
a metal such as gold, silver, or platinum.
2.7.3. PIN Diode
Consists of heavily doped p and n regions separated by an
intrinsic region.
Acts as constant capacitance.
Used as a dc-controlled microwave switch operated by rapid
changes in bias or a modulating device that takes advantage
of the variable forward resistance characteristic
Also used in attenuator applications. Others are used as
photodetector in fiber optic systems.
2.7.4. Step-Recovery Diode
Employs graded doping where the doping level of the
semiconductive material is reduced as the pn junction is
approach
Allows rapid re-establishment of forward current when
switching from reverse to forward bias.
Used in very high frequency (VHF) and fast switching
applications.

2.6.2. Photodiode
Light detector
Device that operates in reverse bias.
Has a small transparent window that
allows light to strike the pn junction.
Dark Current the amount of thermally
generated reverse current in a photodiode in
the absence of light

2.7.5.

Tunnel Diode
Exhibits a special characteristic known as negative resistance.
Useful in oscillator and microwave amplifier applications
Constructed with germanium or gallium arsenide by doping the
p and n region much more heavily than in a conventional
rectifier diode.

2.7.6. Laser Diode

Laser stands for light amplification by stimulated emission of
radiation.
light is monochromatic.