From: Ethnobotany in the Neotropics

G. T. Prance & J. A. Kallunki,

Editors
Advances in Economic Botany
1:

62 -

111.

The Ethnobotany of Coca

(Erythroxylum spp.,
Erythroxylaceae)
Timothy Plowman

Ofall the botanical wondcrs discO\TrL'd in thc New World by thc lirst Eurupcan
cxplorers. few can compare with tlw l'oc1 plant for its fascinating history. 1ts
rcmarkable medicinal propcrties. and 1ts continuing cconomic and pol!t1cil 1mportance. For millions of South Amcri,;111 na ti ves. coca not on l y furn ishcs a mi ld
stimulant and sustenance for working undn harsh cnvironmcntal co11d1tions. hut
also serves as a universal and cffcct1\ e houschold remcdy for a widc rangL' or
medica] problcms. The traditional use of coca also plays a crucial symbolic and
rcligious role in Andcan soc1ety. Its us, 1s accornpanicd by complcx rituals. cncmony and protocol. such that coca functions as a focus of cultural and social
integration. lt has bccn said that chcwing coca is thc most profound cxprcss1011
of Andcan culture ami that. if coca wn, takcn away from thc India ns. thlir traditional culture would rapidly disintq:ratc (Wagnc~. 1978~ Cartcr et al.. ] lJ8(b.
l 980b).
In sharp contrast to thc unifying and stabili1ing cffrcts of coca chn\in~ on
Andcan culture is the disruptive and convoluted phcnomcnon of coca1m use 111
\Vcstcrn societies. Because all cocain, cntcring world markcts is dcrivcd from
coca !caves produced in South Amc1wa. the staggering incrcasc in dcmand for
cocainc for rccrcational use has a dirt, impact on South American econom1cs.
politics and. ultimately and most tra~xally. on indigenous cultures. Thc .\\idcsprcad use of cocaine, eithcr for pleastm: or work. is a vcry d1ffcrcn1 psycholog1cal
cxpcricnce than using coca in a trad11innal setting: thc differcnces bctwccn thc
pharmacological cffects of cocainc hyJr,)chloridc takcn. say. intranasally. and thc
cffccts of chewing coca lea ves ha\T lxxn cmphasizcd repcatcdly (Mortimer. 1901.
Wcil. 1975: Grinspoon & Bakalar. 10"(1: Antonil. 1978: intcr alia). Yct man\
pcoplc still equatc thc use of coca \\1th that of cocaine and f'ail to comprchcnd
bolh thc pharmacological and cultural diffcrcnccs bctwccn thesc two rclatcd yct
uniquc substanccs. In modcrn socic11c~. pcoplc are fairly wcll acquaintcd w11h
both thc plcasurable and dcletcrious l'lkds of cocaine bccause of cxtcnsi\C ncws
co,eragc ofthc cocainc .. phenomcn,,n .. rn recen\ ycars. Yet fcw pcoplc are aware

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of thc bcnclicial cffects of coca chcwing. of thc impo rtance of the use of coca 111
Andcan lifc. or of thc origin and C\'Olution of thc coca plan t.
During thc past d<?cadc. wc havc secn enorm o us progrcss in rcscarch on thc
history. chemistry, botan y. and cultural imponancc of coca. Unfortunatcly. mo st
of these st ud ies ha ve be en ovcrshadowcd b y a m uch grca ter profusion of st ud i,s
on thc pharmacology and chemistry of cocainc and o n its physiological ami ps\ cholugical dl(:cts. lt is my purposc hcrc to prcscnt an ovcr\'icw of thc botall\.
chemistry . and u ses of coca by South American nativcs and to rcview pcrtincnt
rcsearch on coca which has app<?ared sincc approximatel y 1970. Arcas ofpanicular
interest includc recent studies on thc botanical origins of coca . which until thc
l 970's rcmaincd muddlcd and misunderstood cvcn by taxonomi c botanists: on
thc archco logical record of coca. which. although rathcr scanty. had bccn largdy
misintcrprctcd by archcologists: and on thc chcrnistry of the coca lcaf. which had
nnTr bccn adcquatdy analyzcd bccausc of carlicr tcchnical problcms in making
eflicicnt cxtractions and quantitativc measurcments ofthc containcd compound s
Thcn'. has also bccn rcncwed interest in the efkcts of coca chcwing. but wc still
know rdati.,.cly little about thl' subtlc and complex pharmacology of thc c.xpcrience. Lastly. there has been an effort on the pan of anthropologists to d ocumc nt
more completely the religious and cultural aspccts of coca in traditional cultures.
Onc arca of study which l will not consider hcrc is the long and cornplcx histor\'
of coca aftcr thc Spanish Conqucst. This topic has becn investiga tcd in dcpth by
m a n y scholars ovcr a long pcriod oftime but spacc limitations prcclud c discussing
it herc. Thc rcader is referred to the following works 1n which ncw and notcworthy
f1ndings on th c history ofcoca during thc Colonial pcriod are prcsrnted: Usctcgui.
1954 : Gagliano , 1960 . 1963 , 1965. 1968, 1979: Patio, 1967 . Martn. 19 70: Pea
Begu. 1972: Burchard. 1976: Chvez Yelsquez. 1977: Antonil. 1978: Carter et
al. , l 980a: Castro de la Mata. 1981 : Bra y & Dollcry, 1983 : Plowman. 1984).
Botany of coca
Many scholars have underes timatc d or ovcrlookcd entircly the irnport:in ce or
thc existencc of distinct varieties of coca. Although gcographical. ccological. and
morphological differences in coca varieties were recorded as early as thc l 6th
century . the1r significance was not recognized until the l 970"s (Rostworowski.
1973 : Antonil. 1978 : Plo\.vman. l 979a: Bray & Dollery. 1983). No t until coca
leaf becamc an important pharmaceutical product in thc late l 9th century. d1d
thc b o tanical origins and varietics of coca become thc object of scientific inquir\
(Plowman. 1982)
Thc crn:a shrub bclongs to thc gcnus Eryrhro.\'_\'/11111 P. Brownc of thc tropical
plant family Erythroxylaceac. Most species of Enrhroxy/11111 are found in th c
American tropic s with about 200 spccics , although the genus also occurs in A frica.
l'v1adagasc:1r. India. tropical Asia. and Occania. In thc Ole! World . many wild
spccics are c111ploycd in folk medicine (Hegnaucr. 1981 ). but it is only in tropical
America whee Eryrhroxylum leaves are chewed cxtensivcly as a stimulant and
wherc thc plants attain major cultural importancc (Martn. 19 70: Ma yc r. 19 78:
Antonil. 1978: Carter et al.. l 980a).
Ali cultivatcd coc a is derived from two closcly rclate d South Ame rican specL'S Er.\'!h roxy/11 111 coca Lam . and E. 11o r ogra11arc11 sc (Morris) Hieron. \Vhereas othcr
ncotropical \\ild spccies of Er11hrox1/11111 may be cmploycd locally as medicine s.
discussions of "coca" should be confined to thc se two specics.
Until rclativcly rcccntl y. only onc spccies of coca-Er.11hruxd11111 corn -wa s
gcncrally rccogni1.cd (Monimer. 1901: Hcgnauer & Fikcnschcr. 1960: M:1rtrn.

64

FTH~UBOT A:-.:Y

:-.; THr t'HH KOPI C S

1970). HowC\-cr. C\"ldcncc. rcsulting from intense ficld and lahoratory studics of
coca. has accumulated during thc past dcc:ide and dcmonstrates incontrovcnihl)
that two distinct spccics of coca should he recognizcd (Schul1. 1907: Machad o.
1972: Gentner . 1972: Plowman. l 979a: Rury. 1981. 1982: Bohm et al.. 1982:
Plowman & Rivicr , 1983). In addition. each ofthc two specics ofcultivatcd coca
has onc varicty. dcsignatcd E. coca var. ipad11 Plowman and E . llOl'(>gra11a1c11.1< '
var. rruxillcnsc (Rusby) Plowman , respectively. Thc four cultivatcd cocas ofSouth
AmC'rica arC' thus trcatcd as follows: E. coca var. coca. E. coca var. iwdu. F.
11orogranarc11sc var. nmogra11ate11sc. and L. nmogranatcnsc var. truxillc11sc.
Ali of thc varicties of cultivated coca werc domesticatcd indepcndcntly in preColumbian time s and are still employed by native coca chewt>rs in South Amcrica.
Each ofthcm was known by a different native name beforc the Spanish popularizcd
thc now widesprcad term '"coca." Although the y differ appreciably in the contcnt
of minor alkaloids and other chemical constitucnts. ali of thc cultivatcd coca s
contain thc alkaloid cocaine. Additional importan\ differences among the four
varieties , which hithcrto ha ve been overlooked, are found in their leaf and stcm
anatomy. ecology. geographical rclationships . and in the methods of thcir cultivation and preparation for chewing. These differences refkct intensive human
selcction overa long period oftime for spccific traits and for successful cultivation
in a variety of habitats in distinct geographic arcas (Fig. 1).
Although cenain wild spccies may yet be mplicat ed in their evolutionary rclationships (Plowman & Rivier. 1983). thc four varictics of cultivatcd coca a!"L'
more closely rclated to each other than to any other species of Eryrhrox.\'111111.
Supcrficially. thc cultivatcd cocas are very similar morphologically, which explains
n part earlicr confuson in thc identiflcation o f coca spccimens. espccially by nonspccialists (Plowman. l 979b, 1982). Thc varetics can be distinguishcd b y characters of thc branching habt . bark . lea ves. stipules. lowers. and fruits: but oftcn .
cspccially in the case of dried hcrbarium spccmcns. complete specimcns may be
nccC'ssary for positive identification . Howcver. in most cases isolated coca lcavc s
can now be identified to spccies if not to variety. especially if thc provcnancc o f
thc samplcs is known.
Rc ccn t studics ha ve provided additional new characters thal permit thc accuratL"
and positiw identification ofcoca Jeaws. including archeological spccimcns. Thcsc
studies focus on leaf anatom y (Rury , 1981. 1982 ; Rury & Plowman . 1984). lavonoids (Bohm et aL 1981 ), alkaloids (Rivicr, 1981 : Plowman & Rivier . 1983).
rcproductive biology and breeding relationships (Ganders. 1979: Bohm et al..
1982). and ecology and geographic distribution (Plowman. l 979a. l 979b, 1984)
As a rcsult of thcsc invcstgations. the taxonomic and evolutionary rclationship ~
among thc four cultivatcd cocas are now fairly well undcrstood.
ERYTHROXYL U M C OCA VAR. COCA. H U.,,NUCO OR B OLIV IAN COC.J\

Eryrhro.\T/11111 coca consists of the wide-ranging and economically importan!

Andcan variety of E. coca var. coca and thc gcographically restricted Amazonian
varicty E. coca var. ipadu. Eryrhroxr/11111 coca var. coca is often refcrred to as
'"Bolivian" or '"Hunuco" coca. but neithcr ofthese terms conveys the extcnsivc
gcographical rangc ofthc variety. For convenicncc. 1 will use thc tcrm "Hunuco
coca" hcrc.
Er_1rhrox1/11111 coca var. coca. a shrub 1to3 m tall (Fig. 2). grows mainly bctwe cn
500 and 1500 m elCYation but ma y reach 2000 m in sorne arcas. lt is cultivatcd
in rcgions or moist. montanc tropical foresta long thc eastern slopcs of the Andes
aml in the wctter inter-Anclcan valleys. in thc ecological zonc known gcncrally as

PLOWMAN : COCA

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65

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66

ETHl"OBOTANY I N THE NEOTKO PI CS

} - 1 ~ 1 . 2.

Dcpt . San

H ah :. 1.il ~ 111a ture . fruiting spc cinH._ n of Lrythru.\Thnn

~Lir .11.

Pcru

(!'/1 111

n 11

" ar . co cacult i Y 1cd at Tar:1p<.110.

man 6 0 4 2 ).

.. monta11a (Fig.. 3) . lkca usc it h as a L,; rly lirn it C'd cco log cal rangc H1 1{1;1 uco coc:1
is litt k kn O \ \ll uu ts1dc it s origi n al a ;1 in South A mni ca. 1-! o wc\'n. this var icty
i ~ th c principal commc rc ial so urc
J coca k aY CS and of m ost o th c \\o rlLl' -.
Clicainc supply .

fr <. ;. 3 .
Fr an c i~ c u .

Plantat1 o n o f Lry 1hr('.\'\'111n coca \'a r. n n1 in 1hc mni~I. tropical 111011taii;1 hab1t;1t. \;i11
Ro :\purima c. D q1t. A yac ucho. Pn u (/ '/<1 1,.,1w11 & Ja cols 4 7 1 !) .

Thc gcographical di stribu ti o n of Hunu c o coca cxtcnds fr o m Ecuador south t<.l

Bo li\'ia and no rth,,cs tcrnmo s t Arge ntin a (Fi! . 1). Only in Ecuadur. ' 'h l'l'l' sui1:1hk
nwist fo rl'st hah11:1t ~ occur on bo1h sidL'!> uf lh l' A nde s. doc s th 1s \' ;11ict\ rc;1 ch
lh ( Pa ci!lc slo pc . It is unkn o wn in Colombia or in th c Ama zon l owl;111d~ .
Through ou \ ib rangc. Hunu co coca is fo und as wild-gro wing or !Cral indi' id uals in thc und crswry ofpri mary o r scco ndary forcs ts. b o 1h ncar and rcrn o tc fro111
arcas o f'prc scnt coca c ulti\'ation. lt is w c ll adapted to the montaa habita! ,,Jinc
it appears to be a natural compo nen ! of th c f'orcs l undcrstory and ocr ur ~ sy 111 patrically with sncra l wild c rythro:-.ylum s includin g L 11/ei O. L Schul1 . F .
ma111aei Jca :'-. l an .. F . 11 10 c ro c ncnii11111 Mari. . a nd L. 11111cro11u1un1 Uc nth .
l t 1s oftcn impossiblc to distingui sh bct wcen truly wild-gro wing /:'. c o rn ,a r.
c c>co and pl ants that ha\'C cscapcd from coca plantations o r that persist ;lftl'r
plantati o ns arL' ahand on ed . Thcrc are apparc ntly no barricrs t\l gene 11uw l>ctwecn
'' ild and cu lti\atcd populations. \vhich frcc ly int crhrccd when growing in proximity . Th c small red fruits are caten by bird s whi c h di ssc minat c th c sccds th rougho ut th c montaa ha bitat. Thcrc are n o cssc ntial struct ural ditrcrcnccs hctWL'l'll
wild-gro wing and c ulti\'atcd plants of E. coco var . coco , and thi s vanct~ SL'L' rll S
to be 11ttk a ltcrcd morphologicall y. gcne ti ca ll y. o r physiologically through d o mcst ication. In this feature . L. caca \'ar. coca difkrs fundamcntall y from man ~
o thcr culti\'atcct plant s. c spccially food plant s. whi ch may bcco mc isola tcd gcnct1cally from th c ir w ild p rogc nit o rs and lose thcir ahi lit y to rcp rodun in th c
\\ ild (Pic kn ~gill 8: J ki sc r . 1976).
f :' ry t hru xr/11111 coca Ya r. coca is now th ought to be a naturally occurring wild
spcc ics of th c m o ntaa. from wh ic h thc othcr thrcc cocas ultimatcl y \\Cl'l' d criH' d

68

ETHNOBOTANY IN THE NEOTROPICS

as cultigcns through human sclcction . Probably L. coca var. coca I 1cl a morl'
limited distribution as a wild species. possibly in castern Pcru in thc arc.i ccntn111g
on the Huallaga Yalley. where it frequently is found grov.ing wild. Subsequrnl
rangc extensions northward to Ecuador and southward to Bolivia. and Argentina
probably occurred through man's activities.
ERYTHRO:XYLl l ll.1 COCA VAR. IPADll, AMAZONIAN COCA

Although long-neglected by anthropologists. Amazonian coca. Erythro.\1-/11111

coca var. ipadu. recentl y has been re-examined by botanists (Prancc , 1972: Plowman. 19 79 b. 1981; Schultes, 1981; Rury. 1981. 1982 : Plowm:.in & Rivier . 1983)
and pharmacologists (Holmstedt et al., J 979). Amazonian coca is closel y allied
to E. coca var. coca from which it has originated in relatively reccnt times (Plowman. 1981 ). The Amazonian variety is cultivated on a small scak by a numbcr
of tribes of the upper Amazon in parts of Colombia. Bra1.il and Pcru (Fig. 1).
Propagated by stcm cuttings, it is wcll adapted to the pattcm ofshif1ing agriculture
practiced by semi-nomadic Amazonian peo ples. Amazonian coca d 1 cs not surv1 \T
as a feral or escaped plant in the lowland Amazo n and may be con, idcred a true
cultigen.
Amazonian coca is littlc differcntiatcd from E. coca var. co , '' and thc 1wo
varieties appear to be fully interfcrtile. Amazonian coca contain' thc same leaf
ftavonoid profilcs as thc montaa variety. Thc leaf flavonoids hFc been found
to be a uscful and unvarying taxonomi c character for identifying h"lh cultivated
and wild cocas (Hu hm et al .. 1981, 1982). A surprising chcrnic;,, J iffcrence in
Amazonian coc;1 a consistently lower cocaine content: this varie 1 11sually co ntains only about h:dfthe concentrations found in other cultivated coc .. , Holmstedt
c1 al., 19 77 , 19 7q Plowman & Rivi c r. 1983).
Erythrox_11um uca var. ipadu was unknown to Europeans until the middlc or
thc l 8th century. Dctails of its cultivation, use, and geographic distribution wcrc
not recorded until the present ccntury. Amazonian coca has no archeological
record with which to date its origin in Amazonia, but based on linguistie, ethnographic, historical and botanical evidencc. Amazonian coca appears to he a
relatively recent development. It surely evolved rrom stocks of E . coca var. cod .
introduccd from ihe Andean foothills through sekction for traits conducive to it~
cultivation in Amazonia. It is now geographicalh isolated from other coca va
rieties.

1'

ERYTHR OX YL UM NOVOGRANATENSE

Ervthroxv/um nol'ogranatense now is recognized .. . a distinct species of culti

,a tcd coca. altlwu;.h in the past it oftc1 as confused -.-. 11h , or considered a vari e t
of. E. coca (Plowman. 1982). Appreci: e cvidence h:. \ accumulated that suggesl
that this species arase as a domestica:
plant throu;.ii human selection from 1
coca var. coca (l~,ihm et al. , 1982). Er. 1roxy/um nmo_i.: matense differs from l
coca var. coca in a number of morph ; igical features . t more significantly,
has evolv ed dist1ndive chemical and c,ological traits an c ' S become genetical
isolated from partntal E. coca var. cr l.
Erythroxy/um 11 .>l'ogranatense con ~i sts of two well definnl varieties: E 1101 -.
gra natense var. trllxiflense, Trujillo coca, and E. nol'ogranatl'nse var. 11 0 1ogr
na tense. Colombia 11 coca . Thcse va rict ies are more strongly di fferentia ted fro
each other than E. coca var. coca is from E. coca var. ipad11. Th i ,, suggests great
antiquity for the \a rieta! isolation and differentiation within .'~ . 110rngra11atc1.
than within E , oca.

69
l3oth varicties of F. nnrngrana1c11sc are known today only as cultivatcd plants .
Both varictics arr wcll adapted to arid conditions and usually are grown in art' a~
wherc J:.:. cuca could not survive. In both alkaloid and ftavonoid chcmistry. L
n on.1grana1cnsc differs fundamcntally from E. coca (Bohm et al.. 1982: Plowman
& Rivier. 1983). Brceding experiments bctween E. coca var. coca and tht varictic~
of E . no r ogran a tcnsc ha ve demonstrated genetic ditferentiation among thcsc taxa .
funher clarifying their specific and varietal rclationships (Bohm ct al.. 1982).
ERYTHROXYLUM NOYOGRANATENSE VAR . TRUXILLENSE , TR U JILLO COCA

Trujillo coca is cultivated today in thc rin-r valkys of thc north coast of Pnu
bctwccn about 200 and 1800 m elevation and in thc adjaccnt. arid. upper Maran
rinr valley (Fig. 1). h is grown today on a relatively small scale for coca chcwing
andas a ftavoring for the soft drink Coca Cola :;. Although it is a highly drought rcsistant shrub . it still requires sorne irrigation throughout its rangc (Plowm;1n .
l 979b).
Trujillo coca bcars a leaf that is smallcr. lightcr green. and more brittk than
k;\H'S of F. <>ca (Fig. 4) . lkcaUSl" it contains flavoring compounds not found in
L. coca. Trujillo coca long has been valued for coca-ftavored wines and ton ic s.
In the last century. it was highly prizcd in the European and North American
pharmaceutical industry for medicinal prcparations (Morris, 1889: Plowman.
1982).
Today. Trujillo coca is gcographicall y and ecologically isolatcd from othcr cuca
varictics. and no hybrids bctwecn thcm have bccn found. Howcver. L m11 n gru11all'11sc var. 1ruxi!lc11sc has been successfully crosscd with both L. coca var.
coca and E . n o rogranaten s(' var. 1101ogra11a1cnsc. Successful crosscs wcrc obtained
in both dircctions bctween E . 11ovogra11a1cns(' var. nmogranatcnsc and E. 11mu gra1101cns(' var. truxil!cn.w The resulting hybrids were vigorous and vegetaliH~ ly
normal and exhibited morphological characters intermediate bclween the two
parents. However. most of the hybrids bctwcen these varietics which ftowcrnl
showed only 50% pollen stainability anda much reduced seed set. This sugge sh
at lcast partial rcproductive isoJation bCIWCCn the varieties of E. ll O\"(}gran a /C ll .\c"
rcsulting from their geographical isolation in somewhat diffcrent habitats ovcr a
long period of time (Bohm et al. , 1982).
Err1hroxr/11m n nl'Ogranatc11sc var. 1n1xi//cnsc also was crossed wi1h L. cocu
var. coca, bu\ with limited success. Although F 1 hybrids wert." obtaincd. thcsc
were morphologically and developmentally abnormal. anda number ofthem dicd
as st."edlings. Thcy produced no ftowcrs and clearly werc ill-adapted for survi,al
(B o hm et al. . 1982). Although Trujillo coca is in severa! features intermedia1e
between E. coca var. coca and E . n o r ograna1ens(' var. no1ogra11a1cnsc. it is gcneti call y much more closely related to the latter. with which it shares impo rtant
chemical and ecological charactt."rs.
The leaf ftavonoids of Trujillo coca rcftect tht." intcrmcdiatc nature or th1s
va ric ty. lt shares with E. enea (both varieties) the 3-0-arabinosides ofkaempferol
and quercetin. whi ch are abscnt in F.. nnrng ranatcn sc var. 11mograna1c11.1c. Howncr. both ,arictics of L 11 0 \'0g ra11a1c11 sc contain thc rare lavonoid ombum-30-rutinoside, which is absent in E . coca (Bohm et al.. 1982).
l3ascd upan data currently availablc. Trujillo coca is placed corrcctly in thc
spccies E. n o m g r a natcnsc but must be recognized as a distinct variety withm \ha\
specics becausc o f notcd diffcrences from the Colombian va ri ct y. Ba sed up on
genetic and ge ographical relationships. i1 is highly probable that Trujillo coca
cvohTd dircctly from E. coca var . coca through intensi ve selection for cultivati o n
111 drier habitats and possibly for the more delica1e and ftavorful lea,T s and a

7(}

Fi ( ;. 4 . fl ow<"ri n~ i'r3nch or Truj i llo coca. Fn1hn i.\T 11111

at Cuilamh;i\. D epl. L1 Lihcn:id. Pcru (J'/,lln11an 5t>Cli).

11orogr a11at e11.<r

va r.

1rux1/!c11s1-.

culli ,a ted

more robust, lca fy h:ib1t. Trujillo coca sub se qucntl y gavc risc to the Colombian
variety of E. nmogranarcnsc in thc northern Andes undcr similar conditions of
gcographc is o lation and co ntinu ing human -,clcction pressurcs.
ERY T HRO :-: Yll ''.1 :---.:ovoc;RANAT EN SE VAR. NO\ ( C;RANATENSE, COL O MBIAN CC>C A

Thc founh varety of cultiva ted coca is i.1 .,rhrox\/u 111 11mograna1cn sl' vai
n o1ogra11 ar c11sc. or "Colombian coca." Th1 s -.aricty is distingu shcd morpholog -

ically frnm othcr \'aricties by its hrig.ht ycllow-grecn foliagc and lack of persisten!
stipules. In dried lcaf spccimcns. identification s m;iy he more difficult and rcquirL
anatomical study (Rury . 1981 ). Likc Trujillo coca. thi~ varicty is wcll adaptcd to
dry conditions and often is cultivated in the arid . intcr-Andean vallcys ofColombia and a long the Caribbean coast (Fig. 1). Howcver. it is also grown in moister
pans of the Colombian Andes. especially at elevations of J000 to 1800 m.
Unlike any of the other three coca varieties. Colombian coca is quite toleran!
of diverse ecological conditions. and for this reason the variety was introduccd
widely in horticulture in the last century and distrihutcd to many tropical countries. both asan ornamental andas a cocaine sourcc (Plowman. J979a. 1982). lt
became an importan! cash crop in Java during thc carly part of the 20th ccntury.
introduced there by enlerprising Dutch colonial planters (Reens. J919a. l 9 l 9b) .
Colombian coca is isolated geographically from other coca varieties. in contras!
to the more complex distribution patterns seen in Trujillo and Hunuco cocas .
This isolation is accompanied by fundamental changcs in flavonoid chcm1stry
and rcproductive biology of Colombian coca . In its leaf ftavonoids . Col o mbian
coca la cks the quercetin and kaempfcrol arabinosidcs found in E. 11m o~ra11a t c11 sc
var . rruxil!cnsc and E . coca var. coca. but it contains the rutinosidcs~ includin g
ombuin-3-0-rutinoside, which are prcsent in L 110 111.:ra nat c nsc \'ar. 1ru. l le11 sc
but lacking in L. coca \'ar. coca (Bohm et al.. 1982).
As mentioned earlier, Colombian coca will not cross with E. coca var. coca . lt
does produce vigorous hybrids with Trujillo coca. although the resulting hybrids
showed reduced fertility (Bohm et al. . 1982). This suggcsts that E . 11orogra11at<'11sc
var. 11 o mgranatcnse is genetically closely related to L. n o rogranaten.1< var. 1ru xil!e11sc n cn though sorne rcprodunivc harrins bLtwccn thLm han.: dnclopcd
as a rcsult of thcir geographic isolation. On thc othcr hand , E. n o iogra11 a t N1sc
var. no rngranatcnse is genetically much more distan\ from E. coca var. coca . In
their hreeding mcchanisms. most erythroxylums are strongly self-incompatibk .
distylous spccics. Colombian coca is exccptional in bcing partially sclf-compatihlc
and isolated indiYiduals may produce ahundant viahle sccd . Sclf-compatibility is
considcrcd a dcrivcd statc in plants with a hetcrostylous breeding systcm. a fa ct
that favors the view that Colombian coca is the most specialized and most ren:ntl y
deriYcd \'ariety of the cultivated cocas (Bohm et al.. 1982).
Colombian coca is known only as a cultivated plant and rarelv. if e ver. escapes
from cultivation. Today it is grown on a small scale by isolated lndian trihcs of
the Colombian Andes. primarily in the Sierra Nevada de Santa Mana and in the
Departments of Santander. Cauca. and Huila . It is not extensivcly cultivatcd for
coca ine production owing to the same difficulties in extracting the alkaloid that
are encountered with Trujillo coca leaves; rather , Colombian coca is employcd
mostly far chewing andas a household medicine. lt is commonly planted asan
ornamental and medicinal plan\ throughout Colombia .
DiscoHry and early cultirntion of coca
A sccnario far man's first discovery and cultivation of coca in thc montaa has
becn outlincd earlicr (Antonil. 1978: Plowman . 1979a: Bohm et al.. 1982). Thc
palatable. relatively tender. young !caves of E. coca var. coca must have bccn
sampled first as a famine food by groups of nomadic hunter-gatherers who carly
inhabited thc eastern Andes. At this time. coca existcd as small. scattcrcd populati ons in the montaa. similar to the distribution pa\lerns ofmany wild spccics
toda\' . The stimulant and medicinal properties of the leaves were discoven:d.
prob-ably more than once , during this early pcriod of expcrimentation . On ce thc
stimulating effccts of the leavcs were known . they wcrc routincly gathered fro m

72

ETHNOIJOTANY IN THl. NEOTKOPICS

thc forcst for daily use . Rcfincmcnts in thc use of coca. in cluding sun-d n ng thl'
lcav cs. holding thcm in thc mouth as a quid. and thc addition of an :1 ikal1nc
suhstancc. gradually dcvelopcd and bccamc customary. Numcrous alkalmc sources
have been employcd in chewing coca and with oth cr drugs such as tohacco . In
the montaa. the simplest and most rcadily availahlc alkalinc sourcc is the ashes
prcparcd fr o m a widc varict y of plants (Plowrnan. 1980: Rivicr. 1981 ).
As supplics of coca in the wild became insullic icnt to m ee \ thc nccds of a
grcv..ving. coca-chcwing population. coca shrubs werc transplantcd from the wild.
nearcr 10 habitations. so that a constan\ suppl y of leavc s would be availablc. In
th1s contcxt. coca must have bcen one of the earliest plants cultivated in thc
m ontaa and is impli catcd in th c earlicst developmcnt ofagriculturc in this arca.
The lirs t use and cultivation of coca cc rtainl y antedates the first appca r:rncc o f
an y arc heologi ca l cvidcncc (such as ccramic rcprcscntati o ns of coca chn ' n~ or
coc1-chewi ng para phnnalia) by severa] thousa nd yca rs.
Archeologcal eYidence for coca chewing

Th c ca rl ics t suggestion of coca chewing is found in thc Ya Id i via C ul t ur nn t lw

Sama Elena Penn su la in so uthwestern Ecuador. Hcre small ccramic li rnc co ntaincrs bclincd to b e uscd in coca chewing hav e bccn found that date to\ .1ld1\ia
Phasc 4. about 2100 B.C. (uncorrccted radiocarbon dating). A tradition ' s mall.
dc coratC'd lim C' pots cxtends through thc Machalilla Cu hure to Chon, 1.i i mc~
(300-1000 B. C.) . whcn it rcached it s maximum dcvclopment . A smal l. c<"ra mi l
figurine ofthe Chagras style also wa s discO\-ered at Yaldivia that ck a rly rc i' l \ scn t~
the prominent check hulgc of a coca chcwcr. This piccc is datcd L'lte \ a ldiYia
( 15 00-1600 B.C. ) and 1s thc ca rlicst known cxamplc ofa long Ecuadorian uadition
of figurines dcpi cting "coqueros" (Lathrap e t al.. 19 76). Skulls contai 11 111g hcl\y
accumulati o n s ofdental calculus. interpret ed as an indication ofh ca\y l\)c-.1 chcwing v,ith lime . havc b cen found in a late C h o rre ra cemctcry on the Sant :1 Elena
Penin sul a (Klepinge r et al.. 19 77). Based on the archeological evidence. it .1rpears
that the custom of coca chcwing. and perh a ps coca cultivation. was fulh cstab li shed in the Valdivia arca by 3000 B. C.
Early CYidence for coca chcwing has bcen found also on thc Peruvia n uias t in
thc La te Preceramic Pcriod 6 (1800-2500 B.C.) in thc form ofanifacts rn 1ploycd
111 coca chewing and possibly ofactual coca lea ves . although the bo tanical material
has not been idcntif1ed taxonomically. Engel ( 195 7) reponed a bottlc gourd and
three .Hn ilus shell s. ali containing p o wdcrcd lime thought to be used with coca.
from a hu rial a t Culebras (Dc pt. An ca sh). Bray and Dollcry ( 1983) ha n datcd
this sitc at :1 roLmd 2000 B.C. Engel ( 1963) also found "lea ves looking like coca"
al o ng with la rge dcposits of burnt lime a t the sitc of Asia in the Ornas Yallcy
(Oept. Lima). Asia is radiocarbon dated at 1314 100 B.C. but probably dates
to ahout 1800 B.C. (M. Moselcy. pers . co mm.) . Pattcrse>;1 ( 1971) cxcavatcd prcscrved coca kavcs ncar Ancn (Dcpt. Lima) in thc Gav 1 ;1 phase datcd betwecn
17 50 and 1900 B.C.: Cohen (1978) al so reportcd coca
' 11 An cn with a date
of 1400- 1 ~00 B.C. Coca was one of the items (along
h maize and ma rine
shclls) sw c kpiled in a gro up ofstoragc structures at Huan , o Alto in thc Chilln
Yalley (Ocpt. Lima), dating between 200 and 800 B.C. (l
ehay. 1979). Unfortunately . n >ne of these early records of preserved "coca " i ves has been botanically idcn : if1cd becausc nonc ofthe e 6inal spccimens car . .,. located .
Archcn lvg.ical coca !caves from mi 1 later sites, primari h hurials. o n thc Pcruvian co;t , have bee n av ailablc for udy , and these ali bcl < 11 ~ to the varicty L
no rogra nu: nsc var. tm.Yi//cnsc. Tr lo coca (Fig. 5) . Thesr :1Cludc specimcns

l'I ( )\\

~ 1.-\ ;--;

: \ \ )\ \

F1< .. ) . ..\rc hc o lo>.1 cal Truj illo coca \caves frc >m a n In ca rem e ter,. Tarug.a \' a lkY . D c p t. k a . l'cru
Low1, 1\1 u; c um of A n th ro p o lo g.Y. a cce ssio n no. 16-1 :14 26. Pho togra ph co urt c\\ or thc l .owic 11. l u" u m
llf

:\ n 1h1u h1 l~1 F ~

from \ 1sta Alegre in thc Rimac Valky (Dcp\. Lima. apprnx. 600-1000 A D.l:
frurn 1lw Yauca \'allcy (Dcpl. Arcquipa. Late Horizon): from Monlc C:irand l' in
thc R1 0 Cirand c Vallcy (Dcp\. lea) : and from Chaco ta ncar Arica in rwrthcrnmo sl
C hilc ( Late H ur i1on ). A numhcr of thcsc spec imcn s wcrc studicd anatom1calh
ancl found to corrcspond cl o scly with m odern Trujtllo coca. altlwugh general!;
the archco logical lea Yes were small c r in size (Rury & Plowman . 1984) C oca
rnd oca rp s rcfcrahle to Trujillo coca wcrc reponed from Vista Alegre (Towlc. 1961)
and more recently werc cx cavatcd at Chilca (Dc p\. Lima. Lat e lntcrrn cdiatc Pc nod ) b y Jeffrcy Parsons (pcrs. comm.).
Latcr n iden ce for coca chewing. ineludtng lirrn.' pots. ltmc dippns. and ccrami c
coca-chc\\ll1g human ligurincs. as well as occasional prcscrvcd ]caves. ha s bcl'n
fo und thro ughoul thc Peruvian coast from thc early ce ramie pcriod to Inca times .
l3 o t h N a1ca a nd Moche ce ramics depict numcrous examplcs of coca chcwcrs \\ith
check bulgc s. o ftcn carrying lime gourd s and dippcrs (Yacovletr & Herrera. 1934:
.I o nes. 19 74 : D o nnan. 1978 : Jer. 19 8 0 ) (Fig . 6)
Fo ll o \\ing thL' early appcarance of coca chewm g throughout thc Formatin t!l
Ec uad o r. n id c ncc for co ca chcwing in th c form of lim e pot s ancl " coqu cru "
ligurincs aH' rc prcsentcd in ali latcr phascs up until Inca times. cspl'cially in thc
proYin ccs of Manab . Esmeraldas . and Carchi (c. Mcggers. 19 6 6: Drolet. 197 4:
'.\:aranj o . 19 74: Joncs. 1974: l3ray & Dollcry . 1983) (Fig. 7).

74

ETH~OBClTAt"Y

!'." Tl-11 t"FOTIHl l'I( S

., , , ( . Miniawrc n ssd dcpi c tin: th c h,ad ofa man chcwin: coc a . Sau,al. Ch1,;1111;i \ ";die '. l >q>t
La Li~rtad. Peru . Moche 111-IV. ca. 300- 600 A.D. Peabm1y Mu sc um of'Ard1acolot:' and l 1l11Hhe'.
acce ssion no. 4 6- 77- 30 49 93 .

.-\rc!Kulogical C\'idcncc for \\idcsprL'ad coca chcwing in ( o lomh1 a is wdl d PLumcntcd b y a grcat man y coca-rela ted artifac ts. During the first milknn1um .-\.1 >..
1lw Quimbaya cu hure of1hc middk Cau ca Valky (ncar thc modnn cil\ or l'n\'ir:1 l
produced numerous, beautifully crafled. gold lime p ots. along wi1h gold lirnt
d1ppc rs . Sorn e a re furni shed with gold-bcadcd nc ck laccs so that thn ma\ be wurn
ln add1tion. gold figurines carry ing gold lime p o ts in thcir hands ha\C bccn rc covcn: d from this culture arca (.I o nes. J 974~ Antonil. 19 78: !fray. 1G78:1 krn1rn11 g.
19 78). Ceramic lime pots reprcsenting coca chcwcrs are also known frnm Cul,Hn bia (Fig. 8).
In tht' San Agustn cu liurc in thc Dcpanmcnl uf Hui la in southcrn ( "cil<>mhia.
a number ofmonolithic sta tucs ha\'(' bccn found t ha t s tron gly suggcsl coca chtwing
by th e prcsencc of extended check bul gcs an d small bags (for coca lc;1\cs) slu11g
acro ss thcir chests (Prc1 de Barradas. J 94(' Usct eg ui. 19)4: Re1ch cl-Dolrna1 ofl .
1()72: Antonil. 1978 ) (Fig. 9) . Onc partia ll1 dcstroyed statuc known as 'TI Ct qunn" al El Tahl1 !ll 1hc \;ilky or San :\ idn"s de l'is1111hal:1 d1\\1ll t' lh slH>WS ;

PLO\\'MAN: COCA

75

F1ci. 7. Tairona rniniature jar depicting seated figure with large check bulgc. probably a lime poi
reprcsenting a coca chewer, San Pedro de la Sierra. Cinaga. Dept. Magdalena. Colombia. Museo de
Oro, Bogot. accession no. CT 1383. Photograph by Roben Feldrnan.

small pouch hanging from one side and a lime gourd from the other (AntoniL
1978). The San Agustn statues are dated approximately to the first millennium
A.D. The town ofSan Agustn long has been, and continues to be, a major center
of coca cultivation and distribution in thc upper Magdalena Vallcy.

76

U HNU!llfl Al'Y IN THE NEOTROPI( s

Fic,. 8. Cnamic figures of coca chewcrs of thc Capuli stylc from Dcpt. Nario, Colombia. 8001250 A.O. Righl figure from Museo de Oro. accession no. CN 3115: left figure from Musco Arqueolgico del Banco Popular, Bogot. accession no. N-8511. Photograph by Rotx-n Fcldman.

Although therc is archeological evidence that coca also reached funher north
into Central America, these findings are of a considerably la ter date than thosc
in South America. Lothrop ( 193 7) reponed a small, carved bon e head with a
prominent cheek bulge from Sitio Con te in the Cocl culture of Central Panama.
which is dated betwcen 500 and 700 A.O. This figurine closcly resemhles figurines
from Manab Provincc in coastal Ecuador as wcll as the early Yaldivia figurinc
discussed above. Stone ( 1977) mentioned small figures of gold and stone from
the Diquis region of Costa Rica that show the characteristic check bulges of coca
chewers.
Only in coas tal Peru can we identify thc variety of coca being employed beca use
of thc remarkablc prcservation of delicatc plant materials in thc arid descrt cnvironment. Trujillo coca appears to be present herc around J 800 B.C., although
it probably cvolved as a distinct variety clsewhere (Plowman, J984). Wc havc
no direct cvidence from archeological leaves. but it may be prcsumed that L.
coca var. coca was being cultivatcd and utilized for chewing much earlier in thc
east Andean montaa of Peru and Bolivia. Both Trujillo and Hunuco coca
probably were used in different parts of Ecuador, where appropriate dry and wct
habitats for thcsc varieties are prcscnt. Colombian coca certainly was thc variety

77

PLOWMA N: ('()C A

....

, ..

__

,,.
- --

...

.... .

\.. .

_..

-.....

--

~.--

. :..

..

..

\..

-~-

- -

...,,--

_~,~~ ;:}~:~~~~,~~~~?

- ,

........-

~-:~

. 4 -

. .;.. ; -~~ .~ :~~:~~

..
.

'

'

______:. . . . .-----t. --.---,. . - . -_. .

j-' ..

F1G. 9.
Largc triangular stonc fa cc with styliz.ed check bulges suggesting coca chcwing. San Agu st n
Culture . Sa n Agustn, Dept. Huil a, Colombia , first millennium A .D.

uscd in thc m o untains of Colombia, along the Caribbcan coast and probably
Central Amcrica (Plowman, 1984).

111

The cultirntion of coca

The severa! varieties of coca are grown under diffcrcnt ecological cond iti on s
and their methods of cultivation vary from region to region. Coca is grown on a
much largcr scale and in a more organized way in Peru and Bolivia than in
Colombia or in Amazonia , where until recently there has been little commcrcial
production.
COLOMB!A N COCA

Colom bian coca (E. n o vograna !ense var. novogranalense) is produccd in rcl ati vely small plots , averaging perhaps one-half hectare (Antonil, 1978). Plantings
are laid out on ftat or gentl y sloping areas rather than on steep slopes as practiccd
in Peru and Bo livia . Although most planta tio ns are found between 1000 and 2000
m elevation , the better qua lity coca (i .e., higher cocaine content and srnaller leaf)
is grown at the upper limits ofcultivation. Colombian coca shrubs are allowed to
grow much larger and bushi er and are more dispersed within a planting, in contra st
to Hunuco and Bolivian cocas which are kept relativ ely small and are planted
in neat , straight rows.

78

ETHNOllOTANY IN TI!l-_ NEU1 RllPICS

.--:---

...:r.:.. ~;~ '. -._,

"--.;' -

-- .... -.

-: .:....

:_:_- : .:: .--.--.

--

: t;-

..

'~

'

~- .

-~~
\

-- . -~ ..

F1c;_ 10. Plantation ofTrujillo coca . Er_11hroxylum nol'ogranatcnsc var. tmxillcnsc. growing under
sh ade of Inga _kwllci in it~ arid habita! at Collambay, Dept. Trujillo. Peru .

Colombian coca is gro\\'n cxclusivcly from sced that is gathcrcd in conjuncuon

with thc main harvcsts. Thc sccds are plantcd immcdiatcly in a shallow scccl hcd .
\\' hcn thc young scedlings emerge. thcy are shadcd from direct sun: thcy are not
planted out until they are 20 to 30 cm tall. Plants are ready for harvcsting aftcr
ahout two ycars. Dcpcnding on local conditions of climate and soil. lea ves may
be harvcsted two to threc times per year. Each bush produces about 500 g of
lea ves per harvcst (Bejarano, 1945). Throughout thc mountains of Colombia (111
contras! to thc Colombian Amazon). coca is pickcd exclusively b y women and
children . Only thc mature leaves are harvcstcd . and they must not be overripe
(Antonil, J 978). Thc middle-aged to oldest lea ves on a branch ha ve thc highcst
cocainc contcnt. wh e rca s the youngcst )caves havc considcrably lowcr valucs
(Rivicr, 198 1). During harvcsting. a branch is hcld in one hand whilc thc ripc
!caves are picked off one at a time with thc othcr hand. As in the harvesting of
ali varieties of coca . it is very importan! not to damagc or break thc terminal
huds on thc twigs, since these will furnish the flush of leaves for thc subsequcnt
harvcst.
TRUJILL O COCA

In coastal Pcru ancl thc upper Maran valley. Trujillo coca (E. 11oi-ograna1c11sc
var. 1nn-illl'l1sc) is cul 1i va tcd in reta ti vcly tla t arcas a long thc vallcy bot to.ms known
as "playa s." where the fields can be irrigatcd from rivcrs by means of irrigation
canals or "asquias." Trujillo coca shrubs resemblc Colombian coca in habit and
are allowcd 10 g.row rclatively largc and bushy. with ample space lcft bctwccn

PLOWMA N : COCA

79

F1 (;_ 11 . T c rr;1e cJ planlal1011s o!" llo li \":rn coca (lc"rnhru.\_)"/11111 coca '"r. coc,1) in t hc Yu ngas rcg.iun
bc twccn Coro1 co a nd A yapa ta. Dcpl. La Pa 7. Boli'"ia (l'/m n11a11 & Dan s 5 c 9 _

cach plan\. Fidds mu st be irrigat cd rcgul arly bccause Trujill o coca is grown
cxclu s iYcly undcr arid conditions; howcvcr, it is rcmarkably resistan! to droug.ht
and surviYes lo ng periods when n o irrigati on wa te r is aYailable. Bccause of th c
int ense and desi ccating solar radiation in thc Peruvian desen. Trujill o coca o ftt'n
is provided with up to 50% shadc by bcing plant ed u ndcr th e lcg.uminous tfl' L'
lngu .f(uil/ci D C. (Fig. l 0).
Trujillo coca is harve sted similarly to Colombian coca. bu1 beca use about 7 5t}o
of thc Trujillo cro p is so ld for industrial purpo scs (Coca Cola' production) . lh c
!caves may be harvested less carcfully , with an entire branch be ing stripped of its
!ca ves in one fcll swoo p. Trujillo coca m ay be h a rvc sted three tim es ayear , usua ll y
in December. l\1arch or April, and July. Durin g thc Peru,ian wint cr (Junc tu
Septcmbcr). thc shrubs grow very slow ly and produ ce thc sma llc st crop of th c
year.
H l"UCO COCA

Hu nuc o o r Bol ivian coca (E. coca va r. coca) is c ultivat ed along th e eastcrn
fl a nk s of thc Andes from northern Peru to Bo livia (Figs . l &: 3). Thi s is an area
of gencrally high rainfall and fertile soils. covered naturally by m oi st tropi cal
fo rcs t A lth o ugh 1hi s variety is cultinted generally bet wcc n 500 and 2000 m. th c
best quality and highest yicld s are produced a! l 000 to 1500 m. Thc highcs1
cocaine con tcnt in Hunu co coca is fou nd in plants grown above 1500 m. but
plants grow much slmver at this altitude.

80

ETHNOiH) TANY IN THE NEO TROPICS

Plantations of E. coca var. coca may be constructed with or without tcrraccs

on stcep m o untainous slopcs ("coca de la altura") (Figs. 11 & 12) or on ftattcr
arcas without terracing along valley bottoms ("coca de la playa") . Coca rcquires
a well drained soil; plantations on slopes are preferred and produce a better quality.
stronger lcaf. Howcvcr, in sorne dricr valleys, such as La Convencin in Cuzco .
coca de la playa has the advantagc of available irrigation during thc more markcd
dry season (July to October) (Gade. 1975).
New plantations, with or without terracing. are carefully constructed on ncwly
clcared land (Fig. 12). Bccause of the high rainfall and steep slopcs throughout
much ofthe eastern Andes, soil erosion is a serious problem . Terraces constructed
a long the con tours of the slopes help to prcvent excessive run-off. but thcse must
be constantl y maintained . The best constructcd terraces are found in the Yungas
coca-growing region of Bolivia. but even hcre erosion has destroycd many arcas
for further production and many extant "cocalcs" are planted on poor rocky
subsoils (Fig. 13).
After a field is prepared. new plantings are started in at least two different ways.
Traditionally, seeds culled from a recen! harvest are planted in a protected, shaded
nursery ("almciga") with a light covcring of fine soil. The young sccdlings gradually are cxposcd to more and more sunlight, and after about threc to four months.
they are ready to be set out in rows in the fields. Seedlings are plantcd fairly close
together to allow for la ter thinning of unhealthy or discased plants and for natural
attrition. Density ofplants varies from place to place. In the Peruvian departments
of Ayacucho and Cuzco, coca shrubs are allowed to grow taller and are spaced
further apart than in the Bolivian Yungas, where plantations resemble rows of
low coca "hedges." In Cuzco and Hunuco. the young coca seedlings in a ncw
plantation may be interplanted with manioc (Manihot escu/cnta L.). which serves
as protective shade during the first nine months or so of growth.
In Hunuco , coca seeds ma y be planted directl y out in the fields. Shallow holcs
20 cm square and 40 cm apan are dug in rows running up and down the hillsides
without terracing (Fig. 14). Manioc is often pre-planted in anticipation to provide
shade for thc young coca seedlings. Seeds are planted directly in the boles and
thinned eventually to four plants per hole, which then are allowed to grow up in
place. Because there is no terracing and plants are planted in rows running up
and down the slopcs , erosion is cspecially scrious in Hunuco . Topsoil from a
newly prepared field soon washes away . As the roots ofthe shrubs become cxposed
with the heavy rains, soil from between the rows is heaped up around the plants.
resulting in gullying ofthe fields (Fig. 15). Although coca will produce surprisingly
well under thesc conditions . the lateritic soil eventually becomes hard and will
support little orno vegetalion , including aggressive wccds. aftcr coca is taken out
of production.
Once establishcd, a plantation of E. coca var. coca will start producing after
one to two years and reach maximum productivity in about five years. If plantations are wcll maintained by weeding and erosion control, they may be productive for 40 years or more, ahhough producti vil y decreases after 1O to 15 years
(Albo, 1978). In most arcas where E. coca var. coca is grown, three to four harvests
ayear are possiblc. In mos\ arcas. there is lil\le orno fertilization ofthe plantations .
In ecological tcrms. coca is an ideal crop for the steep. wet slopes of the eastern
Andes since it is able to surviYe and remai'1 productive for years on heaYily
leachcd soils that will suppon no other crop plants. In Hunuco. owncrs of largc
coca plantations ("fundos") employ modern agricultura! methods by fertilizrng
their plantations and applying herbicides and insecticidcs (Plowman & Weil.
1979). These well managed cocales. which largely suppl y the clandestine cocainc
mark e t, may produce up lo six crops a year.

PLOWMAN: COCA

81

F1Gs. 12-13 . 12 . New\y cons truc tcd tcrracc s for planting coca (Erythro.\du111 coca Yar. coca) in
thc Apurmac Vallcy. Dcpt . Ayacucho. Pcru . 13 . Ncwly plant cd sccdlings of Boli Yian coca (Eryt hr,,x.
y/11111 co,a Yar. coca) in hi gh ly crodcd soils in thc Yungas rcgion ncar Ayapata . Dcpt . La Pa z. Bo li Yia .

82

ETHNOBOTAl"Y IN THE NEOTROPICS

fJ(;. 14.
Typica\ construction of a new plantation of Hunuco coca (Errrhro.\T/11111 coca var. cc>rnl
near Trngo Mara. Dept. Hunuco. Peru. Secds are plante-el clircctly into the f1clds in shallow. squarc
pits excavatcd in vcnical rows on hillsicles.

fJ(;S. 15-16.
15. An olcl p\antation ofHu:inuco coca (Ln1hro.\y/11111 coca var. coca) show1ng h1gh\\
lcachcd soil and gullying of f1elcb. Tingo Mara. Dcpl Hunuco. Pcru 16 Sun-drving of ka,c\ cd
Tru.11'!0 coca (Lrnhroxrlum 1wrugra1wrc11.1c var. 1nn1//ensc) at Collamh:l\. Dcpt. La Libertad. Pnu

83

15

' ,:
\

---

.
"

84

ETHNOBOTANY I N THE NEOTROPICS

F 1c ;. 17. Mix ing le a ves ofTruj illo coca ( L ry1hrr>.Yl'iu111 n1 1o gru n a1c 11s<' var. 1n1.11 ;'.',11st') fn1m J1fferent arcas or nonhcrn Peru at the warehouscs of E NACO in Trujillo.

Produc1ion yiclds ,ary consi dcrably from arca lo arla. In Pcrn . yiclds in 19 7 1
varied from 41 O kg/ hectare (Dept. Madre de Dios) 10 1200 kg/ hcctarc (Dcpt. San
Mann) . \vith a national average of 810 kg.lhcctarc. Yiclds of Trujillo coca grnerally were highcr than those of Hunuc o coca (Da ncri Prez. 19 74). In Bolivia.
197 2 yields in the traditional coca districts of thc Yungas averaged only 260 kg
hectare. whcrcas the relativcly new Chapare districts avcragcd 851 kg hectarc
(South. 1977).
AMAZONIAN COCA

In contrast to other varieties of cult1vat'd coca , Amazonian coca (E. coca qr.
ipad11) is grown from stem cuttings. Entire plots may be dcrivcd from a single
clone. ami fcnile seed rarely is produccd. Ycgclativc propagation of Am ;11onian
coca is an adaplation 10 the shifling slash-and-burn agriculturc that is practicnl
among tribes in the Amazonian lowlands. Soils are poorer than in thc Andes . and
new fields must be cieared every two or thrf'e years. Stem cuttings up to 30 cm
long and onc cm in diamctcr are mcrcly inscrtcd in to thc ground tla ncwly cica red
and burned fieid. Root formation is rapid. a nd within six wccks the ncw plan1s
ha ve lcafcd out. Plants are ready for first ha rvcsting aftcr about s ix months (Pl uw man, 1981 ).
Thl' pnparation of coca ll'aHs for chewing

Aftcr harvc s1ing, coca lea ves of ali \aric1ics must be dricd quic kly and co mpktely to preserve 1hcir llavor and tcxlurc for chcwing and thcir alkaloi conll' lll

PLOWMAN: COC A

85

for chcwing and for cocaine extraction. Techniques of drying vary considcrably
depcnding on variety and geographical area.
C O LOMBIAN COC A

Colombian coca (E. nol'ogranatense var. novogranatense) always is dried by

toasting in ceramic pans overa slow wood fire while constantly turning the lea ves
to prevcnt buming. The characteristic bright yellowish green color of the lea ves
changes to a yellowish brown during this process. The strong aroma of methyl
salicylate prcscnt in the fresh leaves is largely lost during toasting and is rcplaced
by a grassy, smoky ftavor. When the leaves are completely dried and removed
from the pan, they are extremely brittle and cannot be chewed in this state. As
in the case of ali coca in which the leaves are chewed whole, it is necessary to
allow them to reabsorb ambient humidity until they become soft and pliable . This
sometimes is referred to as .. sweating." After it is picked, Colombian coca may
be packed into large sacks and Jeft to ferment slightly ovemight befare it is dried.
This technique, along with pan-toasting, alters the taste as well as thc chemical
composition of the leaf, but the details of thesc chemical changes are unknown.
Most Colombian coca is consumed locally for the purpose ofchewing by Indians
and mestizos. Only in southern Colombia is there any significant commerce in
coca lea ves for chewing, and then only on a small scale. In spite of the problems
o extracting cocaine frorn Colornbian coca (Plowman & Rivier, 1983), therc
exists sorne illicit production in both the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta and in
the southern mountains. Most cocaine exported from Colombia, however. is
processed thcre from crude cocaine paste manufactured in Peru. Bolivia. and
recently the Amazon (see below under Hunu co coca).
TR U JILLO COCA

Trujillo coca (E . no\'Ogranatense var. truxi/leme). owing to the hot. dry clima te
where it is grown , always is sun-dried . The leaves are laid out on large cement or
earthcn patios and constantly tumcd until the y are completely dry (Fig. 16). During
the drying proccss, Trujillo coca emits an intense odor of wintergreen, whi ch is
immcdiatcly noticeable in storage rooms, even days aftcr drying has bcen completed . The odor, however, diminishes rapidly and oten is gone by the time the
!caves reach the highland markets.
Trujillo coca represents about 6% ofthe "official" Peruvian crop, not counting
illicit coca production for cocaine manufacture. Ofall a reas where coca is produced
in Peru, those a reas ofTrujillo coca are most closely controlled by the government
coca monopoly, the Empresa Nacional de la Coca (ENACO). Plantations are
carcfully overseen by ENACO officials, especially in the Department o La Libertad near Trujillo. Relatively little of the Trujillo crop is used for cocaine
manufacture, but we have almost no information on Trujillo coca production in
the re mote a reas of the upper Maran valley.
Seventy-five percent of the Trujillo crop is destined for export to the United
States for extraction of ftavorings for the sot drink Coca Cola and, as a byproduct, for the extraction ofpharmaceutical cocaine. Trujillo coca from the en tire
growing arca of this variety is shipped to ENACO warehouses in Trujillo. wherc
lea ves from different areas are mixed together to produce a more uniform product
(Fig. 17). These are then packed into bales of 80 kg each and shipped to New
York from the port of Salaverry near Trujillo (Fig. 18). In 19 70. o ver 45 0 mctri c
tons of Trujillo coca were exported.

86

ETHNOBOT ANY IN THE NEOTROPICS

t.

~ .
(

-.
F1c. 18. Packing !caves ofTrujillo coca (Eryrhroxylum 11owgra11a1e11sc vac rno:illcnsc) into bales
thc ENACO warehouses in Trujillo. Peru. Thcsc !caves are destincd for export to Ncw York for
use as tla,orings in Coca Cola.

al

PLOWMAN: COCA

87

19. Large drying oven (secador) for drying !caves of Hunuco coca (Ernhroxv/11111 n<"il va r .
on th e nu1sk1rts ofTingo l\lara . Dcpt . Hu:\nucu . Pcru .

F1 G .

.-c,11)

Hl .-\1\LJCO COC.\

Leaves of montaa-grown coca (E. coca var. coca) ma y be sun-dried or O\Clldricd. Ocpendmg on local clima te and the time o f yea r. lcaq:s may be la1d out
on open patios to dry 111 the sun like Trujillo coca. Beca use of thL' constan\ thrcat
ofrains in man y parts ofthc montaa , thc crop frcqucntly is damaged by moi sturc.
lf !caves become wet during the drying process , they quickl y begin to fcrnwn t.
turnmg brown and becoming highl y unpalatable. Leaves of t .'. coca var. coco are
most susceptible to dcterioration of any of the varicties and rapidly undngtl
chernical changes during fermentati o n m which malodorous anne s are prociuccd.
The prese ncc of high levels of aromatic o ils in Colombian a nci Trujillo coca may
retard or pre vent this decomposition. since these varieties deterioratc le ss rap id ly.
Coca that has been poorly dried is considered of lowest quality and commands
the lowest price: it is unsuitable for chewing and has lost most of it s alkaloid
con ten t.
lkcausc of tht' probkms of drying largc amounts of coca in thc mont;1iia.
commercial growers in Hunuco now rely on large drying ovens ("secadores")
!irl'd by wood (Fig. 19). Thcsc oftcn are two- o r thrcc- storiecl buildings with many
layers of racks co v ered with po rous cloth on which the lea ves are placed . The firc
is built in a furnace at ground leve! so that heat rises throughout the building.
Large quantities of !caves can be dried thoroughly and quickly in as few as 12
h o urs. Therc are numerous secadores in the coca districts around Tingo l\1ara.
and small growers often sell their fresh coca to the o wners of thc secadores for
drying. A number of the larger and more conspicuous secadores around Tingo
l\lara havc lwcn closcd by thc authoritics b\_causc of thcir associat1on with illicit

88

ETHNOOO TANY I N THE N EOTROPICS

F1G. 20. P rcpara ti o n o f coca pi sad a in whi ch lea ves o f Lrythroxy/11111 coca v a r. coca are pourn.kd
or tra mpled prior to drying to create a distin ctive fla vo r, Mantaro Yalley. Dcpt. Huancavelica. Pi:ru.
l'h o tog raph co urt csy o f O sear T o var .

coca ine produc tion. C oca production in Hunuco far exceeds that whi ch 1s rcquired by nativ e chewers.
High quality , :nontaa-grown coca is recognized by i1 ight to mcdium green
co lo r and fr csh, "coca .. odor and flavor. Hunuco coca i ~ izcd for its uniform.
intact , freshl y d r:cd !caves. which re s ult from thcir be in , ven-dri cd and th e n
sifted to rc mov l .maller and brok rn !caves (Weil . 1976).
;e re is cons id e rable
commerce in co i leaves for nativc . hewing within Peru an c. i'.olivia. since highland chewers oiL ;1 prefer lea ves f1 ' m onc growing district ,,r another. As with
any \cgetabk :.luct. coca cons 1 :qcrs are highly sophi s tiu11,:J in thcir apprcciati o n o f coca ::dit y and variet rnd m ost ha ve specializcd individual prc cren ce s.
O ne intc restin ':uiation in th< 1 rc paration ofm o ntaa coca is known as " coca
pi sada" o r ''tra1 ' :cd coca." TI '~ proccss is employcd in sou thern l'eru in the
coc a-growing di s r:cts ncar Cuz u . in the tvlantaro vallcy in J !uancavclica, and
probably elsewll<.' rl~ . Freshly ha r, 1s tcd coca lea ves are spread o ut on the dry ing
p:itio or ground '": then tramp ' ,! by on e o r two ba rcfo o t wor kt: r\ o r l at e n with
sti cks or spec ial i'nmd e rs for ;;' 1, .ut half an hour (Fig. 20): t hc y are ,h c n dri<.?d
no rmally in th c "1 11. Th e pound 1n: procedurc cau ses thc :eaves 10 dcvcl o p a dark.
brownish color ;111d special fla" ur. which is preferrcd by sorne .'h<.?wcrs (Bcs,

PLOWMAN: COCA

89

F1c. 21. Coca vendors in the central market in Cuzco. Peru. The various bags contam cuca of
d1fferent quality and from different arcas of southern Peru and nonhern Bolivia.

1911: \Vcil, 1976). This produces a typc of fcrmcntation in thc !caves, but une
that diffcrs from fcrmentation causcd by spoilage. Coca pisada is sold in the
markets o Cuzco as "Cuzco negra" along with "Cuzco verde" and othcr varicucs
(Fig. 21 ).
As soon as montaa-grown coca is thoroughly dricd. it is allowcd to "swcat"
to bccome pliablc. lt thcn is packcd into largc bales weighing about 60 kg. In
Hunuco, the baling material is made from a specially wovcn. eoarse wookn
fabric known as "jerga": in Cuzco. a muslin cloth is used. The choice of material
is imponant bccause the packed !caves nced to be protected from the elenwnts
during transportation, but at the same time must "breathc" to prevcnt fcrmcntation. In commercial growing areas such as Cuzco and Hunuco, thc !caves are
pressed into bales with large, mechanical, hand-driven presses.
The fastcr thc !caves destined for chewing are transponed to the dry and cok!
high-altitude Sierra, the better their quality and commercial value are preserved.
The serious problem of detcrioration of coca during transport from the f1eld to
markets long has been recognized and was one of the chief obstacles to the 1ntroduction of coca to Europc in the l 9th century (Lyons. 1885: Squibb. 1885:
Rus by, 1888: Morris, 1889; Mortimer, 1901 ). The fantastic claims by South
American explorers for the virtucs of coca lea ves could not be matched by the
stale and moldy leaves that reached Europe after a months-long sea voyagc.
Traditionally, coca was tr:rnsported from the montaa to thc highlands by llama
caravans or by human bearers; this largely has bcen rcplaced today by trucks ami
in sorne cases mule trains.
Throughout the montaa, a growing pcrcentage of coca production is di verted

90

ETHNOBO TANY IN THE NEOTROPICS

for making crude cocaine paste or base (.. pasta"), which is f( ':ldily prepared from
dried leaves under primitive conditions in the areas of cult1vation. Clandestine
factories ("cocinas" or "pozos") are numerous in the expanding coca districts o
Tingo Mara in Peru and C hapare and Santa Cruz in Bolivia. Only a few common
chemical reagents are necessary for extracting cocaine paste. including sodium
carbonate, kerosene, and sulfuric acid. Dried coca leaves are reduced in bulk by
200 to 400 times in making the paste, which is in tum easily transported to more
sophisticated laboratories in urban arcas. where the paste is further purified into
cocaine hydrochloride. No one knows the extent o illicit coca production in thc
montaa. Estimates vary wildly from one source to another, and no recent estimates appear to be reliable because of a tendency of government agencies to
underestimate or overestimate production, depending on their vested interests.
For example, in Peru alone estima tes of coca production vary between 20 and 50
milli on kg of lea ves pcr year. In 1974. Boliv ia produccd 12 mili ion kg which was
double the production for 1971(South,1977). For 1978, Bolivia officially reported
a production of 19.5 million kg of coca lcaves, but the amount consumcd for
chewing was not known (United Nations, 1980).
AMAZON IAN COCA

ln the western Amazon, the leaves of E. coca var. ipadu. Amazoni:rn coca, are
dried by toasting o ver a slow fire in special ceramic bowls or pans ( Fig. 22), a
method similar to that employed for Colombian coca. Amazonian ,pea leaves
are harvested and prepared daily because of the rapid spoilage of CllCa in th e
tropical lowlands. The lea ves are toastcd to dryness, thcn reduced to a li m powdcr
by pounding in a special mortar and pestle ("piln"), followed by carcful sifting
(Prance, 1972; Plowman, 1981; Schultes, 1981) (Fig. 23). The reason for prcparing
Amazon ian coca as a powdcr. in conJrast to thc chcwing of wholc coca !caves
elscwhere, probably is a consequcncc o the largcr, unwicldy lea sizc and low
cocaine content o Amazonian coca (Plowman. 1981 ; Plowman & Rivier, 1983 ).
Until rece ntly. there was no commercial production o Amazo nian coca. ::rnd
it was virtually unknown except to a ha ndful of botanists and anthropologists
working in the Northwest Amazon. However, in the mid- l 970's. Colombian
coca ine traffickers discovered coca in use among certain Amazonian tribcs. Although the Amazonian variety is much lower in cocaine content than Peruvian
and Boliv ia n montaa coca, the Colombians found that it was easier to extract
cocainc from thc Amazonian vanl'ly than rom !he traditi onal coca grown in thc
mountains of Colombia (i.e., E. novogranatense var. novogra natense). Cocaine
entrepreneurs moved into those areas of Amazonian Colombia where coca was
used traditiona lly on a small scale by a few lndian tribes. Encouraged by strong
econom ic incentives, these tribes began growing more coca and selling it to the
Colombian nationals, who began niaking not only cocaine paste but also pure
cocaine hydrochloride in Amazonian laboratories. Traditional areas of coca use
in the territories of Amazonas and Vaups werc exploited first. Subsequcn tly.
Amazonian coca was taken to the "llanos" of eastcrn Colombia where plantations
\Vcrc started in remote arcas of the Departments of Meta and G ua viarc. !he effcct
on the traditional cul tures of the area, as well as on the trad itional a nd healthful
use of coca, has been devastating. Visitors to the area report that social and cultural
disintcgrati on has proceedcd atan alarming pace, as thc Co lombian "mafia" has
taken complete control of sorne indigenous areas (B. Moser. C. & S. Hugh-Jones
& A. Weil , pcrs. comm.).

P U) \\ ' \1 .-\ :": t

't

l< .\

')\

F11 ;_ 22.
Bo ra tribcsrnan toasting lea v e s of Ar11~11on1an co ca l Fry rhro_\T /11111 ,n, u , ;u 11 , u/u) 111 .1
spcc 1a l ccramic bo wL Brillo Nuevo. R o Yagu:isyacu . Dcpt. Lorc to. Peru . Not'' :.1s d is1 cn,kd dll't'~
co n1a111 ing a quid of powdncd coc a. P hotograph n i une s ~ of La u rcnl Ri"icr .

The chemistry of coca

.\ 1t hough at lc as t l 5 di ffc rcnt alkaloids h a ve bce n re p o n ed from th c k a\ t's ,, t

thc cultivated cocas (Will a man & Schubert, 196 1; Turner et al.. 198 1a) :rnd
t'rcqucntly are citnl in thc litcr;1ture, thcir cxi stL' IlL'C in tlll' li\lllg plant It'\'t' illh
has bccn quest1 o ncd (Rivi er, 1981; Plowman & Ri v ic r, 1983). In a ckta1kd s tud ~
o f ali four varieti cs of c ultivatcd coca. only coca in c a nd cinnamoykocai m \\ Lr,
nwasurcd by CIC -M S (P lo wman & Rivier. 198 3). T he natural ocn1rrcn cc or Ji,
ot hcr repo ned a lk a lo ids in coca rcrnain s to be d c m o nstra tcd \\ ith carc fu ll y nalua tc d mct hod s usin g m od ern ana lytica l tcc hni ques on fresh a nd o r \\ cll prcst'ntd
p lant m at er i als~ th csc Olh c r al ka loi d s m ay in l'a c t prove to be :irt ifaL't S (lf thc
stn ra gc and cxt ract ion proccdu rcs.
In th c mos t co m plete a lka lo id an a lys is of coca to date ( Pl o\\111;1n L\: R i\icr.
I 9S.\). lile d rin l k ;l\TS or tl1L' li.iur c ult i\alcd Yari,til'S \\l'Je L' .\a111 ined for J\.; ;ilu id s
us i ng sta ble i su tope in terna! standa rd p rtK cd u res for q uan l i li c11 ion . Thc ka' ,-s
of Ernh rox.1/11111 coca Yar. coca showcd a mean of 0.63% nxainc (3 0 sampks) .
\\h1ch compares fa" o rably with ca r licr rqiorts of thc alkalu1J llrn tcnt ll f tlii s

92

ETHNOBOTANY IN THE NEOTRUPICS

ftt>. ~J.
llur" tribcsman siftrnga mixture opulveri1ed coca le;l\CS (Fnrhro\T/11111 ,,1ca s;11 11u,/11)
and leaf ashes of Cecrona sciadoph\/la Mart. through a cloth bag. Brillo Nueso. Ro Yaguassacu.
Dept. Loreto. Peru. Note both his chccks are ull of powdercd coca. Photograph ,ourtcsy of Laurent
Rivier.

sariety (C1uffardi, 1949: Machado, 1972: Holmstedt et al.. l 977. Turner et ;li.
1981 b). Thc sample of this varietv with the highest amount of cocaine (0.9\l'\o)
came from Chinchao (Hunuco, Peru). an area where coca 1s grnwn near the uppcr
altitudinal li11 s ofcultivation (1600-1800 rn). This lcnds crcdcnce to thc bcl1cf
tha t. alt hough t.' Ka grows slowly at su ch altitudes. i t produces a more potcnt ka L

PLOWMAN: C"UCA

9]

Leaves of E . coca var. ipad11 . Amazonian coca. contained the lowest amount s of
cocaine with a mean ofonly 0.25 % (6 samples). The cocaine content o fthis lo wland
variety is consistently low. even when grown under controlled labo ratory conditions. and appcars to be gcneticall y controllcd (Plowman . 1981 : Plowman &
Rivier. 1983).
Lea ves of both varieties of E. norngranatcnse produced higher conccntrations
of cocaine than the "classical"' variety. E. coca var. coca . Colombian coca (!:'
11 0 1ogranate11 se var. no r ogranatensc) yielded a mean ofO. 7 7% cocaine (3 sa 111 ples) .
and Trujillo coca (E. no 1ogranatcnse var. truxillensc) showed a mean of O. 7 2%
cocaine (14 samples) . The highest cocaine concentration ( 1.02%) of ali the culti vated cocas was found in a sample of Trujillo coca (P/owman 56 0 0 ) collccted
at Simba! near Trujillo, Peru . This finding contradicts an earlier belicfthat Trujillo
coca is lower in cocaine content than other varieties (Mortimer, 1901; Machado.
1980).
Both cis- and trans-cinnamoylcocaine are found in all four varicties ofcultivated
coca . Cinnamoylcocaine always is found together with cocaine and never alonc.
Both varieties of E. 11 01ogranatense contained much higher concentration s of
cinnamoylcocainc than cither varicty of E. coca. In both varictics of /:. 11 o r 11 granate nse, the amount of cinnamoylcocaines may exceed that o f cocaine . although the ratios between the alkaloids varied widely from sample to sample.
Severa] earlier workers recognized the high percentage of what was thcn callcd
"uncrystallizable cocaine," especially in Java coca (E. 11orogra11atc11sc var. 11 o rogranatc11se) (Morris , 1889; Hesse, 1891 : Mortimer, 1901 : Reens, 19 l 9a). Thc
uncrystalli zable fraction of these varieties now is thought to contain the cinnamo ylcocaines . Using methods emplo yed at the turn ofthc century, chcmists found
difficulty in extracting and purifying pharmaceutical cocaine fro m lcavcs o f L
novogranatense. Cocaine was produced from Java coca by first hydrolyzing thc
relatively high amounts of total alkaloid to ccgonine and then scmi-synthc sizing
cocaine from this base.
In addition to alkaloids, coca leavescontain a wide variety ofothcr constitucnts.
man y of which are incompletely known (Hegnauer, 1981 ). Both varieties of E .
no l'Ogranatense contain high concentrations of methyl salicylatc (wintergreen oil)
(Romburgh , 1894, 1895; Reens, l 919a) and probably other aromatic oils th at
gi ve a distinctive fla vor to the dricd leaves and provide the basis for thc use of
Trujillo coca as a lavo ring in beverages. Only minute amounts ofmcthyl sali cy latc
ha ve been reported from E. coca (Romburgh, 1894, 1895). An arra y of f1avonoids
dcrived from quercetin and kaempfcrol also have bcen identif1cd in thc cultiva tcd
cocas and are useful taxonomic markers . The flavonoids of both varieties of E.
coca are identical, but those ofthe two varieties of E. nOl'ogranatense differ bo th
from one another and from E. coca. Both varieties of E. 110 \'0granatcnsc contain
the rarc flavonoid ombuin-::.-0-rutinoside. which is absent from E. coca (Bo hm
et al.. 1981 ). Nonc of the flavonoids of coca is known to be pharmacologi cally
active.
During the 1940's, a small group of public health officials in Peru campaigncd
vehemently against the native use of coca . which they perceivcd to be detrimental
to the heallh ofthc Indians. One oftheir arguments was that coca chewing rcsultcd
in malnutrition because they believed that coqueros chcwed coca in lieu of food
(cf. Saenz, 1941 ; Gutirrez-Noriega & Zapata Ortz, 1948 ; Kuczinski-Godard &
Paz Soldn. 1948; Zapata Ortz, 1970). Thcse arguments havc becn rcfuted repeatedly as unscientific (Burchard; 1975: Grinspoon & Bakalar, 1976; Caner et
al., l 980a). During the 1970's. a numbcr ofstudies demonstratcd that coca leavcs
in fact contain impressivc amounts of vitamins and minerals (Machado, 1972:

94

ETHNOBOTANY IN THE NEOTROPICS

Duke et al.. 1975: Carter et al.. 1980a). In one study (Duke et al.. 1975). thc
amounts of 15 nutrients in coca !caves were compared to averages of thesc nutrients present in 50 Latin American foods. Coca was found to be higher in calorics
(305 per 100 g vs. 279), protein (18.9 g vs. 11.4 g). carbohydratc (46.2 g vs. 37.1
g). fibcr (14.4 g vs. 3.2 g). calcium (1540 mg vs. 99 mg), phosphorus (911 mg vs.
279 mg). iron (45.8 mg vs. 3.6 mg), vitamin A (11.000 IU vs. 135 IU). ami
riholavin (1.91 mg vs. 0.18 mg). Bascd on thcsc data, 100 g of Bolivian mea
lea ves would more than satisfy the Recommended Dietary Allowance for refercncc
man and woman in calcium, iron, phosphorus, vitamin A. and ribofiavin. PicnRetegui (1976) pointed out that vitamin A intake in Andean populations is vcry
low. so the extremely high vitamin A content in coca leaves would supplcmcnt
this deficiency significantly. However, sincc thc time whcn thc nutritional valuc
of coca was proved, no researchers have conducted studies on the actual or
poten tia! contribution of coca in nativc dicts. A quid of fincly powdcrcd Amazonian coca gradually dissolves with saliva and may be completely ingested. and
the intake of nutrients in this case would be higher than in chewing wholc !caves.
Coca chewing
THE MECHANICS OF COCA CHEWING

Coca !caves are chewed in a relatively uniform manner throughout thcir arca
of use, although there exist numerous minor variations. The greatest divergcncc
from the normal pattern is found in the Amazon, where coca is used in powdcrcd
form. In the Andes, the act of chewing coca is accompanied by a complcx series
ofrituals that are deeply embedded in traditional Quechua life. These are discusscd
in detail later.
Coca always is dried before use; this facilita tes the rapid relea se of thc chemical
constituents from the !caves during chewing. The dried leaves are placed in thc
mouth one or a few at a time and slowly moistened with saliva. Almost im1rn:diately, a rich green juice issues from the lea ves and they become soft and pliablc.
They are then moved about the mouth with the tongue and rolled into a ball or
quid and pushcd into onc check. Coca is ncvcr actually chcwed, but rathcr thc
moistened quid ofleaves is sucked u pon to extract the juices, which slowly trickle
in to the stomach. In South America, a number of words are used specifically to
denote coca chewing: "mambear" (Colombia); "chacchar," "acullicar," "pijchear" (Peru, Bolivia); "coquear" and "mascar" (general).
The juice that emanates from thc quid is distinctive in lavor and dcpcnds
somcwhat on the variety of coca. Generally, coca has a grassy or hay-like laste.
with a hint of wintergreen in Trujillo coca. During the carlicst stages of chewing.
all coca varieties are distinctly bitter because of the prcsence of alkaloids. This
bittcrncss is countcractcd by thc addition oan alkali substancc. such as powdcrcd
lime or ashes-or even baking soda (sodium bicarbonate) among non-native
chewers. The alkali not only "sweetens" the chew but also noticcably potentiates
its effects, both in numbing the cheeks and tonguc (through thc anesthetic effect
of cocaine) and by increasing the stimulating effect. Additional doses of alkali
pcriodically are added to the quid to maintain its effect on the chew; more !caves
also may be added until the quid reaches an optima! size for the chewer.
The amount of time the coca quid is kcpt in the mouth vares, depending on
the individual user, from about 30 to 90 minutes, after which the quid is spat
out. Amount and duration of chewing depends in part upon the cost and availability of lcavcs in a particular rcgion. The amount of coca chcwed also vares
according to individual taste. ranging generally from 25 to 75 g ofleaves pcr day.

96

ETHNOBOTANY IN TI!! NFOTROl'ICS

F1G. 24. Archeological lime gourds (Lagcnaria siceraria) from coastal Pcru. Left: Lime gourd with
pyroengraved anthropomorphic and geometric decoration. from Hacienda Hurnaya. Huacho. Huaura
Valley, Peru, ca. 1000-1475 A.D. Peabody Museum of Archaeology and Fthnology. accession no. 4677-30/6189. Right: Small undecoratcd lime gourd with carved figure on dipstick. Cajamarquilla. Rimac
Val ley. Dqll. Lima. Peru. dale unn:rtain. possibly Middlc llorirnn. ca. 600-1000 A.D. l'cahod)
Museum of Archaeology and Ethnology, accession no. 46- 77-30.16088.

transfcr the lime from the gourd to the quid in the check (Fig. 26). In southcrn
Colombia, the Paez Indians mercly pour the powdercd lime from their gourd onto
the palm or back of the hand and toss it onto the quid in the mouth. But rn
southern Cauca, the lime normally is not pulvcrizcd, but is uscd in the form of
a hard lump. Small pieces are bitten offand inserted into the quid (AntoniL 1978).
In the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta on the Caribbean coast of Colombia.
India ns ofthe Kogi and !ka tribcs continuC' to use coca in ccnturics-old, traditinnal
patterns (Reichel-Dolmatoff, 1953; Ochiai, 1978). Only thC' mcn of thcse tribcs

PLOWMA N : CO C.-\

E
u
(Y)

97

'fi~~ ~
t1ll

)_

F1 <; . 25 . .-\lkaline admixtures employcd with coca kavcs. A . Small balls of a sh madc from quinua
stem s (Ch enopodlum qulnoa Willd.). C uzco. Pcru (l' /owman 7 94 0) B . S p irals of a sh madc fr o m
q u inu:1 stcms . (;ua q ui. Dcpt. La Par , Boli ,ia ( /'/01rn w 11 ' 94 /). C. C ru d c lime kn o wn a~ 111 a 1nhc .
prepa red by baking natural limcstonc . San Agu stn . Dcpl. Huila. C ol o 111bia (l' /ow m an 7(,1 4 3) D
"Fingcrs" ofa s h madc from quinua stcms and lavorcd w ith anise and raw 'ug.ar. La Parada markct.
Lima . Pcru (P/o\\'ma n 760 2) . All four samplcs rnrrc s po nd to thc scak in " A ."

chcw coca. which they carry in elaboratc wov cn bags slung a ro und tlll' should ns.
Th c gourds uscd in this arca are panicularly large and phallic in shapc. a rlkction
of the sexual symbolism that coca ch ewing reflects among these groups. Wh1k
c hewing coca, the coca-laden saliva mixed with lime habituall y : ; rubbed \\ith
thc limcstick a round the cnd of thc gourd . The lime precipita ; s as ca k1un1
carbonate and gradually builds up to form a thick rim in thc forn of a cylindcr
or disc (Mariani , 1890; Reichel-Dolmatoff, 1950; Moscr & Ta ylor . 1965 : l3illip .
1979). The rim is carefull y trimm ed and molded and is a sv mbol of pridc a nd
status. sincc it dcmonstrates a man's dcdication to coca chewi1~ g . A paintcd f\1u chica vcsscl dated about 500 A.O. from the nonh coast of Pcru sh o ws thrcc enea
che wcrs using nearl y identical lim e gourds with large, disc-like rim s (Kutschn.
1q5 5: 8-9) . AL"Cord i ng lo Jonc s ( 197 4 ). lhcsc coque ros wcrc 1hough 1 In be .. fllrcigncrs" beca use of their triangular cheek markings and dangling ear ornamcn1s:
whcthcr or not they might ha ve come from what is 1oday C olombia is not known .
Howcver, it does suggest that the curious rnstom of fashioning elabora te rim s on
lime gourds was more widespread in the pa st and that there may havc been cultural
contacts bctwccn Peru and Colombia atan earl y date .
In the Andean highlands and montaa o r so uthern Peru and l3olivia and in tlw
Amazon basin. the preferred alkaline substance for coca chcwing is madc frorn
ashes from a variety of plants and plant parts. This admixture usually l3kcs th c
form o f a moist black paste or. wh cn dried , a grey rock-likc substancc. lt 1s kn o wn
as "llipta" or "tocra" in Peru and "leja" or "Jluq:1" ("llucta ' ') in l3oli,ia. The

98

ETHNOBOT ..\NY li" THE ~EUTRll!'ICS

F1t> . 26. Pcru\'i:rn mcstio adding powdncd lime to hi s coca ,1uiJ w1th a s1na ll stid;. Thc lime "
carried in thc srn:ill gou rd in his hand. B:i lsas. Rill Marai1 n. Dcpt. Arna;onas. Pau .

d1,icling !me in thc Andes between the n o rthern lme-gourJ-using cuca d 1''"l'r'
ami the suuthcrn llipta uscrs lies appruximately at thc hnrder uf tlw Pnu' i:111
dcpanmcnts of Hunuco ancl Paseo. Along thc Pacif1c ,oast. thc use of lim e and
lime gourds ~tppc:Hs to be un\"Crsal.

PLOWMAN: COCA

99

Llipta is prcparcd from a largc numbcr of plant spccies (Fig. 25). In a gi\cn
arca and habitat. one ora few llipta sources will be preferred. In the high Andes.
the prefrrred plant ash comes from two species of cul11vatcd chenopods. which
are Chcnopodium quin o a Willd .. "quinua ," and C. pallidicaulc Aellcn. "cai1ihu:i."
Also in thc highlands, llipta may be made from the roots of faba beans ( 11c1a
faba L.) and from the stcms and fruits of severa! species of columnar cacti in thc
genera Cercus. Trichocercus. and Clcistocactus. In the tropical montaa of thc
eastern Andes . maize cobs, ,Husa roots. and cacao pods comrnonly are burned
to make llipta. In both arcas numerous wild plants also are exploited and prcfcrred
locally by coca chewers. To prepare llipta, the plant is burned thoroughly to a
fine ash and then mixed with water. Starchy potato water may be uscd to hold
the ash together. The resulting pasty mass then is molded into cakes in a varicty
ofshapes and sizes dcpending on local custom. Llipta may be ftavorcd with variou s
spices such as anise or chili peppers (Mortimer. 190 l; Antonil. 19 78). In ordcr
to use llipta, a small piece of the hardened cake is broken off and insertcd with
the fingers into the quid. One must be careful not to Jet the llipta touch the inncr
surfaces ofthe check since it may cause painful burns. The quality ofllipta varics
apprcciably and may be extremcly alkaline and caustic , or mild . vcry hard and
rock-like. or soft and crumbly. Hard llipta dissolves slowly. and onc piecc may
serve to supply an entire chew with alkali , without the frequent reapplications
that are necessary when chewing coca with powdered lime.
In the Amazon basin and Andean foothills. ashes of Cecropia or Po 11ro11111a
trees are used as the alkaline source for coca chewing. The Mashco ofthe southcrn
Peruvian montaa burn the trunks of a Cecropia species to as hes: thcsc are frncly
pulvcrized and stored in a bamboo tube. The ash then is added to thl' quid of
whole coca lea ves with a small stick , not unlike the use of a lime gourd and lime
stick in coastal Pcru (Califano & Femndez Diste!, 1978). In the Bcni arca of
northern Bolivia. ashes are prepared from thc spathe of th e "motac" palm
(Schcelea prnceps [Mart.] Karst.) and are stored in a cow's horn. A small-lea\'ed
form of E. coca var. coca is chewed in this area as a quid ofwholc !caves to which
the motac ash is addcd (Le Cointe, 1934; Davis, 1983). A numbcr of tribes in
the southern montaa, including Campa, Machiguenga. Mashco , and Chimane .
chew whole coca lea ves with ashes. Further north in the "selva" arcas of lowland
Amazonia. coca always is chewed as powder. pre-mixed with finely sifted Crcropia
or Po11ro 11111a leaf ashcs (Plowman. 1981: Schultcs. 1981) or with banana lcaf
ashes (Prance , 1972). Only Amazonian coca , E . coca var. ipadu. is prepared in
powdered form.
Rivier ( 1981) measured the pH and buffer capacity of 17 different samplcs of
coca alkali admixtures, including lime, llipta, and Cecropia leaf ashes, among
othcrs. The pH of thcse substances rangcd from 10.1 in llipta made from quinua
stcms to 12.8 in lime made from marine shells. Llipta contains high amounts of
calcium. magnesium , and potassium salts, the proportions varying according to
the source (Gosse, 1861; Cruz Snchez & Guilln. 1948: Bakcr & Mazcss. 1963).
Bakcr and Ma1css ( 1963) bclicvc that thc calcium containcd in llipta ingestecl
during coca chewing is an importan\ source of this element in the diet of coca
chewers.
Besides the addition of alkaline substanccs, a numbcr of othcr plants may be
uscd along with coca. Thc most importan! ofthese is tobacco, a drug that is found
almost universally among tribes that use coca. Contemporary Andean coca chcwers frequently smoke cigarettes while chewing coca or even smoke as a substitut c
for coca whcn chewing is not possiblc (Fine, 1960). A soft tobacco paste is madc
in a numbcr of arcas and addcd to the coca quid by mcans of a small necdlc.

100

ETHNOBOT ANY IN THf NE O TR OP !CS

This custom is especially conspicuous in the Sierra Nevada de Santa Mana ancl
in the northwest Amazon, where th e tobacco paste is called "ambira" and "ampiri."
respectivel y (Usctegui, 1954). Tobacco past e is prepared by slowly cooking tend e r
tobacco !caves with water; a "bush salt" made from the ashes ofone ofa n umber
ofplants th en is added to the resulting syrupy paste. In th e Amazon. th e addition
oftobacco past e at the beginning ofa chew ofpowdered coca stimulatessaliYation
and greatly facilitates the formation of a quid fr om the powder (Plown .in. 1981 ).
Tobacco in snuff form is used with coca by the Mashco in the Peruvia i montaa
(Califano & Femndez Diste!, 1978) and by severa! tri bes in Colombia ( dsctegui.
1961 ).
A littlc known but interesting coca admixture comes from a bignnniaceous vrne .
Mussatia hyacinthina (Stand!.) Sandw ., known as "chamairo" (Plowman, 1980:
Davis, 1983). The bark of the stem of this liana is added to the quid of wholc
coca !caves among the Campa and Machiguenga of eastern Peru and al so among
the Ch imane and other groups of northern lowland Bolivia . Chamairo is u sed as
a flavoring and swcctcncr for thc coca quid and al so ma y be chewed alone (with
ashes but without coca) as a stimulant and medicine. In northern Peru, Trujill o
coca quids may be lavored with the dried lcalets of Abrus prccatorius L.. known
locally as "mishquina" or ''miski miski." The foliage of Tagctcs pusilta HUK . is
used with quids of E. coca var. coca in southern Peru , a nd the aromatic rcsin of
Protiu111 heptaphy//11111 (Aubl.) March is employcd in thc Colombian Amazon to
f'la vor Amazonian coca powder (Schultcs. 19 5 7).
THE EFFECTS OF COC A CHEWING

The primaf)' effect of chewing coca is a mild stimulation of the central nervous
sys tem resulting from the assimilation of cocai ne from thc lea ves (Holmstcdt et
al., 1979). Sorne workers (Montesinos. 1965: Burchard, 197 5) ha vc suggestcd th a t
the ecgonine derivatives of cocaine may play a role in the combined c!Tects o f
coca chewing. but their interesting th corie s ha ve not been confJrmed by controllcd
experiments. In addition , the minor alkaloids presumed to be pre sen t in tht: coca
lea fh ave been implicated in the effects of coca chewing (Mortimer, 190 l; Martin.
1970) , but little is known of the biological activity of thesc compounds. Rivier
( 1981) ha s shown that thc only othcr alkaloid prescnt in coca lea ves at significan!
leve Is (greater than 1% of amount of cocaine) is cinnamoylcocaine. and th1 s
compound is not known to be pharmacologically acti v e. If othcr alkaloids are
indeed prsent , they exist only as trace constituents.
During coca chewing, free cocaine base is absorbed rapidly through thc bu cea!
mucosa in th c mouth and to sorne extent in the gastrointestinal trae!. Cocainc is
measurable in blood plasm a five minutes after coca chewing bcgins. which gi vc s
a measure ofthc rapidit y ofcocaine assimilation. Peak lc vel s in plasma are rcached
one to two hours after chewing begins (Holmstedt et al., 1979), although thc
major subjective etfects are felt within the first half hour of chewing. Peak blood
levels of cocaine ingested during coca chewing are highly variable and depend
upon severa! factors, including dose and concentration of cocaine in thc leaf
material, absence or presen ce of alkali admixtures, and indi vid ual cxperiencc of
the chewer, among others. Blood levels of cocain e during chewing may a pproximate , but generally are lower than , those found after intranasal administrati o n
of cocaine (cf. Javaid et al., 1978; Holm sted t et al. , 19 79; Paly et al., 1980).
Surprisingly, no modern detailed pharmacological studies of coca c hewi ng in
native coca chewers yet have b een conducted, although numerous such studics
have been conducted on cocaine users.

PLO\'.'MAN: C OCA

101

The stimulation experienced during coca chewing givcs a sensc of increased

energy and strength, a suppression of the sensation of fatigue, an elcvation of
mood or mild euphoria , and a sense of well being and contentmcnt. Coca al so
produces a temporary loss of appetite. Owing to the release of cocine in thc
mouth during chewing, there is a pronounced numbing scnsation of the cheeks
and tongue, which results from the anesthctic action of cocainc. 1 ine is no
e"idence that coca chewing rcsults in tolcrancc or physiological depe1 ; lcnn:, nor
does it show any acute or chronic deleterious effects (WeiL 197 5; Gnnspoon &
Bakalar, 1976; Ca rter et al., l 980a).
Even though cocaine is thc principal and most powcrful cons litucnt of coca
lea ves, the complex effects of chewing coca leaves, especially those that are exploited in medicine. cannot be equatcd with thc comparatively straightlorward
eflects of using cocaine. As mentioncd carlier, coca is a complex mixture o f
chemicals, including alkaloids, essential oils, flavonoids, vitamins and minerals.
and other natural leafconstituents, many ofwhich still never ha ve been cxamined
in coca. For example , coca has a soothing effect on disordcrs of the stomach and
intestinal tract and is used in folk medicine for a wide spcctrum of complaints.
Montesinos ( 1965) suggested that ecgonine, a breakdown product of cocaine. may
relax dirc.ctly intestinal smooth musclc, and thc beneficia! effccts on digestion or
the volatik oils. such as methyl salicylate, are well known. Furthe rmore . coca
stimulates oral secretions and may change sccretion in other parts ofthe gastrointestinal tract (Weil, 1981 ). In spite of these possibilities, coca's mechani sm of
action on the gastrointestinal trae! remains unknown.
Burchard (1975) and Bolton (1976) have suggested that coca chewing atrects
carbohydrate metabolism among Andean coca chewers. who typically live on high
starch diets. Burchard believes that coca may protect against thc devclopment of
hyperglycemia and ofreactive hypoglycemia following oral glucose loads ingested
by Andean chewers and suggests that this effect may in vol ve ecgonine. one of the
products of cocaine hydrolysis. Although experimental evidcnce for th cse metabolic effects is lacking, Weil ( 1981) suggcsts thal coca be tested as a possiblc
treatment for diabetes.
As many workers have pointcd out , it is completely erroneous to equatc tlw
pharmacological effect ofcoca chewing with that ofthe use ofhighly conccntrated
cocaine (Mortimer, 1901 ; Martin, 1970; Grinspoon & Bakalar. 1976; W ei l. 1981 ).
Howevcr, until the complex chemistry of coca lea ves and the pharma co logy of
their constituents are studied in detail, the highly benclicial. yet subtlc, medicinal
and restorative effects ofcoca remain unsubstantiated by modern medica! studics.
Uses of coca as a stimulant and medicine

Whether in the high Andean altiplano or in the Amazonian lowlands , coca 1s

employed principall y for work (Burchard, 1975 ; C'arter et al .. I 980a; Plowman .
1981 ). Workers will take severa! breaks during the daily work schedule to rest
and chew coca, not unlike the "coffee break" in Western society . Coca chewers
maintain that coca gives them more vigor and strength and assuages feclings of
hungcr, thirst. <:old (in the highlands), and fatigue . Coca is chewed by rural peoplc
in ali kinds ofprofessions that require physical work, especially farmers , herders.
and miners in the highlands and by farmers , fi she rman , and hunters in the lowJands. Coca is especially highly regarded when making longjoumeys on fooL both
through the rugged mountains of the high Andes and through the Amazonian
forests. lt rarely is possible to carry adequate suppli r s of food on such treks. and
coca is considered the best form of sustenance : th i~ fact was recognized by the

102

ETHNOllO TANY IN TllE NLOTKOPI CS

earliest European observers in South America (cf. Mortimer. 1901: Martin . 1970).
In such situations. coca temporarily postponcs the necessity for food . but it nevcr
takcs thc place orfood. [ven today . coca is prcfcrred by long-distancc truck drivers
in the Andes to keep them alert on dangerous mountain roads and to sustain
them for long periods.
Miners in Peru and Bolivia always have depended on coca to protect them
during their unhealthy and exhausting work. After an initial period of condcmnation and prohibition of coca . the early Spanish administrators rcalized that
only with coca could the lndians be forced to work in the silver mines . Miners
believe that coca helps them in a numbcr of wa ys: as an cncrgizer. as a filtcr
against the penetrating dust and toxic gases, as a stimulant to combat drowsiness.
and as an almost magical substance that reduces hunger (Carter et al. . l 980a.
1981 ). Undcr thc harsh environmental conditions in the high Andes and lowland
Amazon. coca chewers believe that only coca gives them the strength 1 ) do thcir
work, to maintain good health. and to protect them from disease.
The second most importan! use of coca is as a medicine, and th1s u e is inextricable from the Indians' belief that coca is a protector and prcserver of health.
lt is significant that many South Americans. Indians and non-lndians. who do
not regularly chew coca leaves as a stimulant , will cultivate the plant and use thc
leaves medicinally. As an interna! medicine, coca is both taken as an infusion
and chewed as a quid. Probably the most importan! medicinal use o f coca is for
problems of the gastrointestinal tract. lt is the remedy of choice for dysentery.
stomachache, stomach ulcers , indigestion. cramps, diarrhea. and other painful
conditions (Martin, 1970; Fabrega & Manning. 1972; Hulshof, 1978: Carter et
al. , l 980a, 1981; Weil, 1981 ; Grinspoon & Bakalar, 1981 ). Coca also is used
commonly, by lndians, mestizos and foreigners alike, for the treatment of the
symptoms of altitude sickness, or "soroche," which include nausea. dizziness.
cramps, and severe headaches. A related use of coca is to counteract motion
sickness. a use that has received little attention in the literature (Weil. 1981)
Owing to the anesthetic effects of cocaine, coca !caves are an excellent home
remedy for toothache (Hulshof. 1978). Coca also serves as a dentifrice. and it is
commonly believed that coca helps to protect teeth and gums from decay and
disease and to keep the teeth white (Martin , 1970; Weil , 1981 ). Coca frequentl y
is used to ease rheumatic pains, taken both in an infusion and simultaneously as
a poultice over the affected part (Martin, 1970; Hulshof, 1978: Carter et al.. 1981 ).
Coca poulticcs also are applicd extcrnally for headaches . sore throat s. wounds.
broken bones, and irritations to the eyes. Coca also is widely empl oycd for numerous minor and miscellaneous ailments. such as hangovers. hcmorrhagc. arncnorrhea, asthma, constipation, and general debilitation (Gagliano. 1979: Grinspoon
& Bakalar. 1981; Weil, 1981 ). Of special importance to the lndian. coca is an
extremely valuable remedy for a number of Andean "folk" or "traditional" illnesscs, which lie outside the realm of Western medicine yet play a major role in
the Andean medica! beliefsystem (Fabrega & Manning. 1972: Carter et al.. l 980a.
1981 ). In Peru . these illnesses include "soka," a condition of weakness . fatigue.
and malaise; fiero ." a chronic wasting disease : ''locura ." severe mental disturbances; and others . Similar illnesses, often attributed to supernatural or magical
causes , are recognized in Bolivia. Coca , often used in conjunction with other
medicinal herbs, is a primaf)' remedy in treating such disorders (Carter et al..
l 980a, 1981 ). The importance of coca in relation to these diseases is closcly
associatcd with its reputcd magical propcnics and role in religious lifc.
Since the turn ofthe centUf)', the importance ofcoca as a medicinal plant largcly
has been ignorcd by Western scientists. who identitied the coca leaf' with cocainc

PLOWMAN : COCA

103

and prcferred to experiment with thc pure, isolated compound. As a result. coca
leaves completely disappeared as a pharmaceutical product and no longer wcrc
available for investigation in the United States or in Europc. lronically, cven
today physicians' narcotics licenses in the United States clearly state that thcy
have permission to dispense coca leaves. In the mid- l 970's, intcrest in the thcrapeutic valuc of coca was rekindled among scientists as part of a general reawakening ofinterest in coca. Toda y coca again is being studied for possible applications
in modem medicine. Weil ( 1981) has recommended that coca be studicd for
severa! therapeutic applications, including: l , for painful and spasmodic conditions of the en tire gastrointestinal tract; 2, as a substitute stimulant for coffee in
persons who suffer gastrointestinal problems from its use or who are ovcrly dependent on caffeine; 3, as a fast-acting antidepressant and mood clevator without
toxic side effects; 4. as a treatment for acute motion sickness: 5, asan adjunctive
therapy in programs ofweight reduction and physical fitness; 6, as a symptomatic
treatment of toothache and sores in the mouth; 7, as a substitute stimulant to
wean users of amphetamines and cocaine from those drugs, which are more
dangcrous and have highcr abuse potential; and 8, as a tonic and normalizer of
body functions .
The role of coca in religious and social life

Coca pla ys a central role in the daily lives of many different groups of South
American Indians, not only as a stimulant and medicine, but also as a unifying
cultural and religious symbol. The very act of chewing coca in Andean communitics is an ancient and basic cultural tradition by which the lndian identifies
and reaffirms his or her place in the world. It should be noted that in many arca s.
such as the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta in Colombia and in the Amazon basin.
women are forbidden by custom to chew coca, but in othcr areas. especially in
the high Andes of Peru and Bolivia, women use coca with as much relish as men.
In Peru and Bolivia, the traditional act of chewing coca involves a complex
series of personal rituals and etiquette. The first step is to select two or thret>
lea ves from the coca bag. These are known as "k 'in tu." They are carefully placed
one on top ofthe other between the thumb and index finger. The k'intu is brought
in front of the mouth and blown lightly upon , and simultaneously the coquero
invokes the local gods and spirits of the hills and sacred places around him. This
act is known as "puku y." The leaves then may be used to forma quid for chewing
or may be crushed and blown away with additional prayers and incantations
(Gifford & Hoggarth, 19 76 ; Wagner, 1978). Wagner (1978) has described how
these seemingly simple ritual acts ofusing coca serve to orient the Quechua Indian
in a broader cultural Cl'ntext of time and space and in his rcligious studics and
social affairs.
In traditional Andean communities, coca is prcsent at ncarly every public and
prvate event or actiYi\\. It is a requisite symhol of friendship and good faith at
ali popular and rclig iom festivals, engagements ind weddings, baptisms , funerals .
inaugurations of public officials, and formal .1d informal meetings at which
contracts are formali zed and business arrangem , ' made (Quijada Jara , 1950;
Frisancho Pineda, 197 3: Gifford & Hoggarth, l 97 t ( :1 rter et al., l 980a). Offerings
ofcoca are necessary to propitiate the gods on many. asions, such as the planting
of crops, insuring a pnx luctivc ha rvest, or laying thc merstone for a new housc
(Martn, 1970). Therc is l'Ssentially n o domestic or soc . !Ct that is not solcmnized
by making offerings of, or by chcw111g, coca (Quijada 1. ~ a. 1950). Coca is considered a spiritual protector for tra\ cling in unfamilia1 ;, rritory whcre strange
and malcvolcnt spirits abound (Qui1ada Jara , 1950; Wagn cr. 1978 ).

104

ETHNOBOTANY IN TllE NEOTKOPICS

Coca always has been a major means of exchange in trade networks throughout
the Andes, particularly betwecn the tropical montaa and the high sierra and
altiplano regions. Such trade networks apparently are descended from Inca times
or earlier (Burchard, 1974). Long-distance trade in coca became evcn more extensive during the Colonial period after the Spanish took control of coca production to supply the silver mines at Potos in Bolivia (Gagliano, 1960).
Coca is a medium of exchange not only of products but also as a symbol of
friendship. Wherever coca is chewed, exchanges of coca lea ves or coca powder
are considered the most gracious form of greeting when people meet while traveling. Such exchanges form an immediate bond of friendship and trust and are
accompanied always by the usual formalities of coca etiquette. Gifts of coca are
often olfered by a young man to a girl's parents to obtain their consent for marriage
(Martin, 1970), and bundles of coca will be included in the dowry (Gilford &
Hoggarth , 1976).
The religious and shamanistic use ofcoca probabl y is very ancient and originatcd
from thc psychoactivity produccd by chcwing the !caves (Martin, J 970). Ritual
coca chewing enablcd shamans and priests to medita te, to enter tran ce-like states.
orto communicate with the supematural world, evcn though coca produces slight
mental distortion comparcd to hallucinogcnic plants su ch as Datura and Banisf('Tfopsis or even tobacco.
Many sacrcd practices associated with coca chewing have disappcarcd among
tri bes whose numbers were dccimated or who lost their cultural identit y after the
Spanish Conquest. However, such ceremonies involving coca still exist among
the Kogi and related tribcs of the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta in northcrn
Colombia. These rituals have been carefully documented by the Colombian anthropologist Reichel-Dolmatolf ( 1950). Only the men among the Kogi a re pcrmitted to cultivate and chew coca although women are responsible for harvesting
the !caves. Kogi m en describe the most important elfect ofcoca chew ing as mental
lucidit y, which they value for ceremonial meetings, personal rituals , and rcligi ous
activitics in general. They assert that coca makes their bodies tingle and rcfrcshcs
their memory so that the y can speak, chant, and recite for hours on end . They
consider the suppression ofhunger caused by coca chewing a great advant ge but
not hccausc they lack food. T o thc Kogi, fasting is a prcrcquisite for ali f \ 1gious
ceremonies, and by consuming only coca, they are better able "to speak of the
Ancients." According to Reichel-Dolmatolf, "the ideal of thc Kogi male would
be to eat nothing but coca , to abstain totally from scx , never to slcep an,d to speak
ali his life of the 'Ancients', that is , to chant, to dance and to recite ."
In both Andean and Amazonian cultures, reverencc for coca is rcftected in its
widespread use in divination , both for shamanistic healing practiccs and for predicting the future . These two general applications of divination are incxtricably
linked together in daily life. Divination is a very ancient custom among South
American lndians and , in spite of relentless persecution by the Spanish clergy
following the Conquest. it remains widely practiced today. The Andcan lndian
relies on divination for many purposes but primarily for diagnosing discasc and
finding a cure, for predicting the outcome ofeconomic situations and futurc evcnts
in general , and for assuaging his constant fears ofthe spirit world which surround s
him (Contreras Hemndez, 1972; Carter et al., J 980a). Although there are numerous means of divination employed in the Andes , divination with coca lea ves
is the most common and most respected (Carter et al. , l 980a) .
Diviners fall int o man y dilferent categories according to their specialties and
abilities and are known by an assortment of native namcs . "Yatiri," mcaning

l'LOW~IAN:

CUCA

105

"one who knows." is probably the most widespread term in both Quechua and
Aymara. Many diviners have congenital deformitics or have bcen (or claim to
have bcen) struck by lightning (Carter et al., l 980a).
The act of divining or "reading" coca leavcs takes many forms. It may be a
formal ceremony performed by a specialist or an informal or personal act pcrfonncd by an individual coquero. lndians who chew coca are intenscly awarc
of the signs laten! in the leavcs thcy chcw: in thcir form and color. in the laste
and form of thc chewed quid, or in the saliva which issues from it.
Formal divination involves the consultation of a knowledgeable yatiri at a
specific time and place. A spccial woven cloth, the "cocatari" (Aymara) or "'uncua" (Quechua), is placed on the ground. A small handful of selectcd leaves is
allowed to drop upon the cloth . The reading of the leaves depends upon many
features ofthe leaves, including their color, shape, sizc, deformities. spots. boles .
and creases as wcll as their spatial rclationship to onc another. Dcpcnding on ali
thesc factors, thc leaves will symbolize death, bad or good luck. money. evil spclls.
a safe joumey. or other things or will suggest the diagnosis or cure of an illncss
(Contreras Hernndez. 1972; Frisancho Pineda. 1973: Caner et al.. l 980a).
According to Manin ( 1970). divincrs among the Incas would chew coca \caves
and spit the juice into their palms with the two longest fingers extended. Jf the
juice ran down both fingers equally, it was a good sign; if it ran down unequally .
it was abad one. Other diviners would bum coca lea ves with llama fat and observe
the way they bumed.
Among the Campa of eastern Peru , coca is used by the shaman to determine
the pcrpetrator ofwitchcraft. Thc shaman spits coca into his hand. shakes it. and
ascenains the guilty party through its configuration (Ordinaire. 1892). The neighboring Machiguenga ofthe Peruvian montaa carve small idols out of coca wood.
They believe that coca comes from benevolent spirit s called "'saanka'riite" and
that it has the ability to revea! the future. For examplc, if a man chews coca and
does not taste its sweetness, it is a sign of impending m isfortunc (Baer. 1970).
Coca is al so u sed in divination among tri bes of the North" cst Amazon who use
coca in powdered form. Future events may be foreseen by bl owing a spoonful or
coca powder into the air and obscrYing thc way it falls to tht ground.
ln Colombia , the Paez lndians of Cauca Department also t"n ploy coca in di'>'ination (Usctegui, 1954), as did Chibcha priests in the cent: .il highlands at the
time of the Spanish Conquest (Martin, 1970).
To summarize the importance of coca in lndian life, 1 would like to quote the
eloquent rcmarks ofWagner ( 1978: 878): ..... 'to chcw coca' is part ofthe process
through wh ich the Quechuas absorb the dcpth of their culture and leam to understand wh ;! t it means to be a Runa, a par: icipant in traditional Quc\' hua culture'"
(translation from Spanish mine) and of }. L1rtin ( 1970: 424): '"Onl: ;1pprcciatrng
the use of co ' from the point of view f' thc lndian's cultural b,, 1gc. their
beliefs and th nccessities oftheir daily !1 s can give a propcr pcrspc <! e- on thcmeaning of c a to these people ."
Aeknowl
Early phascs (ll the research reporte
Museum of Han ard University unde1
Agriculture (no. 12-14-1001-230, R . E.
support was also p rovided by a grant J
(no. 5 RO DA02 J 1 0-02). 1 am grate!

gments
here were conc\l: . ;ed at the Botanical
contract with th t U.S. Department of
hultes, principal i: cstigator). Financia!
m the Na tional 1n ,. tu te of Drug A bus e
to the Field Muse ' ' 111 Library staff for

106

ETHNOl30TANY I N TH E N EOT ROPICS

locating obscurc rcfcrcnccs and to Ron Testa and Flcur Hales for prcparing most
of the photographic prints. I would like to acknowledge the Lowie Museum of
Anthropology, Univcrsity of California, Berkeley for supplying photographs of
archeological coca from thcir collections and the Harvard Botanical Muscum ir
allowing me to photograph coca-rclated anifacts from their cxhibits. Gcoffre y ":'.
Conrad of thc Peabody Museum of Archaeology and Ethnology supplied nccd<d
information about archeological materials al that institution. 1 am also gratcful
to the following pcrsons who lent photographs: Roben Fcldman. Laurent Rivicr .
Richard Evans Schultes and Osear Tovar. Christine Niezgoda. Penny M a tekaitis.
and Roberta Beckcr helped immeasurably with the prcparation ofthc manuscript.
Phillip Rury and Laurcnt Rivier offcrcd constructivc criticism and suggestions
for improving thc text. for which 1 am most grateful.
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