Some Basic

1
Some Basic Concepts of Chemistry

Lecture-1
1.1 Chemical Arithmetic
Chemistry is the branch of physical science which deals with
the study of matter, their physical and chemical properties, and
their chemical composition.
The main branches of chemistry are :
(i) Organic Chemistry
(ii) Inorganic Chemistry
(iii) Physical Chemistry
(iv) Analytical Chemistry
(i) Organic Chemistry: It is concerned with the study of
compounds of carbon except carbonate, bicarbonate, cyanides,
isocyanides, carbides and oxides of carbon.
(ii) Inorganic Chemistry: It deals with the study of all known
elements and their compounds except organic compounds.
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(iii) Physical Chemistry: It is concerned with the physical

properties, the laws of the chemical combination and theories
which are governing the reaction.
(iv) Analytical Chemistry: It deals with various methods of
anal y sis of chem i cal sub stances both qual i ta tive and
quantitative.
Some of the specialised branches are:
(i) Bio-Chemistry
(ii) Medicinal Chemistry
(iii) Soil and Agriculture
(iv) Industrial Chemistry
(v) Nuclear Chemistry
(vi) Polymer Chemistry
1.2 Matter and Energy

Matter is anything that has mass and occupies space. All the
bodies in the universe conform to this definition. Mass is the
quantity of matter in a particular sample of matter whether the
term weight should not be used in place of mass.
Energy is defined as the capacity of doing work. Anything
which has the capacity to push matter from one place to another
posses energy. There are various forms of energy such as heat,
light, etc. Energy is neither be created nor be destroyed.
Classification of Matter
(i) Physical Classification: Matter can exist in any one of three
forms Solid, liquid and Gas. In the solid state, substances are
rigid. They have definite shape and fixed volume.In liquid
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state, substances have no definite shape but possess fixed

volume. In a gaseous state, substances have no definite shape
and volume. Depending on temperature and pressure, a
substance can exist in any one of the three forms of matter.
(ii) Chemical Classification: Matter exists in nature in the
form of chemical substances. A pure substance is defined as a
variety of matter, which have same compositions and properties,
i.e., a material containing only one substance.
MATTER
Homogeneous
Physical
Classification
Solids
Liquids
Elements
Gases
Chemical
Classification
Pure
Substances
Compounds
Homogeneous
Heterogeneous
Mixtures
Heterogeneous
(Solutions)
(All Homogeneous)
Inorganic
Compounds
Organic
Compounds
Metals, Non-Metals and Metalloids

All the elements may be classified into two groups i.e., metals
and non-metals. The division is based on both physical and
chemical properties.
Metals are regarded as those elements which possess the
following properties:
(i) They are generally solids at ordinary conditions,
mercury is an exception which is in liquid state.
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(ii) They are lustrous in nature

(iii) They possess high density
(iv) They are good conductors of electricity and heat.
(v) They possess generally high melting and boiling points.
Chemical Classification of Matter

1. Element: An element is the simplest form of a
pure
substance. It may be defined as:

''A pure substance which can neither decomposed nor built from
simpler substances by ordinary physical or chemical methods''.
Elements are further classified into following types:
(i) Metals: These elements are generally solids and possess
characteristics such as:
Bright luster, hardness and ability to conduct electricity and
heat.
(ii) Non-metals: These elements are generally non-lustrous,
brittle and poor conductors of heat and electricity. The common
examples of non-metal are carbon, hydrogen oxygen, nitrogen,
etc.
(iii) Metalloids: These are elements which have characteristics
common to both metals and non-metals. The common examples
of metalloids are silicon, arsenic, bismuth, antimony, etc.
2. Compound: A compound may be defined as:

A substance which is obtained by the union of two or more
elements in a definite proportion, which can neither
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decomposed nor built from simpler substances by ordinary

physical or chemical methods.
Compounds are classified into two types:

(i) Organic Compounds: The compounds obtained from living
sources are termed organic compounds. The term organic is
now applied to hydrocarbons.
(ii) Inorganic Compounds: The compounds obtained from
non-living sources such as rocks and minerals are termed
inorganic compounds.
3. Mixture: A mixture may be defined as:

A combination of two or more elements or compounds in any
proportion so that the components do not lose their identity.
Mixtures are further classified into following types:

(i) Homogeneous mixtures: These have the same compositions
throughout the sample. The components of a mixture can be
seen even under a powerful microscope. Homogeneous mixtures
are also called solution.
(ii) Hetrogeneous mixtures: They consist of two or more parts
(called phases) which have different compositions.
Difference between a compound and a mixture:

Compound
1. The constituents of a
compound are always present
in a fixed ratio by mass.
Mixture
1.
The constituents of a mixture

may be present in any ratio
2. Compound
is
always
homogeneous in nature.
2.
Mixture may or may not be

homogeneous in nature.
3. The properties of a compound

are different from those of its
constituent elements.
3.
The properties of a mixture are

midway between those of its
constituents.
4. The constituents of a
compound cannot be easily
separated
by
simple
mechanical means. Energy
in the form of heat or light is
often required.
4.
The constituents of a mixture

can be easily separated by
simple mechanical means.
5.
5.
Mixtures are formed as a

result of a physical change.
6. Formation of a compound is 6.
always
accompanied
by
absorption or evolution of heat,
light or electrical energy.
When a mixture is formed, no

heat, light or electrical energy
is absorbed or evolved.
7. Chemical Compounds posses 7.

sharp melting and boiling
points.
The melting and boiling

points of mixtures are
usually no sharp.
Compound are formed as a

result of a chemical change.
1.3 Measurement in Chemistry

A unit is defined as the standard of reference chosen in order
to measure a definite physical quantity in chemistry.
Fundamental and Derived Units:
The units of physical quantities depends on three basic units,
i.e., units of mass, length and time. Since these are
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independent on units and cannot be derived from any other

units, they are called fundamental units.
Thus, seven units of measurement namely, mass (Kg),
length(m), time (sec), temperature (K), electric current(A),
luminous intensity(L) and amount of substance are taken as
basic units. All other units can be derived units. The unit of
area, volume, force, work ,density, velocity, energy, etc. are
derived units.
Dimensional Analysis
Any calculation making use of dimensions of the different
physical quantities involved is termed as dimensional
analysis. A unit conversion starts with an equality between
different units for the same quantity.
For instance, 0.001L is equivalent to 1 mL. Representing this
relationship in the form of algebraic equation:
0.001 L = 1 mL
Each of these fractions are called unit factors. These ratios are
more commonly called conversion factors.
Example: If the speed of light is 310 8 ms 1 . Calculate the

distance covered by light in 2.00 ns.
Solution: Speed = 3 108

time = 2 .00 ns = 2 10 9 Sec
Distance = speed time
= 2 310 8 10 9 = 610 1 = 0.6 m
Example: Express each of the following in SI units:

(i) Speed of Shatabdi Express, i,e., 120 miles per hr.
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(ii) Distance between earth and sun, i.e., 93 million miles.

(iii) Average between earth and sun, i.e., 5 feet 6 inches.
Solution: (i) The SI units for speed are m s 1

1 mile = 1.60 km = 1.60 10 3 m
1.60 10 3 m
Conversion factor =
1 mile
1 hr = 60 60 s = 3.6 10 3
3.6 10 3 s
Conversion factor =
1 hr
120 miles
Now, speed =
hr
120 miles
hr
1.60 10 3 m
1mile
1hr
3.6 10 3 s
= 53.3 m s 1 .
(ii)
The Si units for distance is metre (m)

1 mile = 1.60 km = 1.60 10 3 m
Conversion factor =
1.60 10 3 m
1mile
Distance = 93 106 miles

=
93 106 miles 1.60 10 3 m

1miles
= 1.49 10 11 m.
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(iii)
5 feet 6 inches = 66 inches

1 inches = 2 .54 10 2 m
2 .54 10 2 m
Conversion factor =
1 inch
Now,
66 inches =
66 inches 5 .54 10 2 m
1 inches
= 1.68 m.
Seven basic physical quantities and their SI units:

Physical Quantity
Unit Symbol
Length
Metre
Mass
Kilogram
kg
Time
Second
Electric current
Ampere
Thermodynamic temperature T
Kelvin
Amount of the substance
Mole
mol
Luminous intensity
Iv
Candela
cd
Ex-1: Does 1 gram mole of a gas occupy 22.4 L under all

conditions of temperature & pressure?
Sol.
No, one gram mole of a gas occupies 22.4 L only under

NTP or STP conditions, i.e., at 273K temperature and
under 760 mm pressure. If these conditions are not
used, then the volume is not 22.4 L.
Ex-2: The percentages of all the elements present in a

compound are 92. What does it indicate ?
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Sol.
This indicates that the compound contains oxygen also

and its percentage is (100 92) = 8.
Ex-3: Gun powder is a mixture of sulphur, charcoal and

potassium nitrate (KNO 3 ). How would you separate it
into its constituents?
Sol:
Sulphur is soluble in CS2 and is insoluble in water.

KNO 3 is soluble in water. Charcoal is insoluble in both
water as well as CS2 .
Ex-4: Vanadium metal is added to steel to impart strength.

The density of Vanadium is 5.96 g/cm 3 . Express in
S.I. unit (kg / m 3 ).
Sol:
d = 5 . 96 g / cm 5 m of vanadium = 5 . 96 10 3
5 . 96 g cm
5 . 96 10 3 kg
3
.
=
=
5960
m
6 3
10 m
Vol of vanadium metal = 10 6 m 3 .

And we know, d =
m
v
Significant figures
Number of significant figures in a physical quantity depends
upon the least count of the instrument used for its
measurement.
1.
Common rules for counting significant figures:

Following are some of the common rules for counting
significant figures in a given expression:
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Rule 1. All non zero digits are significant.

Example: x = 1234 has four significant figures.
Again, x = 189 has only three significant figures.
Rule 2. All non zero digits occurring between two non

zero digits are significant.
Example: x = 1007 has four significant figures.

Again, x = 1.0809 has five significant figures.
Rule 3. In a number, less than one, all zero's to the right

of decimal point and to the left of a non zero digit are not
significant.
Example: x = 0.0084 has only two significant figures.

Again, x = 1.0084 has five significant figures.
Rule 4. All zeroes on the right of the last non zero digit in
the decimal part are significant.
Example: x = 0.00800 has three significant figures 8,

0,0. The zeros before 8 are not significant.
Rule 5. All zeroes on the right of the non zero digit may
or may not be significant.
Example: We can write 20,000 in scientific notation as 2 10 4 Having 1 significant figure

2 .0 10 4 Having 2 significant figure
2.00 10 4 Having 3 significant figure
Rule 6. All zeroes on the right of the last non zero digit
be come sig nif i cant, they come from a mea sur able
quantity.
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Example: Suppose distance between two stations is

measured to be 3050m. It has four significant figures. the same
distance can be expressed as 3.050 km or 3.050 10 5 cm.
2.
Rounding off: While rounding off measurements, we
use the following rules by convention:
Rule 1. If the digit to be dropped is less than 5, then the

preceeding digit is left unchanged
Example: x = 7.82 is rounded off to 7.8.

Again, x = 3.94 is rounded off to 3.9.
Rule 2. If the digit to be dropped is more than 5, then the

preceeding digit is raised by one.

Rule 3. If the digit to be dropped is 5 followed by digits

other than zero, then the preceeding digit is raised by one.

Rule 4. If the digit to be dropped is 5 followed by zeroes,

then the preceeding digit is left unchanged, if it is even.
Example: x = 3.250 is Rounded off to 3.2

Again x = 12.650 is rounded off to 12 .6
Rule 5. If the digit to be dropped is 5 or 5 followed by zero,

then the preceeding digit is raised by one.

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Questions
Q.1: Express the following numbers upto three significant figures.
(i) 306.35
(ii) 0.0038816
(iii) 1.7897510 4
(iv) 0.25400
(v) 2.6598610 3
Ans: (i) 306.35 = 306
(ii) 0.0038816 = 3.8810 3
(iii) 1.7897510 4 = 1.7910 4
[rounded off according to rule vi (b)]
(iv) 0.25400 = 2.5410 1
(v) 2.6598610 3 = 2.6610 3
[rounded off according to rule vi (b)].
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Q.2: The mass of a sample of iron metal is 5.932 g. If the density of iron is 7.8
g/cm 3 , what is its volume?
Ans: Volume = Mass = 5.932
Density 7.8 g cm 3
The smallest number of significant figures in this calculation is two. Hence the
result has been rounded off to two significant figures.
Q.3: "The star of India" sapphire weighs 563 carats. If one carat is equal to
200 mg, what is the weight of the gemstone in grams?
Ans: Weight one carat = 200 mg
Q.4
Weight of 563 carats =
Express the following in scientific notation:

(i) 0.0048
(ii) 234,000
(iv) 500.0
(v) 6.0012
Ans. (i) 4.810 3

(iv) 5.00010 2
Q.5
200
563 = 112.6 g .
1000
(ii) 2.3410 5
(iii) 8008
(iii) 8.00810 3
(v) 6.001210 0
How many significant figures are present in the following ?

(i) 0.0025
(ii) 208
(iii) 5005
(iv) 126,000
(v) 500.0
(vi) 2.0034
Ans. (i) 2
(ii) 3
(iii) 4
(iv) 3
(v) 4
(vi) 5
Q.6
Round up the following upto three significant figures :

(i) 34.216
(ii) 10.4107
(iii) 0.04597
(iv) 2808
Ans. (i) 34.2

(iii) 0.0460
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(ii) 10.4
(iv) 2810
Q.7
How many significant figures should be present in the answer of the

following calculation ?
(i)
0.02856 29815
. 0.112
0.5785
(ii) 55.364
(iii) 0.0125 + 0.7864 + 0.0215

Ans.
Q.8
(i)
The least precise term has three significant figures (i.e., in 0.112). Hence,
the answer should have three significant figures.
(ii)
Leaving the exact number (5), the second term has four significant
figures. Hence, the answer should have four significant figures.
(iii)
In the given addition, the least number of decimal places in the term is
4. Hence, the answer should have four significant.
Why are the atomic masses of most of the elements fractional ?
Ans. Atomic masses of most of the elements are fractional because most of elements
occur in nature as a constant mixture of isotopes. The atomic masses of the
isotropes actually the average relative masses of the isotopes depending on their
abundance.
Q.9
Express the following in the scientific notation :

(i) 0.0048
(ii) 234,000
(iv) 500.0
(v) 6.0012
Ans. (i) 4.8 10 3

(iv) 5.00 10 2
(ii) 2.34 10 5
(iii) 8008
(iii) 8.008 10 3
(v) 6.0012 10 0
Q.10 How many significant figures are present in the following ?

(i) 0.0025
(ii) 208
(iii) 5005
(iv) 126,000
(v) 500.0
(vi) 2.0034
(ii) 3
(iii) 4
(v) 4
(vi) 5
Ans. (i) 2
(iv) 6
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Q.11 Round up the following upto three significant figures :

(i) 34.216
(ii) 10.4107
(iii) 0.04597
(iv) 2808
Ans. (i) 34.2

(iii) 0.04597
(ii) 10.4
(iv) 281
Q.12 How many significant figures should be present in the answer of the
following calculations
Ans.
(i)
0.02856 29815
. 0.112
0.5785
(ii)
55.364
(iii)
0.0125 + 0.7864 + 0.0215
(i)
The least precise figure (0.0112) has 3 significant figures. Therefore, the
answer should have three significant figures.
(ii)
The second figure (5.364) has 4 significant figures. Therefore, the answer
should be reported upto four significant figures. The exact figure (5) is
not considered in this case.
(iii)
In this case, the least precise figures (0.0125 and 0.0215) have 3
significant figures.
Therefore, the answer should be reported upto three significant figures.
Q.13 When do zeros present in a number become insignificant ?

Ans. The zeros written to the left of the first non-zero digit in a number are
insignificant. For example, in the number 0.014, both the zeros are
insignificant.
Q.14 Is velocity a basic or derived quantity according to SI system ?
Ans. Velocity is a derived quantity and it depends upon two basic quantities i.e.,
distance and time. The SI units of velocity are :
Velocity = Distance / Time = ms1
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Q.15 Why is air not always regarded as homogeneous mixture ?

Ans. Air which contains certain suspended particles such as dust particles is a
hetrogeneous mixture and not a homogeneous mixture.
Q.16 Statements given below pertain either to an element or mixture or
compound. Identify the statement which corresponds to
(a) an element
(b) mixture
(c) compound.
(i)
The properties of the reactants are entirely different from the

properties of the products of their chemical reactions.
(ii)
The constituents retain their individual chemical identity.
(iii)
The pure substance which cannot be subdivided into two or more

substances by any chemical means.
Ans. (i)
The statement corresponds to a compound.
(ii)
The statement corresponds to a mixture.
(iii)
The statement corresponds to an element light.
Q.17 What do you understand by limnochemistry ?

Ans. Chemistry of water reservoirs like rivers, lakes, etc. is called Limnochemistry. In
this branch, we study the variation of pH with seasons and temperature.
Moreover, we also study reactions occurring in aqueous medium of water
reservoir.
Q.18 What do you understand by Phytochemistry ?
Ans. Photochemistry is the branch of chemistry which involves the study of chemical
composition of various parts of plants.
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Lecture-2
1.4 Laws of Chemical Combinations
1. Law of Conservation of Mass
This law was stated by the french chemist antoine Laurent
lavoisier (1774)". This law states that:
During any physical or chemical changes, the total mass of the
products remains equal to the total mass of the reactants.
Lavoisier showed that when mercuric oxide was heated it
produced free mercury and oxygen. The sum of masses of
mercury and oxygen was found to be equal to the mass
mercuric oxide
Heat
Mercuric oxide
Mercury + Oxygen
100 g
92.6 g
7 .4 g
Law of conservation of mass is also known as law of

indestructibility of matter.
Example: Is law of conservation of mass always valid ?

Solution No, it is not valid for nuclear reactions. In these
reactions, a certain amount of mass gets converted into energy

known as nuclear energy. Therefore, mass is not conserved
and it does not remain constant.
2. Law of Constant composition or Definite Proportions

This law deals with the composition of chemical compounds. It
was discovered by the french chemist, Joseph Proust (1799).
This law states that:
A chemical compound always contains same elements
combined together in same proportion by mass.
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It implies that in a chemical compound the elements are present

in fixed proportion not i.e., arbitrary ratio by mass. For
example, pure water obtained from different sources such as,
river, well, spring, sea, etc., always contains hydrogen and
oxygen combined together in the ratio 1: 8 by mass. Similarly,
carbon dioxide can be obtained by different methods such as:
(a) burning of carbon,
(b) heating limestones
(c) the action of dilute hydrochloric acid on marble pieces.
It can be shown experimentally that different samples of carbon
dioxide contain carbon and oxygen in the ratio 3 : 8 by mass.
Example : When is the law of definite proportions not obeyed ?

Solution : The law of definite proportions is not obeyed when
the element exists in isotopic forms. For example, in HCl the
elements H and Cl may be in the ratio 1 : 35 and 1 : 37 by
mass in case 35 C and 37 Cl isotopes are considered.
3. Law of Chemical Combination

Law of Multiple Proportions: When two elements combine to
form two or more chemical compounds, then the masses of one
of the elements which combine with a fixed mass of the other,
bear a simple ratio to one another.
Compound of Sulphur and Oxygen : Like carbon, the element,
sulphur, also forms two oxides, sulphur dioxide and sulphur
trioxide. In sulphur dioxide, 32 parts by mass of sulphur
combine with 32 parts by mass of oxygen but in case of
sulphur trioxide, 32 parts by mass of sulphur combine with a
fixed mass of sulphur combine with 48 parts by mass of
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oxygen. Therefore, the masses of oxygen which combine with a

fixed mass of sulphur (32 parts) in the two oxides are 32 and
48 respectively. These bear a simple ratio of 32 : 48 or 2 : 3 to
each other.
Example : Two oxides of a metal contain 27.6% and 30.0% of

oxygen respectively. If the formula of the first oxide is M 3 O 4 ,
find that of the second.
Solution: In the first oxide, oxygen = 27.6,

metal = 100 27.6 = 72.4 parts of mass.
As the formula of the oxide is M 3 O 4 , it means
72.4 parts by mass of metal=3 atoms of metal
In the second oxide, oxygen = 30.0 parts by mass
and metal = 10030= 70 parts by mass.
But 72.4 parts by mass of metal = 3 atoms of metal
So, 70 parts by mass of metal = (3/72.4)70 atoms of metal
= 2.90 atoms of metal
Also, 27.6 parts by mass of oxygen = 4 atoms of oxygen
So, 30 parts by mass of oxygen = (4/27.6)30 atoms of
oxygen = 4.35 atoms of oxygen
Hence, ratio of M : O in the second oxide
= 2.90 : 4.35 = 1 : 1.5 = 2 : 3
Therefore, formula of the metal oxide is M 2 O 3 .
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4. Law of Reciprocal Proportions

The ratio of the masses of two elements A and B which combine
separately with a fixed mass of the third element C is either
same or some simple multiple of the ratio of the masses in
which A and B combine directly with each other.
The elements H and O combine separately with the third
element S to form H 2 S and SO 2 and they combine directly
with each other to form H 2 O as shown in figure.
The masses of H and O which combine with the fixed mass of S,

viz, 32 parts are 2 and 32, i.e., they are in the ratio 2 : 32 or 1 :
16.
When H and O combine directly to form H 2 O, the ratio of their
combining masses is 2 : 16 or 1 : 8.
The two ratios are related to each other as
1 1
: = 1 : 2 i.e., they
16 8
are simple multiple of each other.
Example: Ammonia contains 82.35% of nitrogen and 17.65%

of hydrogen. Water contains 88.90% of oxygen and 11.10% of
hydrogen.
Show that these data illustrate the law of reciprocal proportions.
23
Solution: In NH 3 , 17.65 g of H combine with N=82.35 g

Therefore, 1 g of H combine with
N=
82 .35
g = 4.67 g
17 .65
In H 2 O, 11.10 g of H combine with O=88.90 g

Therefore, 1 g of H combine with
O=
88. 90
g = 8.01g
11.10
Therefore, ratio of the masses of N and O which combine with

fixed mass (=1 g) of H = 4.67 : 8.01 = 1 : 1.72.
In N 2 O 3 ratio of masses of N and O which combine with each
other = 36.85 : 63.15 = 1 : 1.71.
Thus, the two ratios are the same. Hence, it illustrates the law of
reciprocal proportions.
Ex am ple : Carbondioxide con tains 27.27% of car bon,

carbondisulphide contains 15.79% of carbon and
sulphurdioxide contains 50% of sulphur. Show that the data is
in agreement with law of reciprocal proportions.
Solution: In CS 2
C : S mass ratio is 15.79 : 84.21
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15.79
27.27
CS2
84.21
S
50
CO2
CS2
72.73
O
50
15.79 parts of carbon combine with sulphur = 84.21
27.27 parts will combine with S

=
84.21
27 .27 = 145 .434
15 . 79
hence, ratio of S : O is 145.434 : 72.73 i.e., 2 : 1

In SO 2 the ratio of S : O is 1 : 1
Since, the ratio of S : O is a simple whole number ratio,
therefore law of reciprocal proportions is proved.
5. Gay Lussacs Law of Gaseous Volumes

When gases react together, they always bear a simple ratio to
one another and to the volumes of the products, if these product
are also gases, provided all measurement of volumes are done
under similar conditions of temperature and pressure.
Consider, for illustration, the following example:
Combination between hydrogen and chlorine. One volume of
hydrogen and one volume of chlorine always combine to form
two volumes of hydrochloric acid as:
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H2
1vol.
1vol.
Cl2
1vol.
+
2HCl
2vol.
1vol.
2vol.
6. Avogadros Hypothesis/ Law/ Principle

It may be stated as follows:
''Equal volumes of all gases under similar conditions of
temperature and pressure contain equal number of molecules.''
On applying Avogadros law to the reaction between hydrogen
and chlorine,
Hydrogen + Chlorine
Hydrochloric acidgas
1 Vol.
1 Vol.
2 Vol.
Applying Avogadros law

n moleculesof + n molecules
2 n moleculesof
hydrogen
of chlorine
hydrochloricacidgas
1 molecule + 1 molecule
2 molecules
1
1
molecule + molecule
1 molecule
2
2
It means that one molecule of hydrochloric acid gas contains
1
2
1
molecule of chlorine. Since a
2
molecule may contain more than one atoms, it is possible to
divide it into atoms. Thus, Avogadros law is not in conflict
with Daltons Atomic Theory.
molecule of hydrogen and
26
Ex. Which law co-relates the mass and volume of a gas ?

Sol. It is the Avogardos Law and states that equal volumes of
all gases under similar conditions of temperature and

pressure contain equal number of moles (or molecules).
Add to your Knowledge

Avogadros law is also helpful in developing the relationship
between
(a) Molecular mass and vapour density
(b) Mass and volume of gas
(a) Relationship between molecular mass and vapour density
By definition
Vapour density (V.D.)
=
Density of gas
Density of hydrogen
Mass of some volume of gas at S.T.P.
Mass of same volume of H 2 at S.T.P.
Mass of N molecules of gas
Mass of N molecules of H 2
Mass of 1 molecule of gas
Mass of 1 H 2 molecule
27
=
=
Thus,
Mass of 1 molecule of gas

2 Mass of H atom
1
Molecular mass of gas
2
Mol.mass=2 V.D.
(b) Relationship between mass and volume of gas

Mol. mass
= 2 V.D.
=
2 mass of 1 L of gas at S.T.P.(1atm)

Mass of 1 L of H 2 at S.T.P.
2 Mass of 1 L of gas at S.T.P.
0.089 g
= 22 .4 MAss of 1 L of gas at S.T.P.

= Mass of 22.4 L of gas at S.T.P.
Thus,
Mass of 22.4 L of gas at S.T.P.
= Molar mass (in g mol 1 )
1.5 Daltons Atomic Theory

The main points of this theory are as follows:
1.
Matter is made up of extremely small invisible particles

called atoms.
2.
Atoms of the same element are identical in all respects,

i.e., size, shape, and mass.
28
3.
Atoms of different element have different masses, sizes

and also possess different chemical properties
4.
Atoms of the same or different elements combine together

to form compound atoms (now called as molecules).
5.
When atoms combine with one another to form compound

atoms (molecules), they are in simple whole number
ratios, such as 1 : 1, 2 : 1, 2 : 3 and so on.
6.
Atoms of two elements may combine in different ratios to

form more than one compound. For example, sulphur
combines with oxygen to form sulphur dioxide and
sulphur trioxide, the combining ratios being 1 : 2 and 1 :
3 respectively.
7.
An atom is the smallest particle that takes part in a

chemical reaction. In other words, whole atoms, rather than
fractions of atoms take part in a chemical reaction.
Explanation of the Laws of Chemical Combination by Daltons

Atomic Theory:
1.
Law of Conservation of Mass. Matter is made up of atoms

(postulate 1) which can neither be created nor destroyed
(postulate 8). Hence, matter can neither be created nor
destroyed.
2.
Law of Constant composition. It follows directly from

postulate 5.
3.
Law of Multiple proportions. As follows directly from

postulate 6.
4.
Law of Reciprocal proportions. As atoms combine with each

other in simple multiple of each other.
29
Limitations of Daltons Atomic Theory

The main drawbacks of Daltons Atomic Theory are :
(i) It could explain the laws of chemical combination by mass
but failed to explain the law of gaseous volumes.
(ii) It could not explain why atoms of different elements have
different masses, sizes, valencies etc.
(iii) It could not explain, why do atoms of the same or different
elements combine to form molecules?
(iv) It could not explain, what is the nature of binding force
between atoms and molecules which accounts for the
existence of matter in three states, i.e., solids, liquids and
gases.
(v) It makes no distinction between the ultimate particles of
an element or a compound.
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Questions
Q.1
Pressure is determined as force per unit area of the surface. The SI unit
of pressure, pascal is as shown below :
1 Pa = 1 Nm 2
If the mass of air at sea level is 1034 g, calculate the pressure in pascal.
Ans. Pressure = Force = Mass Accleration of gravity
Area
Area
Mass of air = 1034 g = 1.034 kg
Acceleration of gravity = 9.806 ms 2
Area = 1 cm 2 = 10 4 m 2
Q.2
The following data is obtained when dinitrogen and dioxygen react to

gether to form different compounds :
Mass of dinitrogen
14 g
14 g
28 g
28 g
Mass of dioxygen
16 g
32 g
32 g
80 g
31
Ans. By keeping 14 g as the fixed mass of dinitrogen (N 2 ), the ratios by mass of

dioxygen (O 2 ) combining with 14 g of dinitrogen are : 16 : 32 : 16 : 40 or 2 : 4
: 2 : 5. Since this ratio is simple whole number, the data obeys the Law of
Multiple proportions.
Q.3
If the speed of light is 3.010 8 ms 1 , calculate the distance covered by

light in 2.00 ns.
Ans. Distance travelled by light in 1 s = 3.0 10 8 m

Distance travelled by light in 2.0 10 9 s
= (3.0 10 8 m)(2.0 10 9 s) / (1s)
= 0.600 m.
Q.4
Convert the following into basic units

(i) 28.7 pm
Ans.
(i)
(ii) 15.15 s
(iii) 25365 mg.
1 pm = 10 12 m
28.7 pm = (10 12 m) (28.7 pm) / (1.0 pm)
= 2.8710 11 m
(ii)
1s = 10 6 s
15.15 s = (15.15) (10 6 s) / (1.0 s)
= 1.51510 5 s
(iii)
1 mg = 10 6 kg
25365 mg = (25365 mg) (10 6 kg) / (1mg)
= 2.536510 2 kg
Q.5
We breathe in fresh air in the morning walk ? Is it pure as well ?
Ans. Fresh air may be regarded as pure by an ordinary person but not by a chemist.
Actually fresh air is the mixture of number of gases like oxygen, nitrogen, noble
gases, carbon dioxide, water vapours etc. It is therefore, not pure from the angle
of a chemist.
32
Lecture-3
1.6 Atomic and Molecular Mass
The atomic mass of an element can be defined as the number which
indicates how many times the mass of one atom of the element is
heavier in comparison to the mass of one atom of hydrogen.
Atomic mass of an element also can be defined as the number
which indicates how many times the mass of one atom of the
element is heavier in comparison to 1/12 th part of the mass of
one atom of carbon-12( 12 C).
A = Atomic mass of an element
Massofoneatom of the element
= 1
th part of themassof oneatom of carbon 12
12
A=
Massof oneatom of the elements

Massof oneatom of carbon 12
12
Ex:
Calculate the molar mass of glucose (C 6H 12 O6 ) and the

number of atoms of each kind in it.
Sol:
Molecular mass of glucose (C 6H 12 O6 )

= 6 ( 12 .011u) + 12 ( 1.008u) + 6 ( 16.00u)
= 180.162 u
Calculation of number of atoms of each kind
1 mole of glucose (C 6H 12 O6 )
= 6 moles of carbon + 12 moles of hydrogen +6 moles
of oxygen
33
Hence, Atoms of carbon
= 6 6.02 10 23
= 36.12 10 23
Atoms of hydrogen
= 12 6.02 10 23
= 72 .24 10 23
Atoms of oxygen oxygen = 6 6.02 10 23

= 36.12 10 23
Atomic Mass Unit:
The quantity of 1/12th mass of an atom of carbon-12 ( 12 C) is

known as the atomic mass unit and is abbreviated as amu. The
actual mass of one atom of carbon-12 is 1.992410 23 g or
1.992410 26 kg.
(i) Atom: The smallest particle of an element that can take

part in chemical change but generally cannot exist freely
as such.
(ii) Molecule: The Smallest particle of a substance (element or

compound) which has free or independent existence and
possess all characteristics properties of the substance.
(iii) Molecular Mass: Molecular mass of a substance may be

defined as:
The average relative mass of its molecule as compared to
the mass of an atom of carbon(C 12 ) taken as 12.
Ex-1: Atomic mass of Ca is 40 gm/mole, means 1 mole of Ca

& having mass = 40 g.
Sol:
In 1 mole number of Ca = 6.023 10 23 .

So, 6.023 10 23 atoms of Ca having mass = 40 g.
34
1 atom of Ca having mass =

= 40
1
23 g
6.023 10
40 g
6.023 10 23
= 40 1.67 10 24 g
= 40 amu
1
is constant for all,
6.023 10 23
means 1.67 10 24 gm
40 AMU means, mass of one atom of Ca
So, 1 AMU = 1.67 10 24 gm
= 1.67 10 27 kg
Ex-2: Find out which is having minimum mass.

(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
Sol:
10 mole H 2
10 g H 2
10 amu H 2
All same
(c) i.e., 10 1.67 10 24 gm
(iv) Vapour density (v.d): It is the density of a gas or vapour

w.r.t. H 2 at constant pressure and temperature and given as
mol. wt . of gas
v . d. =
2
mol. wt . of H 2
2
let, mol. wt. of gas = M
mol. wt. of H 2 = 2
35
M
v . d.= 2
2
2
M
v . d.=
2
it is unit less
Ex-3: Find out v.d. of O 3 , O 2 and CO 2 .

Sol: v . d. =
Mol. wt .
2
48
= 24
2
32
v . d. of O 2 =
= 16
2
44
v.d. of CO 2 =
= 22
2
v . d. of O 3 =
Ex-4: V.d. of gas is 40. Find out molecular weight.

Sol: V.d. =
Mol. wt .
2
Mol. wt. = 2 v . d.
= 2 40
= 80
Ex-5: v.d. of sulphur vapour is 64. Find out formula of

sulphur vapour.
Sol:
We know that sulphur vapour is represented asS , S2 , S4 , S6 , S8 .

First of all find out molecular wt. of sulphur vapour.
36
Mol. wt .
2
mol. wt .
64 =
2
mol. wt. = 2 64 = 128
mol. wt. = 128
Mol. wt. = No. of sulphur wt. of one S
Let, formula is S x
128 = 32 x
or, x = 128 / 32 = 4
S 4 = Formula of vapour
v . d. =
Ex-6: If v.d. of gas is 10(O 2 = 4). Find out molecular weight

of the gas.
Sol:
v.d. of gas is 10. When we assume that v.d. of oxygen is 4.
But, Real v.d. of O 2 is 32/2 = 16

mean, real v.d. = 16
given v.d. is = 4
We have to find out the factor between actual and given v.d.
give v.d. F = Real v.d.
Re al v . d.
F=
given v . d
16
=4
4
means, for the given gas,
Real v.d. = F given v.d.
Real v.d. = 4 10 = 40
So, mol. wt. = 2 v . d.
= 2 40
= 80
F=
37
1.7 Empirical Formula and Molecular Formula

Empirical formula: The formula which gives the simplest whole
number ratio of the atoms of various elements present in one
molecule of the compound is called empirical formula.
Example : Determine the empirical formula of an oxide of iron

which has 69.9% iron and 30.1% dioxygen by mass (At. mas
Fe=56, O=16).
Ans. Fe2 O 3
Element Symbol %age
Iron
Fe
Oxygen
69.9
30.1
At.
Rel. no.
mass of atoms
56
16
Simplest
ratio
Whole no.
ratio
699
56
1.248
1.248
12
=1.248
=1
30.1
16
1881
1224
=1.881
=1.50
=2
1.52
=3
Molecular formula: The formula which gives the actual
number of various elements present in one molecule of the

compound is called molecular formula.
Percentage Composition: Mass %age of an element
=
Massof that element in thecompound 100

Molar massof thecompound
Mass %age of H in H 2 O
=
2 1.008 100
= 11.18%
18.02
Mass %age of O = 100 11.18 = 88. 79%

38
1.8 Stoichiometry of Chemical Reaction

When chemical equations is written in the balanced form, it
gives quantitative relationships between the various reactants
and products in terms of moles masses, molecules and
volumes. This is called stoichiometry
(Greek word meaning to measure an element). The coefficients
of the balanced chemical equation are called stoichiometric
coefficients. For example, a balanced chemical equation along with
the quantitative information conveyed by it is given below:
CaCO 3
1mole
40 12 + 3 16
= 100 gm
2HCl
CaCl 2 + H 2 O + CO 2
1moles
1moles
1mole 1mole
2( 1 + 35 .5 ) 40 + 2 35 .5 12 + 16 32
= 72 g
= 111g = 18g
The problems involving these calculations may be classified

into the following different types:
1. Volume: Volume Relationships, i.e.,volume of one of the
reactants or products is given and the volume of the other is to
be calculated.The general method of calculations for all the
problems of the above types consists of the following steps:
(1) Balance the reaction
(2) Find out cofficient
(3) Calculate according to cofficient
39
Note:
Molal solution means m = 1

Deci. molal solution means m =
1
10
Centi. molal solution means m =
1
100
2. Atom: It is the smallest part of the compound which is

neutral and having following properties.
(1) It is having three fundamental particle.
(a) Protons
(b) Neutrons
(c) Electrons
(2) Generally represented as z X A .
Where Z = No. of protons (P) or atomic No.
A = P + N = Atomic mass
3. Molecule: It is the combination of atoms and having neutral
in nature.
Example: O 2 , N2 , Cl 2 , CO 2
4. Atomic Weight: It is the weight of 6.023 10 23 atoms of the given.
Example: If weight of 3.0115 10 20 atoms is 20mg then

find out atomic weight of the atom.
Solution: Since 3.0115 10 20 atoms having wt. = 20 mg

20 10 3 gm
1 atom is having weight =
3.0115 10 20
Hence, 6.023 10 23 atoms are having weight
20 10 3
23
.
=
6
023
10
3.0115 10 20
= 20 10 3 2 10 3
= 40 gm/mole
40
5. Molecular Weight: It is the weight of 6.023 10 23 molecule

of the given.
Example: If Weight of 0.06023 10 18 molecules of a gas is 1 g

, then find out the molecular weight of the given gas.
Solution: Since, 0.06023 10 18 molecule of gas is having

Weight = 1g
1 10 6 gm
1 molecule is having weight =
0.06023 10 18
Hence, weight of 6.023 10 23 molecule of gas
1 10 6
23
=
18 6.023 10
0.06023 10
= 1 10 6 10 7 = 10 gm/mole
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Questions
Q.1
What will be the mass of one
12
C atom in g ?
Ans. 1 mole of 112 C atoms = 6.02210 23 atoms = 12g

Thus, 6.02210 23 atoms of
12
C have mass = 12g
1 atom of 12 C will have mass = 12 / 6.02210 23 g = 1.992710 23 g.

Q.2
Which one of the following will have largest number of atoms ?

(i) 1 g Au (s)
(ii) 1 g Na (s)
(iii) 1 g Li (s)
(iv) 1 g Cl 2 (g)
(Atomic masses : Au = 197, Na = 23, Li = 7, Cl = 35.5 amu)

Ans. (i)
(iii)
(iii)
(iv)
Q.3
1
1
= mol =
6.02 10 23 atoms
197
197
1
1
1gNa =
mol =
6.02 10 23 atoms
23
23
1
1
1gLi = mol = 6.02 10 23 atoms
7
7
1
1
2
1gCl2 = mol =
6.02 10 23 molecules =
6.02 10 23 atoms
71
71
71
1gAu
How many moles of methane are required to produce 22g CO 2 (g) after
combustion ?
Ans. The balanced chemical equation for the combustion of methane is;
CH 4 +
2O 2
CO 2
1 mole
2H 2 O
1 mole
12 + 2 16 = 44g
Thus, to produce 44 g of CO 2 , CH 4 required = 1 mole

Therefore, to produce 22g of CO 2 , CH 4 required = (1/44)22 mole = 0.5 mole.
Q.4
How much copper can be obtained from 100g of copper sulphate (CuSO 4 )?
Ans. Molecular mass of CuSO 4

= Atomic mass of Cu + Atomic mass of S + 4 Atomic mass of O
= 63.5 + 32 + 4 16 = 159.5 u.
Gram molecular mass of CuSO 4 = 159.5 g
Now, 159.5 g of CuSO 4 have Cu = 63.5 g
42
100 g of CuSO 4 have Cu = (63.5 g) 100 g / 159.5 g = 39.81 g
Q.5
Determine the molecular formula of an oxide of iron in which the mass

percent of iron and oxygen are 69.9 and 30.1 respectively.
Ans. Empirical formula of the oxide of iron = Fe 2 O 3

Molecular formula of the oxide of iron = n Empirical formula
= 1 (Fe 2 O 3 ) = Fe 2 O 3
(Since there in no common factor in Fe 2 O 3 , therefore n = 1 ).
Q.6
Calculate the average atomic mass of chlorine from the following data:
Isotope
% Natural Abundance
Atmic mass
35
Cl or Cl35
75.77
34.9689 u
37
Cl or Cl37
24.23
36.9659 u
Ans. Average atomic mass of Chlorine = 75.77 34.9689 u+24.23 36.9659 u

(75.77 + 24.23)
=
Q.7
2649.59 u + 895.68 u
= 35.45
100
Nitrogen and hydrogen react to form ammonia according to the reaction

N 2 (g) + 3H 2 (g) 2NH 3 (g)
If 1000 g of H 2 react with 2000 g of N 2 ,
(i)
Will any of the two reactants remain unreacted ? If yes, which one
and what would be its mass ?
(ii)
Calculate the mass of ammonia (NH 3 ) which will be formed.
Ans. N 2 (g)
28g
+ 3H 2 (g)
32 = 6g
2NH 3 (g)
217 = 34 g
According to available data,

28 g of N 2 require H 2 = 6 g
2000 g of N 2 require H 2 = 6 g (2000 g) / (28 g) = 428.6 g
But H 2 actually available = 1000 g
This means that H 2 is in excess and will remain unreacted.
(i)
Mass of H 2 that remains unreacted = 1000 428.6 = 571.4 g
(ii)
Mass of NH 3 formed may be calculated as follows :

6 g of H 2 will form NH 3 = 34 g
428.6 g H 2 will form NH 3 = (34 g)(4280.6 g) /(6.0 g) = 2428.8 g
43
Q.8
Which of the following has largest number of atoms ?

(i) 1 g of Au
(ii) 1 g of Na
(iii) 1 g of Li
(iv) 1g of Cl 2
Ans.
(i)
197 g of Au have atoms = 6.02210 23 (Gram atomic mass of Au = 197 g)

(1g)
1 g Au has atoms = 6.022 10 23
= 3.06 10 21 atoms
(197g)
(ii)
23 g of Na have atoms = 6.02210 23 (Gram atomic mass of Na = 23 g)

(1g)
1 g Na has atoms = 6.022 10 23
= 2.62 10 22 atoms
(23g)
(iii)
7 g of Li have atoms = 6.02210 23 (Gram atomic mass of K = 39 g)

(1g)
1 g Li has atoms = 6.022 10 23
= 8.60 10 22 atoms
(7g)
(iv)
71 g of Cl 2 have molecules = 6.02210 23 (Gram molecules mass of Cl 2

= 71 g)
71 g of Cl 2 have atoms = 26.022 10 23
1 g of Cl 2 has atoms = 2 6.022 10 23
(1g)
= 167
. 10 22 atoms
(71g)
Thus, 1 g of lithium (Li) has the largest number of atoms.

Q.9
What will be mass of one 12C in g ?
Ans. 6.02210 23 atoms of carbon have mass = 12 g

1 atoms of carbon have mass =
(12g) (1atom)
(6.022 10
23
atom)
= 1993
.
10 23 g
Q.10 Use the data given in the following table to calculate the molar mass of
naturally occurring argon,
Isotope
Isotopic molar mass
Abundance
36
Ar
35.96755 g mol 1
0.337 %
38
Ar
37.96272 g mol 1
0.063 %
40
Ar
39.9624 g mol 1
99.600 %
Ans. Molar mass of argon in the average molar mass and may be calculated as:
44
(0.337) (35.96755) + (0.063) (99.6) (39.9624)

(00.337 + 0.063 + 99.600)
12.121 2.3916 + 3980.26

= 39.947 g mol 1
100
Q.11 A welding fuel gas contains carbon and hydrogen only, Burning a small
sample of it in oxygen gives 3.38 g carbon dioxide, 0.690 g water and no
other products. A volume of 10.0 L (measured at NTP) of this welding
gas is found to weight 110.6 g. Calculate
(i) empirical formula (ii) molar mass (iii) molecular formula of the gas.
Ans. Step-1. Calculation of mass percent of carbon and hydrogen.
CO 2 C
44g
12g
3.38 g =
12 g
3.38 g = 0.9218g of C
44 g
H 2 O 2H
18g
2g
0.690 g =
2g
0.69 g = 0.0766 g of H
18g
Total mass of fuel gas = 0.9218 + 0.0766 = 0.9984 g

Percentage of carbon =
Mass of carbon
100
Mass of fuel gas
0.9218 g
100 = 92.33%
0.9984 g
Percentage of hydrogen =
=
Mass of hydrogen
100
Mass of fuel gas
0.0766 g
100 = 7.67%
0.9984 g
Step-2. Determination of empirical formula of fuel gas.
Element
no. ratio
C
Atomic
mass
Gramn atoms
(moles)
Atomic ratio
(molar ratio)
Simplest
whole
92.33
12
92.33
= 7.69
12
7.69
=1
7.69
Empirical formula of the fuel gas = CH.

Step-3. Calculation of molecular mass of the fuel gas.
10.0 L of the fuel gas at NTP weigh = 11.6 g
45
10.0 L of the fuel gas at NTP weigh =
116
.
22.4 = 25.98 g
10.0
Molecular mass of the fuel gas = 25.98 g = 26.0 g = 26 amu
Step-4. Calculation of molecular formula of the gas.

Empirical formula mass = 12 + 1 = 13 amu
Molecular formula = 26 amu
n=
Molecular mass
26
=
=2
Empirical formula mass 13
Molecular formula = n Empirical formula =2 CH = C 2 H 2
Q.12 What is the difference between the mass of a molecule and molecular
mass ?
Ans. Mass of a molecule is that of a single molecule also known as its actual mass. But
molecular mass is the mass of Avogardos number (6.02210 23 ) of molecules.
Q.13 The average atomic mass of chlorine is 35.5 amu. Do we come across a
sample of the element with atomic mass 35.0 amu ?
Ans. No, it is not possible. The fractional atomic mass of an element is its average
mass and not the actual mass. In this case, the element chlorine exists as two
isotopes with atomic mass 35 amu and 37 amu respectively in the ratio of 3 : 1.
The average comes out to be fractional i.e., 35.5 amu.
Q.14 Are the atomic masses of the elements their actual masses ?
Ans. No, atomic masses of the elements are not actual masses.
These are only relative masses because the actual masses are very small. For
detail, consult text part.
Q.15 Give an example of a molecule in which the ratio of the molecular
formula is six times the empirical formula.
Ans. The compound is glucose. Its molecular formula is C 6 H12 O 6 while empirical
formula is CH 2 O.
Q.16 How many oxygen atoms are present in 96 amu of ozone ?
Ans. 96 amu of ozone (O 3 ) contain
46
96 amu
= 6 atoms of oxygen.
16 amu
Lecture-4
1.9 Mole Concept
>
>
>
It is denoted by n
1 mole of a gas at NTP is having volume 22.4 L
1 mole of a compound is having weight equal to its
molecular weight. So on the basis of different concept mole
having following types.
Example: 20 gm of He sample is having moles.

Solution:
So,
n=
n=
weight of sample
atomic weight of He
20
=5
4
Mole of molecule sample

Mole(n) =
weight of sample
Molecular weight
Example: 880 gm sample of CO 2 gas is there. Find out moles

of the gas.
Solution:
Mole(n)=
n=
weight of sample
Molecular weight
880
= 20
44
If number of particles, ions atom or molecules are given then:

Mole(n) =
Number of Particles
No.(6.023 10 23 )
47
Example: Find out moles of 12.04 10 24 atoms of Na.

Solution:
12 .04 10 24
1
n=
=
2
10
= 20 moles.
23
6.023 10
If volume at NTP is given for a gas then
moles =
volumeof gasat NTP

22 .4 L
Example: Find out moles of 448 L of O 2 gas at NTP.

Solution: Moles(n)= 448 = 20
22 .4
Example: How many atoms of oxygen are present in 300 g of

CaCO 3 ?
Solution: Molecular mass of CaCO 3 in grams = 100 g

Now, 1 mole of CaCO 3 contain
= 3 mole of O atoms.
or
100 g of CaCO 3 contain

= 3 6.02 10 23 Oxygen atoms
300 g of CaCO 3 contain O atoms
3 6.023 10 23
=
300 = 54.207 10 23
100
= 5.4207 10 24 Oxygen atoms.
Note:
Alternative short method is givenin video lecture
Example: Chlorophyl, the green colouring material of plants

contains 2.68% of magnesium by mass. Calculate
the number of magnesium atoms in 5.00 g of this
complex.
48
Solution: Mass of magnesium in 5.00 g of complex is

=
2 .68
5 .00 = 0.134 g.
100
Gram atomic mass of magnesium

= 24
24 g of magnesium contain
= 6.02 10 23 atoms
0.134 g of magnesium would contain
6.02 10 23
=
0.134 = 3.36 10 21 atoms
24
Therefore, 5.00 g of the given complex would
contain 3.36 10 21 atoms of magnesium.
Note:
Alternative short method is given in video lecture
Types of Problems
(1) Problem related with mass and the volume of gas sample.
Example: Find out volume of H 2 at NTP if 48g of sample is there.
Solution: Moles of H 2
Moles (n)=
n=
from (i) n =
Weight of sample
Molecular weight
Volumeof H 2 at NTP
22 .4
...(i)
...(ii)
48
= 24 from 48 gm
2
49
So, n = 24 =
V= 24 22 .4
V
22 .4
or
V = 537 .6 Litre
Example: If 448 litres of CO 2 gas sample is there at NTP

then, find out mass of CO 2 sample.
Solution: Moles of the CO 2 at NTP

n=
448
= 20
22 .4
mass of the CO 2 gas

weight of CO 2
n=
Molecular weight
or
n = 20
or
n=
x
44
x = 880 gm
(2) Problems related with number of atoms or molecules

Example: If 300 gm CaCO 3 is there then find out number of
atoms in CaCO 3
Solution: To find number of atoms in CaCO 3 first of all.

Find out No. of atoms in one CaCO 3 then number
of CaCO 3
Toal atom = No. of CaCO 3 No. of atoms in one

CaCO 3
Moles of CaCO 3 (n) =
n=
Number of CaCO 3 =?
50
Weight of CaCO 3
Molecular weight of CaCO 3
300
100
or
n=3
n=
3=
Number of CaCO 3
N0(6.023 10 23 )
Number of CaCO 3
N0
Number of CaCO 3 = 3N0

Number of atoms in one CaCO 3 = 5
CaCO 3 = Ca
+ C + 3.0
1
3=5
So, total number of atoms in CaCO 3

= No. of CaCO 3 No. of atoms in one CaCO 3
= 3N0 5 = 15 N0
= 15 6.023 10 23
or
9.0345 10 24
(3) Problems related with charge on the ions and number of

electrons and protons
Example: If 540 gm of Al +++ is there then find out number
of electrons and charge on Al +++ sample.
Solution: One Al +++ is having charge = 3e (+ve charge) in

Al number of electrons = 13
So, in Al +++ number of electrons = 10
First of all find out number of Al +++
Moles(n)=
Weight 540
=
27
27
Moles(n) = 20
51
Moles(n) =
No. of Al +++
N0
No. of Al +++ = 20N0

Total charge = No. of Al +++ charge of 1 Al +++
= 20N0 3 electron
= 60N0 e
= 60 6.023 10 23 1.6 10 19
= 578.2 10 4 coulomb
= 5 . 78 106 coulomb
No. of electron in one Al +++ = 10
So, total electron = No. of Al +++ electron in 1 Al +++
20N0 10 = 200N0 .
Example: If a gas sample of CO

3 at NTP is having 120 gm
weight, then find out following:
(a) Volume of gas sample at NTP.
(b) Number of atoms in the sample.
(c) Number of electrons.
(d) Number of protons.
(e) Number of charge.
Solution: First of all find out moles of the substance and

sample.
n=
52
Weight of sample
Molar mass
n=
120
60
n = 20
(a) Volume at NTP,

We know that,
moles(n) =
2=
V
22 .4 L
V
22 :4
V = 2 22 .4 = 44.8 Litre
(b) Moles(n) =
Number of CO 3
N0
Number of CO 3 = 2N0 (N0 = 6.023 10 23 )

In this number of atoms
= Total number of CO 3 is having atoms = 4
= 2N0 4 = 8N0
because one CO 3 is having atoms = 4
(c) In one CO 3
Total number of electrons
In
electrons
In
electrons
So. total electrons in,

CO 3 = 6 + 8 3 + 2 (free negative charge)
53
Total electrons = 32 in one CO 3

Number of CO 3 = 2N0
So, total number of electrons = 2N0 32
= 64 N0
(d) Number of protons,
In one CO 3
Total number of protons
In C =
6
In O =
8
So. total electrons in,
protons
protons
CO 3 = 6 + 8 3
= 6 + 24
= 30
Total number of protons = total number of CO 3
protons in one CO 3
= 2N0 30 = 60N0
(e) Charge on one CO 3
q = 2 e where e = 1.6 10 19 coulomb
total charge = total number of CO 3
Q = 2 N 2 e
= 4 eN0 total charge.
54
1.10 Limiting Reagent

Many a time, the reactions are carried out when the reactants
are not present in the amounts as required by a balanced
chemical reaction. In such situations one reactant is in excess
over the other. The reactant which is present in the lesser
amount gets consumed after sometime and after that no
further reaction Hence the reactant, which gets consumed,
limits the amount of product formed and is therefore, called the
limiting reagent.
Example: If a reaction is as,

A
Ratio is
2B
C
1
So, if we use 40 moles of A then 80 moles of B

should be there to produce 40 moles of C
Example: For, 2A + B
2C, in the reaction if 40 moles of
A reacts with 60 moles of B then find out limiting
reactant.
Solution: Given moles for the reaction

2A +
B
2C
40
60
initial.
If we use 1 mole of B then 2 moles of A should be.

Means if we use 60 moles of b then A should be 120.
Which is 40, therefore, A is less in amount hence,
A is limiting Reagent So, reaction is according to it's amount.
In this reaction proper ratio for the production is,
55
2A +
B
2C
So, 2X
2X
40
20
40
B is used only 20 so remaining B is = 60 - 20 = 40.
Finding formula of hydrocarbon on the basis of percentage.

Hydrocarbons are of four types mainly.
1.
Alkane
2.
Alkene
3.
Alkyne
4.
Benzene ring
Alkane:
General formula C n H 2n + 2
Where, n = 1, 2, 3,........
if n = 1 we get, CH 4 mol. wt. = 16

So, general mol. wt. of hydrocarbon,
C n H 2n + 2 atomic weight of C = 12, Atomic weight of H = 1.
= 12 n + 1( 2 n + 2)
= 12 n + 2 n + 2
= 14n + 2
Alkene:
General formula C n H 2n
where, n = 1, 2, 3,........
So, general mol. wt. of hydrocarbon
C n H 2n
= 12 n + 1( 2 n)
= 14n
56
Alkyne:
General formula C n H 2n 2
where, n = 1, 2, 3,.......
So, general mol. wt. of hydrocarbon
C n H 2n 2
= 12 n + 1( 2 n 2)
= 12 n + 2 n 2
= 14n 2
Example: If in a compound percentage of carbon is 80% and

hydrogen is 20% then find out formula of
hydrocarbon. If molecular weight is 30.
Solution: C = 80%
H = 20%
% of mass
moles
mole ratio
80
80/12
20
20/1
So, empirical formula is CH 3

Mol. wt. = 30
Empirical wt. = 15
f =
mol. wt .
Emperical wt .
f =
30
=2
15
Molecular formula = Empirical formula f

= CH 3 2 = C 2 H 6
57
Alternative Method
For a hydrocarbon molecular weight of the hydrocarbon may be
14n + 2
14n
14n 2
So, mol. wt. should be according to these three.
14n + 2 = 30
or
14n = 28
n=2
14n = 30
14n 2 = 30
or
14n = 32
means, only first equation is satisfy the mol. wt. So, it is

alkane having n = 2 i.e., C n H 2n + 2 or C 2 H 6 .
Mole concept used in the reaction By using POAC
1.11 Principle of Atoms Conservation

In this POAC, we assume that moles of the atoms in reactant as
well as in product side are conserved.
Example: CaCO 3
CaO + CO 2
For the given reaction moles of Ca in CaCO 3 are same as that of
Ca in CaO.
First of all find out relation between moles of Ca and moles of CaCO 3 .
In
58
CaCO 3
Ca
C+
3O
3X
Moles of Ca = moles of CaCO 3

Moles of C = moles of CaCO 3
Moles of O = 3 moles of CaCO 3
In
CaO
Ca
Moles of CaO = moles of Ca

Moles of caO = moles of O
In
CO 2
2O
2X
Moles of C = moles of CO 2
Moles of O = 2 moles of CO 2
For CaCO 3
CaO +
CO 2
If we conserve Ca then moles of Ca in CaCO 3

= moles of Ca in CaO
nCa = nCaCO 3 nCa = nCaO
So,
nCaCO 3 = nCaO
Conserving C
Moles of C in CaCO 3 = Moles of C in CO 2
59
nC = nCaCO 3 |
Means,
nC = nCO 2
nCaCO 3 = nCO 2
Conserving O
Moles of O in CaCO 3 = Moles of O in CO 2
+ moles of O in CaO
n 0 = 3 nCaCO 3
n 0 = 2 nCO 2
n 0 = nCaO
So, 3 nCaCO 3 = 2 nCO 2 + 1 nCaO
Example: If 400 gm CaCO 3 is heated then find out wt. of

CaO and CO 2 formed.
Solution: CaCO 3
CaO + CO 2
For Ca
nCa in CaCO 3 = nCa in CaO

1 nCaCO 3 = 1 nCaO
X
400
=
100 56
X = 224 g
For C
nC in CaCO 3 = nC in CO 2
1 nCaCO 3 = 1 nCO 2
y
400
=
100 44
X = 176 g
60
Combustion Reaction
In the combustion reaction POAC is applied.
Example. In the combustion of methane, why is methane

regarded as the limiting reagent ?
Sol. Methane (CH 4 ) is regarded as the limiting reactant
because air or oxygen is always present in excess. The

amounts of CO 2 and H 2 O formed in the reaction depend
upon the amount of methane only. Therefore, it is
regarded as the limiting reagent.
Example: CH 4 is having combustion then find out the

relation between moles of all.
CH 4
So,
For,
O2
CO 2
C
+ H2O
If POAC is there.
1 nCH 4 = 1 nCO 2
For,
If POAC is there.
4 nCH 4 = 2 nH 2 O
For,
If POAC is there.
2 nO 2 = 2 nCO 2 + 1 nH 2 O
Example: If 20 moles of a hydro carbon on combustion gives

40 mols of CO 2 and 40 moles of H 2 O, then find
out formula of hydro carbon.
Solution: Let the hydro carbon is C x H y.

If combustion reaction is as,
C x Hy +
O2
CO 2 + H 2 O
61
So,
For,
If POAC is there
x nC xH y = 1 nCO 2
For,
y nC x H y = 2 nH 2 O
x and y are number of C and H used in the hydrocarbon.
For calculation
nC xH y = 20
nCO 2 = 40
nH 2 O = 30
X 20 = 1 40
or
X=2
y 20 = 2 40
or
y= 4
So, formula of hydrocarbon is C 2 H 4
Note: If in place of moles we are using volume then. This

volume is equivalent to moles.
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62
Questions
Q.1
In three moles of ethane (C 2 H 6 ), calculate the following :

(i)
No. of moles of carbon atoms
(ii)
No. of moles of hydrogen atoms
(iii)
No. of molecules of ethane
Ans. (i)
1 mole of C 2 H 6 has moles of carbon atoms = 2 moles

3 moles of C 2 H 6 have moles of carbon atoms = 2 3 = 6 moles
(ii)
1 mole of C 2 H 6 has moles of hydrogen atoms = 6 moles

3 moles of C 2 H 6 have moles of hydrogen atoms = 6 3 = 18 moles
(iii)
1 mole of C 2 H 6 has molecules = 6.022 10 23
3 moles of C 2 H 6 have molecules = 6.022 10 23 3 =1.8110 4 molecules

Q.2
Identify the limiting reactant if any in the following reaction mixtures ?

A + B AB 2
(i)
300 atoms of A + 200 molecules of B 2
(ii)
100 atoms of A + 100 molecules of B 2
(iii)
5 moles of A + 2.5 moles of B 2
(iv)
2.5 moles of A + 5 moles of B 2
(v)
2 moles of A + 3 moles of B 2
Ans.
1 atom, 1mole
AB 2
1 molecule, 1 mol
1 molecule, 1 mol
In the light of the above information, let us find the limiting reactant if any in
all the cases.
(i)
1 atom of A will react with molecules of B 2 = 1

300 atoms of A will react with molecule of B 2 = 300
But the molecules of B 2 actually available = 200
(ii)
B 2 is the limiting reactant.
1 atom of A will react with molecules of B 2 = 1

100 atoms of A will react with molecule of B 2 = 100
The molecules of B 2 actually availiable = 100
(iii)
There is no limiting reactant in this case.
1 mole of A will react with moles of B 2 = 1

5 moles of A will react with moles of B 2 = 5
63
But moles of B 2 actually availiable = 2.5
(iv)
B 2 is the limiting reactant.

2.5 moles of A will react with moles of B 2 = 2.5
But moles of B 2 actually availiable = 2.5
This shows that 5 moles of A can react whereas only 2.5 moles of A are
actually available
(v)
A is the limiting reactant.

2 moles of A will react with moles of B = 2
But the moles of B 2 actually availiable = 3
Q.3
A is the limiting reactant.
Calculate the number of atoms present in:

(i) 52 moles of He
Ans. (i)
(ii) 52 amu of He
(iii) 52 g of He
1mole of He contain atoms = 6.022 10 23

52 moles of He contain atoms = 6.022 10 23 52 = 3.13 10 25 atoms
(ii)
Atomic mass of He = 4 amu ; 4 amu is the mass of He atoms = 1

52 amu is the mass of He atoms = 1/4 5 = 13 atoms
(iii)
Gram atomic mass of He = 4 g ; 4 g of He contain atoms = 6.022 10 23
52 g is He contain atoms =6.022 10 23 /4 = 7.83 10 24 atoms

Q.4
In the combustion of methane, why is methane regarded as the limiting

reactant ?
Ans. Methane (CH 4 ) is regarded as the limiting reactant because air or oxygen is
always present in excess. The amounts of CO 2 and H 2 O formed in the reaction
depend upon the amount of methane only. Therefore, it is regarded as the
limiting reactant.
Q.5
Why is limiting reactant so named ?
Ans. Limiting reactant i.e., the reactant present in fixed amount is so named because
it limits the participation of other reactants even if present in excess in a
particular reaction.
Q.6
Is the number of molecules in one mole of a gas at 100C and 500 mm

pressure equal to or less than the Avogardos number ?
Ans. Avogardos number of molecules (particles) are present in one mole of a gas i.e.,
molecular mass of a gas expressed in grams. Any change in temperature and
pressure has no influence on the number of particles.
64
Lecture-5
1.12 Equivalent weight and Equivalents
Equivalent Weight (E): It is the amount of the given element or
metal which reacts with 1 gm of hydrogen.
Example: Suppose we have to find equivalent weight of
oxygen. Then combination of hydrogen and

oxygen will give H 2 O.
Solution: From this formula,

2 gm of hydrogen reacts with 16 gm oxygen.
16
1 gm of hydrogen will reacts with
= 8 gm oxygen.
2
Means Equivalents weight of oxygen is = 8.
Example: If we have to find equivalent weight of Al then,

Solution: Al reacts with hydrogen to give AlH 3 .
From this, 3 gm H reacts with = 27 gm Al
27
1 gm H reacts with =
= 9 gm Al
3
Means, Equivalent weight of Al = 9
Equivalent Weight (New Concept)

For metals equivalent weight =
Example:
atomic weight
max imum ch arg e
Al
E=
27
= 9
3
Ca
E=
40
= 20
2
65
For elements equivalents weight =
Example:
atomic weight
max imum ch arg e
O2
E=
16
=8
2
or
E=
32
=8
4
molecular weight
For Acid
E=
Example:
H 2 SO 4
E=
M
2
HCl
E=
M
1
Number of H + replaced
E=
M
3
H 3 PO 4
E=
M
2
H 3 PO 3
E=
M
1
H 3 PO 2
In case of a reaction,
NaOH + H 2 SO 4
NaHSO 4 + H 2 O
Find out Equivalent weight of H 2 SO 4
E=
66
Molecular weight
No. of H + replaced
Here H 2 SO 4 is having 2H + but number of H + replaced is

one.
So,
E=
Molecular weight
1
For, NaOH + H 3 PO 4
Na2 HPO 4 + H 2 O
Find out Equivalent weight of H 3 PO 4 .
So,
E=
Molecular weight
Number of H + replaced
In this number of H + replaced are 2H +

E=
Molecular weight
2
Equivalent Weight of the Compound or Salt (E)

For Compound Equivalent weight
E=
Molecular weight of compound

Charge on cation NUmber of cation
Example: Find out equivalent weight of

(a)
CaCO 3
(c)
Al 2( SO 4 )3
(b) Na2 SO 4
Solution: (a) For CaCO 3

E=
Q
Molecular weight
F
F = X y
67
X, Charge on cation (Ca ++ ) = 2

y, Number of cations (Ca++ ) = 1
So,
E=
100
100
=
= 50
12
2
(b) For Na2 SO 4

E=
Q
Molecular weight
F
F = x y
x, Charge on cation (Na+ ) = 1

y, Number of cations (Na+ ) = 2
So,
E=
M
12
or
E=
M
2
(c) For Al 2 (SO 4 ) 3

E=
Molecular weight
F
F = x y
x, Charge on cation (Al +++ ) = 3

y, Number of cations (Al +++ ) = 2
So,
E=
M
23
or
E=
M
6
Note: If compound is ionic then equivalent weight of

compound (AB)= Ecation + Eanion
68
Example: If Al 2 O 3 is there, find out equivalent wt. of Al 2 O 3 .

Solution:
E Al 2 O 3 = E Al + E0
= 9+8
= 17
or
E Al 2 O 3 =
Molecular weight
Charge on cation Number of cations
Molecular weight of Al 2 O 3 = 27 2 + 16 3
= 54 + 48 = 102
X = Charge on cation i.e., + 3 (Al +++ )
y = Number of cations i.e., 2 (2Al)
So,
F = x y
E Al 2 O 3 =
or
F = 32 =6
102
= 17
6
Finding equivalent of the given :

Equivalence of the given =
Weight of the given

E
Example: Find out equivalence of 200g CaCO 3

Solution: Equivalence. =
E=
weight of the given
Molecular weight
F
E
Where, F = x y
x = Charge on cation = +2
y = Number of cations = 1
69
E=
Euivalence =
100
= 50
2
wt . 200
=
=4
50
E
If a reaction is there
A + 2B
3C
then, equivalence of A = Eq. of B = Eq. of C
Eq . ofA =
Eq. of B =
wt .
EB
Eq . of C =
wt .
EC
wt .
EA
[Eq.= Equivalence]
Example: If 400 gm Ca reacts with oxygen to give CaO then

find out weight of O 2 used.
Solution: Reaction is,

Ca + O 2
CaO
Let weight of O 2 used is x.
In this Equivalence of Ca = Equivalence of O 2
70
Equivalence of Ca =
wt .
ECa
Equivalence of Ca =
400
20
ECa = 40/2 = 20
Equivalence of O 2 =
wt .
EO 2
Equivalence of O 2 =
x
8
From the concept,

Equivalence of Ca = Equivalence of O 2
400 x
=
20
8
or
x
= 20
8
or
x = 160 gm
wt. of O 2 used is 160 gm.
Relation between Equivalence and Moles

If x gram of a given is there. Then, moles
n=
wt . of substance
atomic wt ./ molecular wt .
Equivalence (eq.)=
If,
Wt . of substance
Equivalent(E)
....(i)
....(ii)
(II) Eq . atomic wt . / molecular wt .

=
E
(I) n
Eq . Atomic wt . molecular wt .
=
=
n
E
E
For, Acid,
71
E=
Molecular wt .
No. of H * replaced
For, Base,
E=
Molecular wt .
No. of OH replaced
For, Metal / Element,

E=
atomic wt .
Maximum ch arg e
In case of compound,
Example: Find out equivalent wt. of Al 2 (SO 4 ) 3

Solution:
E=
E=
For,
Molecular wt .
Ch arg e on cation NO. of cations
Mol. wt . Mol. wt .
=
32
6
Al 2 (SO 4 ) 3
E=
Atomic wt ./ molecular wt .
F
F = No. of H + for acid

= No. of OH for base
= Ch arg e on metal
So,
72
F=
Atomic wt ./ molecular wt .
E
Eq . atomic wt . Molecular wt .
=
=
n
E
E
So,
Eq .
= F or
n
F=
Eq .
n
Example: 20 moles of Ca is having...........Equivalence.

Eq .
= F or
n
Solution:
Eq.
=2
20
Where, F = No. of charge on Ca i.e., = 2

Eq.= 40
Example: Find out No. of Eq. of 30 moles of H 3 PO 4 .

Solution: Eq . = F
or
Eq.
=3
30
Where, F = 3
Eq.= 90
Note: If for a reaction, moles are given then find out.

equivalence first. Then calculate,
Example: 20 moles of Ca reacts with O 2 then find weight of

O 2 used.
Solution: Ca + O 2
CaO. Find out equivalence first.
Eq .
=F
n
for Ca F= 2
Eq .
=2
n
Eq. = 2 20 = 40
73
Eq. of Ca = Eq. of O 2
40 = Eq . of O 2
40 =
wt . x
=
E
8
x = 320 gm
Example: If 20 moles of Al reacts with 20 moles of O 2 then

find out.
(a) Moles Al 2 O 3 formed

(b) Weight and name of remainder.
Solution: Al + O 2
Al 2 O 3
Eq .
=F
n
for Al
Eq.
=3
20
Eq. = 3 20 = 60
F=3
Eq.= 60
Eq .
=F
n
for O 2 F = 4
Eq .
=4
n
Eq. = 4 20 = 80
Eq.= 80
74
Means,
Al
O 2 Al 2 O 3
Eq. used
60
80
Final
20
60
(a) Eq. of Al 2 O 3 = 60
Eq .
=f
n
E=
F=6
f= ?
Mol. Wt .
No. of cations ch arg eon cations
For Al 2 O 3
E=
Mol. wt . M
=
23
6
Eq .
= 6,
n
So,
60
=6
n
n = 10
Remainder is O 2 and remaining Equivalence is 20.

For O 2
Eq . = 20 =
20 =
wt .
E
wt.
8
Wt. = 160 gm.
1.13 Reactions in Solutions

A majority of reactions in the laboratories are carried out in
solutions. The concentration of a solution or the amount of
substance present in its given volume can be expressed in any
of the following ways.
1. Mass per cent or weight per cent (w/w %)
2. Mole fraction
3. Molarity
75
4. Molality
Let us now study each one of them in detail
(i) Mass per cent : It is obtained by using the following
relation:
Mass per cent =
mass of solute
massof solution
100
Problem: A solution is prepared by adding 2g of a substance A

to 18g of water, calculate the mass per cent of the solute.
Solution: Mass per cent of A =
mass of A
mass of solution
2g
100
2 gof A + 18gof water
2g
100
20g
100
= 10%
(ii) Mole Fraction: It is the ratio of number of moles of a
particular component to the total number of mole of the
solution. If a substance A dissolves in substance B and their
number of moles are n A andn B respectively then the mole
fraction of A and B are given as
Mole fraction of A =
=
76
No.of moles of A
No. of moles of solution
nA
n A + nB
Mole fraction of B =
=
No.of moles of B
No. of moles of solution
nB
n A + nB
(iii) Molarity: It is the most widely used unit and is denoted

by M. It is defined as the number of oles of the solute in I litre
of the solution. Thus,
Molarity (M) =
No. of moles of solute

volume of solution in litres
Suppose we have 1 M solution of a substance say NaOH and we

want to prepare a 0.2 M solution from it.
1 M NaOH means 1 mol of NaOH present in 1 litre of the
solution for 0.2 M solution we require 0.2 moles of NaOH in 1
litre solution.
Hence, we have to take 0.2 moles of NaOH and make the
solution to 1 litre.
Now how much volume of concentrated (1M) NaOH solution be
taken which contains 0.2 moles of NaOH can be calculated as
follows:
If 1 mole is present in 1 L or 1000 mL
then 0.2 mol is present in
1000 mL
1 mol
0.2 mol
= 200 mL
Thus, 200 mL of 1 M NaOH are taken and enough water is
added to dilute it to make it 1 litre.
77
In fact for such calculations, a general formula,

M1 V1 = M2 V2 where M and V are molarity and volume
respectively can be used in this case, M1 is equal to 0.2;
V1 = 1000mL and M2 = 1.0 ; V2 is to be calculated substituting
the value in the formula:
0.2 M 1000mL = 1.0 M V2
V2 =
0.2 M 1000mL
= 200 mL
1.0 M
Problem: Calculate the molarity of NaOH in the solution

prepared by dissolving its 4g in enough water to form 250 mL
of the solution.
Solution: Since molarity (M)

=

volume of solution in litres
Mass of NaOH / Molar mass of NaOH

0.250L
4g / 40g 0.1 mol

=
0.250L
0.250L
= 0.4 mol L1
= 0.4 M
Note: that molarity of a solution depends upon temperature

because volume of a solution is temperature dependent.
78
(iv) Molality: It is defined as the number of moles of solute

present in 1 kg of solvent. It is denoted by m.
Thus, molality (m)=

Mass of solvent in kg
Note: Molality is temperature independent

Problem: The density of 3 M solution of NaCl is 1.25 g mL 1 .
Calculate molality of the solution.
Solution: M=3 mol L 1

Mass of NaCl
in 1 L solution
= 358.5 =175.5g mass of
1L solution
= 1000 1.25 =1250g
(since density
= 1.25 g mL 1 ) mass of
water in solution
= 1250175.5
=1074.5g
Molality =

Mass of solvent of kg
3 mol
1.074.5 kg
= 2 . 79 m
79
Relation between Moles fraction and Molality

Example: If moles fraction of urea in water is 0.2 find out
molality of urea solution.
Solution: We know that molality

m=
n(molesof solute)
wt . of solvent (kg)
If moles of solute are n and moles of solvent are N then, mole

fraction of urea
X=
n
n +N
n= moles of urea
N = moles of water
Now, given is, x = 0.2
0.2 =
n
n +N
n
= 5n
0.2
SO,
n +N =
or
n +N = 5n
or
N = 4n
For molality,
m=
n
wt . of solvent(kg)
Let the wt. of solvent or water is y Then,
80
.....(i)
moles
N=
y
mol. wt .
mol. wt. = 18 for H 2 O

N=
or
y
18
y = 18 N gm
Therefore, molality,
m=
n
m = 80
1000
N = 4n
We know that
m=
n
18
n
wt . of solvent(kg)
4n
1000
1000
55 .55
=
= 14
18 4
4
Example: If molality of urea in water is 2m. Find out mole

fraction.
Solution:
m=
n(molesof solute)
wt . of solvent(kg)
Mole fraction x =
n
n +N
Let the weight of solvent is 1 kg. So,

m=
n
1
81
or
....(i)
n=m=2
Weight of solvent is 1kg, therefore,

Moles
N=
wt .
1000
=
mol. wt .
18
2
2
x = 1000
=
+ 2 57 .5
18
Hence,
Example: 600 gm of urea is dissolved in 100 litre of solution.

M=
n
V
Solution: n = 600 = 10 V = 100L

60
Moles of urea,
Mol. wt. of urea = 60
M = 10 / 100
So,
M = 0.1
Example: 20% urea solution is there having density 2g/ml.

Find out molality, molarity of solution.
Solution: 20% urea solution means, 20 g of urea in 100g of

solution.
Hence, 80g of solvent

Therefore, Molality m =
n=
82
n(molesof solute)
Wt . of solvent (kg)
20 1
=
60 3
wt. of solvent = 80g or
80
kg
1000
20
1
3 = 100 = 4.16
m = 60
=
80
8
24
1000 1000
Molarity of solution is
M=
n
density of solution
V
20
M = 60
50
1000
d=
mass
V
M=
1 20
3 1
V=
M=
20
3
V=
massof solution
d
100
= 50 ml
2
Molar solution = 1m
decimolar solution = ( 1 / 10) m
centi molar solution = ( 1 / 100)n
83
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84
Questions
Q.1
Calculate the mass percentage of different elements present in sodium

sulphate (Na 2 SO 4 ).
Ans. Molecular mass of Na 2So 4 = 2 Atomic mass of Na

+ Atomic mass of S + 4 Atomic
mass of O
= 223 + 32 + 416 = 46 + 32+ 64 = 142 u.

The percentage of different elements present can be calculated as:
Percentage of sodium (Na)=
Mass of Na
100
Molecular mass of Na 2So 4
46
100
142
= 32.39%
Percentage of sulphur(S) =
Mass of S
100
Molecular mass of Na 2SO 4
32
100
142
= 25.54%
Percentage of oxygen(O) =
Mass of O
100
Molecular mass of Na 2SO 4
64
100
142
= 45.07%
Q.2
Calculate the mass of sodium acetate (CH 3 COONa) required to make

500 mL of 0.375 molar aqueous solution. Molar mass of sodium acetate
is 82.0 g mol 1.
Ans. Molar mass of CH 3 COONa = 82 g mol 1 (given)

Molarity of solution = 0.375 M = 0.375 mol L 1
Volume of solution = 500 mL = 500/1000 = 0.5 L
85
Molarity of solution(M) =
(0.375 molL1) =
Mass of CH 3COONa / Molar mass

Volume of Solution in litres
W
(82gmol 1) (0.5 L)
W =(0.375molL1) (82 g mol 1) (0.5 L) = 15.375 g.

Q.3
Calculate the concentration of nitric acid in moles per litre in a sample

which has a density 1.41 g mL 1 and the mass percent of nitric acid in it
being 69%.
Ans. Mass of solution = 100 g

Density of solution = 1.41 g mL 1
Volume of solution =
Mass of solution
100 g
=
= 70.92 mL
Density of solution 1.41gML1
Concentration of HNO 3 in moles per litre means molarity

69 g
Mass of HNO 3
63 g mol 1
Molar Mass of HNO 3
Molarity(M) =
=
70.92
Volume of solution in litre
L
1000
= 15.44 mol L1 =15.44 M
Q.4
What is the concentration of sugar (C12 H 22 O11) in mol L 1 if 20 g of it

are dissolved in enough water to make final volume upto 2L ?
Ans. The concentration in mol L 1 means molarity (M).

From the available data, it can be calculate as :
Mass of sugar = 20 g
Molar mass of sugar (C12 H 22O11) = 1212 + 221 + 1611 = 342 g mol 1
Volume of solution in litre = 2 L
Molarity of solution =
=
86
Mass of sugar / Molar mass

Volume of solution inlitres
20g
1
(342mol ) (2L)
= 0.029 mol L1 = 0.029M.
Q.5
If the density of methanol is 0.793 kg L 1, what is its volume needed for

making 2.5 L of its 0.25 M solution ?
Ans. Step-1. Calculation of mass of methanol (CH 3 OH)

Molar mass of methanol (CH 3 OH) = 12 + 41 + 16 = 32 g mol 1
Volume of solution = 2.5 L
Molarity of solution =
Mass of methanol / Molar mass

Volume of solution in litre
0.25mol L1 =
W
32 g mol 1 2.5L
W = 0.25 mol L1 32 g mol 1 2.5 L = 20 g

Step-2. Calculation of volume of methanol
Mass of methanol = 20 g = 0.002 kg
Density of methanol = 0.793 kg L 1
Volume of methanol =
Q.6
0.002kg
Mass
=
= 0.0025 L
Density 0.793kgL1
A sample of drinking water was found to be severely contaminated with

chloroform CHCl 3 , supposed to be carcinogen.
The level of contamination was 15 ppm (by mass)
(i)
Express this in percent by mass
(ii)
Determine the molality of chloroform in the water sample.
Ans. (i)
Calculate of percent by mass 15 ppm level of contamination means that

15 parts or 15 g of chloroform (CHCl 3 ) are present in 10 6 parts or 10 6
g of the sample i.e., water.
(ii)
Mass percent =
15 g
6
10 g
100 = 15
. 10 3
Calculate of molarity of the solution

Mass of chloroform = 1.5 103 g
Molar mass of chloroform (CHCl 3 ) = 12 + 1 + (335.5) = 119.5 g mol 1
87
Mass of sample i.e., water = 100 g

. 10 3 g
15
Mass of chloroform
Molar mass of chloroform 119.5 g mol 1
Molarity of solution (m) =
=
100
Mass of solvent in kg
kg
1000
= 125
. 10 4 mol kg 1 = 125
. 10 4 m
Q.7
How are 0.50 mol Na 2 CO 3 and 0.50 M Na 2 CO 3 different ?
Ans. 0.50 mol Na 2 CO 3 represent concentration in moles.

0.50 mol Na 2 CO 3 represent concentration in moles/litre (molarity).
Q.8
If 10 volumes of dihydrogen react with five volumes of dioxygen gas,

how many volumes of water will be produced ?
Ans. 2H 2 (g)
O 2 (g) 2H 2 O(g)
2 vol
1 vol
10 vol 5 vol
10 vol
2 vol
10 volumes of water vapours will be produced

Q.9
Calculate the molarity of a solution of ethanol in water in which mole

fraction of ethanol is 0.04.
Ans. Mole fraction of etahnol (X B ) may be given as :

XB =
nB
n A +nB
Here, n B = no. of moles of ethanol ; n A = no. of moles of water

According to available data,
X B = 0.04,n A =
0.04 =
1000g
(18gmol 1)
= 55.55 mol
nB
55.55+nB
2.222+(0.04)nB = nB
88
or
nB +0.04nB = 2.222 or 0.96nB = 2.222
or
nB =
2.222
= 2.31
0.96
2.31 moles of ethanol are dissolved in 1000 g (or 1000 mL) of water or 1000
mL of the solution. In this case, the volume of solution is considered to be the
same as that of the solvent i.e., water. In other words, the solution is regarded
as dilute solution,
Molarity of solution = 2.31 M.
Q.10 Calcium carbonate reacts with aqueous HCl to give CaCl 2 and CO 2
according to the reaction:
CaCO 3 (s) + 2HCl (aq) CaCl 2 (aq) + CO 2 (g) + H 2 O (l)
What mass of CaCO3 is required to react completely with 25 mL of 0.75
M HCl ?
Ans. Step-1. Calculation of the mass of HCl present
Molarity of HCl solution = 0.75 M = 0.75 mol L 1
Volume of HCl solution = 25 mL = 25/1000 = 0.025 L
Molarity of solution (M)=
Mass of HCl / Molar mass

Volume of solution in litres
(0.75mol L1) =
Mass of HCl
(36.5 g mol 1) (0.025 L)
Mass of HCl = (0.75 g mol L 1)(36.5 g mol 1)(0.025 L) = 0.684 g

Step-2. Calculation of the mass of CaCO 3 reacted
CaCO 3 (s) + 2HCl (aq) CaCl 2 (aq) + CO 2 (g) + H 2 O (l)
(1 mol)
(2 mol)
40+12+48 236.5
= 100 g
= 73 g
73 g of HCl require CaCO 3 for reaction = 100 g

0.684 g of HCl require CaCO 3 for reaction =
100 g
0.684 g = 0.94 g
73 g
Q.11 Out of 1 M H 2 SO 4 and 1N H 2 SO 4 , which is more concentrated and

why ?
Ans. 1 M H 2 SO 4 solution is more concentrated than 1 N acid solution. Actually
1M solution of acid isd prepared by dissolving 98 g of the acid (1 gram mole)
per litre of the solution while 1 N solution of acid is prepared by dissolving 49 g
89
of the acid (1 gram equivalent) in the same volume of the solution. Since 1 M
solution has a greater amount of solute dissolved in it, this solution is more
concentrated than 1 N solution of the acid.
Q.12 What is the effect of temperature on molarity of a solution ?
Ans. Molarity of a solution normally decreases with rise in temperature.
Q.13 What is the significance of N/10 NaOH solution ?
Ans. It means that 0.1 gram equivalent (4 g) of NaOH is dissolved per litre of the
solution.
Q.14 What are SI units of molarity ?
Ans. SI units of molarity : mol dm 3 .
Q.15 Are the molar volumes of CO 2 and SO 2 different ?
Ans. No, these are the same. In fact, molar volume is the volume occupied by 22.4
dm 3 of a gas at STP.
90
Summary
1. Precision refers to the closeness of set of values obtained by identical
measurement while accuracy refers to the closeness of a single measurement to its
true value.
2. Significant figures
3 All non-zero digits are significant
3 The zeros to the right of the decimal point or zeros between two non-zero
digits are significant.
3 Zeros to the left of the first non-zero digit in a number or zeros at the
beginning of a number are not significant.
3 In addition or subtraction, the result should be mentioned in the same number
of decimal place as that of the term with the least decimal places.
3 In multiplication and division, the result should be mentioned in same number
of significant figures as the least precise term used in calculation.
3. Units for measurement
3 CGS systemLength (centimeter), mass (gram), time (second)
3 MKS systemLength (meter), mass (kilogram), time (second)
3 SI systemThe SI has 7 basic units from which all other units are derived
called derived units.
Length
meter (m)
Mass
kilogram (kg)
Time
second (s)
Temperature
kelvin (K)
Electric current
ampere (A)
Luminous intensity
candela (Cd)
Amount of substance
mole (mol)
3 Area (m 2 ), volume (m 3 ), density (kg mm 3 ), velocity (ms 1), acceleration (ms

2
), molar mass (kg mol 1), molar volume (m 3 mol 1), molar concentration
(mol m 3 ) are se of the examples of derived units.
4. Conversion factors
1L
= 1000 mL
1J
= 1Nm =1kgm 2s -2
1 Cal
= 4.184 J
1 eV
=1.602 10 -19 J
91
1 eV/atom
= 96.5 kJ mol 1
1 amu
= 931.5016 MeV
1 kilowatt hour
= 3600 kJ
1 horse power
= 746 watt
1J
=10 7 erg
1 esu
= 3.3356 10 -10 C
1 dyne
=10 -5 N
1 atm
=101325 Pa
1 bar
=1 10 5 Nm -2
1 L-atm
=101.3 J
1 year
= 3.1536 10 7 s
1 debye (D)
=1 10 -18 esu cm
1 mole of a gas
= 22.4 L at STP
1 mole of a substance
= N0 molecules
1 g-atom
= N0 atoms
1 pm
=10 -12 m
=10 -10 m
1 nm
=10 -9 m
5. Atomic mass and its determination average mass of an atom

average mass of an atom
3 Atomic mass =
1
mass of an atom of C12
12
3 Average atomic mass(If an element exists in two isotopic forms having
atomic masses a and b in the ratio m : n)
( m a) + ( n b)
=
m+ n
3 Gram Atomic Mass (GAM)Atomic mass of an element when expressed in
grams.
mass of an element (g)
3 Number of gram atoms =
GAM
GAM
3 Mass of one atom of an element (g)
6.02 10 -23
3 Methods of determination of atomic mass
(i) Dulong and petits method
92
Atomic mass =
6.4
specific heat (cal)
This law is applicable to solid elements only except Be, B, C and Si.
(ii) Vapour density method
Atomic mass = equivalent mass valency
Valency of metal whose chloride is volatile
2 vapour density of chloride
=
equivalent mass of meatl+35.5
(iii) Specific heat methodIt is suitable only for gases.
Atomic mass of a gaseous element
molecular mass
=
atomicity
(C p / C
= =1.66 for monoatomic, 1.40 for diatomic and 1.33 for triatomic gases)
6. Molecular mass and its determination

mass of one molecular of the substance
Molecular mass =
1
mass of one atom of C12
12
3 Actual mass of 1 molecule
= molecular mass 166
. 10 24 g
3 Gram molecular mass (GMM)Molecular mass of an element or compound
when expressed in gram.
mass of substance (g)
3 Number of gram molecules =
GMM
3 Gram molar volume volume of 1 mole of any gas at STP 22.4 L
molecular mass in gram
3 Density of a gas at NTP
22400 mL
3 Number of atoms in a substance = number of GMM 6.02 10 23
atomicity
3 Methods of determination of molecular mass
(i) Diffusion method
r1
=
r2
M2
M1
(ii) Vapour density method

Molecular mass = 2 vapour density
93
(iii) Victor Meyer methodIt is based on Daltons law of partial pressure and
Avogadros hypothesis.
3 22400 ml of vapours of a substance molecular mass of that substance
7. Equivalent mass and its determination
atomic mass
3 Equivalent mass of an element =
valency
3 Equivalent mass of an acid =
3 Equivalent mass of a base =
3 Equivalent mass of a salt =
molecular mass
basicity
molecular mass
acidity
formula mass
total positive or negative charge
3 Equivalent mass of an oxidising agent =
formula mass
total change in oxidation number
3 Equivalent mass of common oxidising agent changes with the medium of the
reaction.
3 Methods of determination of equivalent mass
(i) Hydrogen displacement method
mass of metal
Equivalent mass of metal =
1008
.
mass of H 2 displaced
mass of metal 11200
volume of H 2 displaced at STP
or Equivalent mass of metal =

(ii) Oxide formation method
=
mass of metal 8
mass of O 2
mass of metal
5600
vol of O 2 at STP in mL
(iii) Chloride formation method

mass of metal 35.5
mass of chlorine
mass of metal 11200
=
vol of Cl2 at STP in (mL)
(iv) Metal displacement method

eq mass of metal added
mass of metal added
=
mass of metal displaced eq mass of metal displaced
94
W1 E1
=
W2 E2
(v) Neutralization method (for acids and bases)

w
Equivalent mass of acid or base =
(where w is the mass of acid or base (in
VN
g), V is the volume of base or acid in liter required for neutralization and N is
normality of base or acid.
(vi) Double decomposition method
AB + CD AD +CB
Mass of compound AB
eq mass of A + eq mass of B
=
Mass of compound AD eq mass of A + eq mass of D
or
eq mass of salt ( E1)

mass of salt taken ( w1)
=
mass of ppt obtained ( w2 ) eq mass of salt in ppt ( E2 )
(vii) Volatile chloride method

2 VD of chloride
35.5
Valency
(viii) Silver salt method (for organic acids)

108 mass of silver metal salt
Equivalent mass of an acid =
107
mass of Ag
8. Percentage composition and molecular formula
mass of element
Percentage of element =
100
molecualr mass
Molecular formula = n empirical formula
molecular formula mass

where, n =
empirical formula mass
95
Name of Topics with Related Questions
3 Physical Quantities and Their Measurements: Q.1.13, Q.1.14,
Q.1.15, Q.1.15, Q.1.22, Q.1.27.

3 Laws of Chemical Combination: Q.1.21.
3 Significant figures and scientific notation: Q.1.16, Q.1.18,
Q.1.19, Q.1.20.
3 Related with atomic mass molecular mass and percentage: Q.1.1,
Q.1.2, Q.1.9, Q.1.32.

3 Mole Concept: Q.1.4, Q.1.7, Q.1.10, Q.1.23, Q.1.28, Q.1.30,
Q.1.33.
3 Chemical Equation and Stoichiometry: Q.1.24, Q.1.26, Q.1.34,
Q.1.35, Q.1.36.
3 Problem related with combustion:
3 Problem related with Concentration of Soluton: Q.1.5, Q.1.6,
Q.1.11, Q.1.12, Q.1.17, Q.1.25, Q.1.29.

3 Empirical and Molecular Formulae: Q.1.3, Q.1.8.
96
NCERT Solved Questions

1.1
Calculate the molecular mass of:

(i) H 2 O
Ans.
(ii) CO 2
(iii) CH 4
(i)
Molecular mass of H 2 O = 2 (1 amu) + 16 amu =18u
(ii)
Molecular mass of CO 2 = 12 amu + 2 x 16 amu = 44u
(iii)
Molecular mass of CH 4 = 12 amu + 4 (1 amu) = 16u
1.2.
Calculate the mass per cent of different elements present in sodium sulphate
(Na 2 SO 4 ).
Ans.
Mass % of an element
Mass of that element inthecompound
100
=
Molecular mass of the compound
Molecular mass of Na 2 SO 4
= 2(23.0) + 32.0 + 4 x 16.0 = 142 g mol 1
46
Mass per cent of sodium =
100 = 32.39%
142
32
Mass per cent of sulphur =
100 = 22.54%
142
64
Mass per cent of oxygen =
100 = 45.07%
142
1.3
Determine the empirical formula of an oxide of iron which has 69.9 % iron and
30.1% dioxygen by mass. (Atomic mass : Fe = 55.85 amu, O = 1600 amu).
Ans:
Element Symbol % by mass
Atomic
mass
Moles of the
element
(Relative no. of
moles)
Simple
ratio
Simplest whole
number molar
ratio
Iron
Fe
69.9
55.85
69.9
= 1.25
55.85
1.25
=1
1.25
Oxygen
30.1
16.00
30.1
= 1.88
16.00
1.88
= 1.5
1.25
Empirical formula = Fe 2 0 3 .
97
1.4.
Ans:
Calculate the amount of carbon dioxide that could be produced when

(i)
1 mole of carbon is burnt in air.
(ii)
1 mole of carbon is burnt in 16 g of dioxygen.
(iii)
2 moles of carbon are burnt in 16 g of dioxygen.
The balanced equation for the combustion of carbon in dioxygen or air is

C (s )
1 mole
(i)
O2 (g)
1 mole (32g)
CO2 (g)
1 mole (44g)
In air, combustion is complete.

Hence, 1 mole of carbon on combustion produces CO 2
(ii)
As only 16 g of dioxygen is available, it is the limiting reactant because

16
16g O2 means mols of O2 =
= 0.5
32
If 0.5 mole of O2 is used then 0.5 moles of CO2 will be
wt
x
so, moles n=
= 0.5 =
mol.wt
44
(iii)
x = 22
Here again, dioxygen is the limiting reactant. Therefore, CO 2 produced

from 16 g dioxygen
16
or nO2 = 0.5
Since nC = 2 ,nO2 =
32
In this 0.5 O2 will be consumed to give 0.5 moles of CO2
x
nCO2 =
44
x
0.5 =
44
x = 22
1.5.
Calculate the mass of sodium acetate (CH 3 COONa) required to make 500 ml of
0.375 molar aqueous solution. Molar mass of sodium acetate is 82.0245 g
mol 1 .
Ans.
0.375 M aqueous solution means that 1000 ml of the solution contain sodium
acetate 0.375 mole
500 ml. of the solution should contain sodium acetate
0.375
=
mole
2
98
Molar mass of sodium acetate = 82.0245 g mol 1

0.375
mole 82.0245 g mol 1 = 15.380 g.
Mass of sodium acetate required =
2
n moles
OR molarity M= =
V volume
0.375 =
Given M = 0.375
V = 500 ml = 0.5 lt
h
0.5
n = 0.5 0.375 =
0.375
2
wt
0.375
=
mol.wt
2
0.375
wt =
82.0245 = 15.38 gm
2
moles n =
1.6.
Calculate the concentration of nitric acid in moles per litre in a sample which has
a density, 1.41 g ml 1 and mass per cent of nitric acid in it being 69%.
Ans.
Mass percent of 69% means that 100g of nitric acid solution contains 69 g of
nitric acid.
Molar mass of nitric acid (HNO3 )
= 1 + 14 + 48 = 63g mol 1
Moles in 69 g HNO 3
n=
69 g
63 gmol 1
= 1.095 mole
Volume of 100 g nitric acid solution density =

So volume =
mass
volume
mass
100g
=
= 70.92 mL = 0.07092L
density 1.41gmL1
Conc. of HNO 3 in moles per litre

1.095 mole
=
= 15.44 M
0.07092 L
* Alternatively, (shortcut)
mass percent density 10
moles
= molarity =
litre
m. mass
69 1.41 10
=
= 15.44 M
63
99
1.7.
How much copper can be obtained from 100 g of copper sulphate (CuSO 4 ) ?
(Atomic mass of Cu = 63.5 amu)
Ans.
1 mole of CuSO 4 contains 1 mole (1 g atom) of Cu

Molar mass of CuSO 4 = 635 + 32 + 4 16 = 159.5 g mol 1
Thus, Cu that can be obtained from 159.5 g of CuSO 4 = 63.5 g
Cu that can be obtained from 100 g of CuSO 4
63.5
=
100g
159.5
= 39.81 g
1 mole of CuSO 4 will give 1 mole of Cu
CuSO 4
Cu + S + 40
So moles of CuSO 4
n=
mass
100
=
nol.wt 159.5
n moles of CuSO 4 will give n moles of Cu

so, n = moles of Cu = moles of CuSO 4
100
= moles of Cu
159.5
wt
=
63.5
100
wt = 63.5
= 39.812
159.5
1.8.
Determine the molecular formula of an oxide of iron in which the mass percent
of iron and oxygen are 69.9% and 30.1% respectively. Given that the molar mass
of the oxide is 159.8 g mol 1 (Atomic mass: Fe = 55.85, o = 16.00 u.
Ans.
Calculation of empirical formula
Element
Per centage
At. Mass
Relative no. of
Moles
Simple ratio
Simples
t Whole
no.
Ratio
Fe
69.9
55.85
69.9
= 1.25
55.85
1.25
=1
1.25
12=2.0
30.1
16.00
30.1
= 1.88
16.00
1.88
= 1.5
1.25
1.52
=3.0
100
Empirical formula = Fe 2 O 3 .
Empirical formula mass of Fe 2 O 3
= 2 x 55.85 + 3 x 16.00 = 159.7 g mot 1
Molecular Formula = n Empirical formula
Molar mass
159.8
=1
n=
159.7
Empirical formula mass
(nis emperical factor)
Hence. molecular formula is same as empirical formula,

Fe2 O3 .
OR
Let the formula be Ax By
moles of A x nA x
=
=
moles of B y
nB y
Let Formula is Fe x Oy
nFe x
69.9 x x 2
so,
=
= = so formula is Fe2 O3
55.85 y y 3
n0
y
30.1
16
1.9.
Calculate the atomic mass (average) of chlorine using the following data:
Isotope
Ans.
35
Cl(1)
37
Cl(2)
% Natural Abundance
Atomic Mass
75.77
34.9689
24 .23
36.9659
Fractional abundance of 35 Cl = 75.77, atomic mass = 34.9689 Fractional

abundance of 37 Cl = 24.23, atomic mass = 36.9659
Average atomic mass = (.75777) (34.9689 amu) + (0.2423) (36.9659 amu)
= 35.45
1.10.
In three moles of ethane (C 2 H6 ), calculate the following:

(i)
Number of moles of carbon atoms
(ii)
Number of moles of hydrogen atoms
(iii)
Number of molecules of ethane.

101
Ans.
(i)
1 mole of C 2 H6 contains 2 moles of carbon atoms
3 moles of C 2 H6 will contain C-atoms = 6 moles
(ii)
1 mole of C 2 H6 contains 6 moles of hydrogen atoms
3 moles of C 2 H6 will contain H-atoms = 18 moles
(iii)
1 mole of C 2 H6 contains Avogadros number, i.e., 6.02 1023 molecules
3 moles of C 2 H6 will contain ethane molecules

= 3 6.02 1023 = 18.06 1023 molecules.
or
moles =
No.of given
No.(6.023 1023 )
=
1.11.
3=
No.of molecules
6.02 1023
No.of molecules
18.06 1023
What is the concentration of sugar (C 12 H22 O11 ) in mol L1 if its 20 g are dissolved
in enough water to make a final volume up to 2 L ?
Ans.
Molar mass of sugar (C 12 H22 O11 )

= 12 12 + 22 1 + 11 16 = 342 g mol 1
20 g
No. of moles in 20 g of sugar =
= 0.0585 mole
342 mol 1
Volume of solution = 2 L (Given)
Moles of solute 0.0585 mol
Molar concentration =
=
Volumeof sol inL
2L
= 0.0293 mol L1 = 0.0293 M Formula concentration (molarity)
=
moles
n
=
volume V
1.12.
If the density of methanol is 0.793 Kg L1 , what is its volume needed for making
2.5 L of its 0.25 M solution?
Ans.
Molar mass of methanol (CH3 OH)

= 32 gmol 1 = 0.032 Kgmol 1
1 liter of 0.25 M CH3 OH contains moles of CH3 OH
= 0.25
102
2.5 L of 0.25 M CH3 OH will contain moles
= 0.25 x 2.5 = 0.625

Mass of 0.625 moles of CH3 OH = 0.625 32 = 20 g
The density of CH3 OH is 0.793 KgL1 or 0.793 g cm 3
Hence, volume of methanol required
20 g
M
or
= =
d 0.793 gcm2
= 25.22 mL
1.13.
Pressure is determined as force per unit area of the surface. The S.I. unit of
pressure, pascal, is as shown below.
1Pa = 1Nm2
If mass of air at sea level is 1034 g cm2 , calculate the pressure in pascal.
Ans.
Pressure is the force (i.e., weight) acting per unit area

But weight = mg
Pressure = Weight per unit area =
Conversion =
1034 10 3 Kg 9.8ms 2
10
1034 g 9.8 ms 2
cm2
= 1.013 10 5
N
m2
= 1.013 10 5 Pa (Pascal)
1.14.
What is the SI. unit of mass? How is it defined?
Ans.
S.I. unit of mass is Kilogram (Kg). It is defined as the mass of platinum iridium
(Pt-Ir) cylinder that is stored in a air tight jar at international Bureau of weight
and measured in Frame.
1.15.
Match the following prefixes with their multiples:

Prefixes
Ans.
Multiplies
(i)
micro
10 6
(ii)
deca
1010
(iii) mega
106
(iv) giga
109
(v)
10 15
femto
micro = 10 6 ,deca = 10 ,mega = 106 ,giga = 109 , femto = 10 15

103
1.16.
What do you mean by significant figure?
Ans.
The total number of digits in a number including the last digit whose value is
uncertain is called significant figure.
1.17.
A sample of drinking water was found to be severely contaminated with

chloroform, CHCl3 , supposed to be carcinogen. The level of contamination was
15 ppm (by mass).
Ans.
(i)
Express this in percent by mass
(ii)
Determine the molarity of chloroform in the water sample.
(i)
(ii)
15 ppm means 15 parts in million (106 ) parts

15
% by mass = 6 100 = 15 10 4 = 1.5 10 3 %
10
Molar mass of chloroform (CHCl3 ) = 12 + 1 + 3 25.5
= 119.5 mol 1
100 g of the sample contain chloroform = 1.5 10 3 g
1000 g (1 Kg) of the sample will contain chloroform
1.5 10 3
1000 = 1.5 10 2 g
100
moles of solute
molarity =
k / t .of solvent (Kg)
n=
1.5 10 2
= 1.255 10 4
119.5
wt of solution = wt of solute + wt of solution

Wt of solute = wt of solution wt of solution
= 1000 1.5 10 2
= 1000 gm 1 Kg
1.255 10 4
=
1
= 1.255 10 4 M
1.18.
Ans.
104
Express the following in scientific notation:

(i) 0.0048
(ii) 234, 000
(iv) 500.0
(v) 6.0012.
(i) 4 .8 10 3
(ii) 2.34 10 5
(iii) 8008
(iii) 8.008 103
(iv) 5.000 102

1.19.
(v) 6.0012 10
How many significant figures are present in the following?

(i) 0.0025
(ii) 208
(iv) 126,000
(iii) 5005
(v) 500.0
(vi) 2.0034
Ans.
(i) 2 (ii) 3 (iii) 4 (iv) 3 (v) 4 (vi) 5.
1.20.
Round up the following upto three significant figures:
Ans.
(i) 34.216
(ii) 10.4107
(iii) 0.04597
(iv) 2808
(i) 34.2
(ii) 10.4
(iii) 0.0460
1.21.
Ans.
(iv) 2810.
The following data were obtained when dinitrogen and dioxygen react together
to form different compounds:
Mass of dinitrogen
Mass of dioxygen
(i)
14g
16g
(ii)
14g
32g
(iii)
28g
32g
(iv)
28g
80g
(a)
Which law of chemical combination is obeyed by the above experimental

data? Give its statement.
(b)
Fill in the blanks in the following conversions:
(i)
1 Km =..... mm =..... pm
(iii)
1 mL =..... L =..... dm3
(a)
Fixing mass of dinitrogen as 28 g, the masses of dioxygen combined will

be 32, 64, 32 and 80 g in the given four oxides. These are in the ratio 2 : 4
: 2 : 5 which is a simple whole number ratio. Hence, the given data obey
the law of multiple proportions.
1000 m 100 cm 10 mm
1Km = 1Km
= 106 mm
1 Km
1m
1 cm
(b)
1Km = 1Km
(ii)
(ii)
1 mg =..... Kg =..... ng
1000 m
1 pm
12 = 1015 pm
1 Km 10
m
105
(iii)
1mg = 1 mg
1 Kg
1g
= 10 6 Kg
1000 mg 1000 g
1mg = 1 mg
1g
1 ng
9 = 106 ng
1000 mg 10 g
1 mL = 1 mL
1L
= 10 3 L
1000 mL
1mL = 1cm3 = 1cm3
1 dm 1 dm 1 dm
= 10 3 dm3
10 cm 10 cm 10 cm
1.22.
If the speed of light is 3.0 108 ms 1 , calculate the distance covered by light in
2.00 ns.
Ans.
Distance covered = Speed Time

= 3.0 108 ms 1 2 ns
= 3.0 108 ms 1 2 ns
10 9 s
1 ns
= 6.0 10 1 m = 0.6m
1.23.
In the reaction, A + B2
AB2 , identify the limiting reagent, if any, in the
following mixtures
Ans.
(i)
300 atoms of A + 200 molecules of B
(ii)
2 mol A +3 mol B
(iii)
100 atoms of A + 100 molecules of B
(iv)
5 mol A + 2.5 mol B
(v)
2.5 mol A + 5 mol B
(i)
According to the given reaction, 1 atom of A reacts with 1 molecule of B.
200 molecules of B will react with 200 atoms of A and 100 atoms of A will
be left unreacted. Hence,
B is the limiting reagent while A is the excess reagent.
106
(ii)
According to the given reaction, 1 mol of A reacts with 1 mol of B
2 mol of A will react with 2 mol of B. Hence, A is the limiting reactant.
(iii)
No limiting reagent because equal moles are reacting.
(iv)
2.5 mol of B will react with 2.5 mol of A. Hence, B is the limiting reagent.
1.24.
(v)
2.5 mol of A will react with 2.5 mol of B. Hence, B is the limiting reagent
which is consumed completely
(vi)
2.5 mol of A will react with 2.5 mol of B. Hence, A is the limiting reagent.
Dinitrogen and dihydrogen react with each other to produce ammonia according
to the following chemical equation:
N2 (g) + 3H2 (g)
2NH3 (g)
(i) Calculate the mass of ammonia produced if 2000gm dinitrogen reacts with
1000 gm dihydrogen
(ii) Will any of the two reactants remain unreacted ?
(iii) If yes, which one and what would he its mass ?
Ans.
(i) According to given equation, 28 g of N2 reacts with 3 mol of H2 i.e., 6 g of 112
2000 g of N2 will react with H2

6
=
200g = 428.6 g.
28
Amount of H2 given = 1000g

Thus, N2 is the limiting reagent while H2 is the excess reagnt
As 28 g of N2 will produce NH3 = 2 17 = 34 g
2000 g of N2 will produce NH3

34
=
2000 g = 2428.57 g
28
(ii) H2 will remain unreacted.

(iii) Mass of H2 left unreacted
= 1000 g 428.6 g = 571.4 g
1.25
How are 0.50 mol Na2 CO3 and 0.50 M Na2 CO3 different?
Ans.
Molar mass of Na2 CO3 = 2 23 + 12 + 3 16 = 106gmol 1

0.50 mol Na2 CO3 means 0.50 106 g = 53 g
0.50 M Na2 CO3 means 0.50 mol, i.e., 53 g Na2 CO3 are present in 1 liter of the
solution.
1.26.
Ans.
Convert the following into basic units: (i) 28.7 pm (ii) 15.15 s (iii) 25365 mg
10 12 m
28
.
7
pm
=
28
.
7
pm
= 2.87 10 11 m
(i)
1 pm
107
10 6 m
= 1.515 10 5 s
1 s
(ii)
15.15 s = 15.15 s
(iii)
25365 mg = 25365 mg
1g
1 Kg
1000 mg 1000 g
= 2.5365 10 2 Kg
1.27.
Which one of the following will have largest number of atoms?

(i) 1 g Au (s)
(ii) 1 g Na (s)
(iii) 1 g Li (s)
(iv) 1 g of Cl 2 (g)
(Atomic masses: Au = 197, Na = 23, Li = 7, Cl = 35.5 U)

mass
Ans. We know moles =
atomic mass / mol.mass
moles =
(i)
Noof atoms / molecules

No (6.023 1023)
1 gAu =
1
1
mol =
6.02 1023 atoms
197
197
= 3.055 1021 atoms
(ii)
1 gNa =
1
1
mol =
6.02 1023 atoms
23
23
= 2.617 1022 atoms
(iii)
1
1
1 gLi = mol = 6.02 1023 atoms
7
7
= 8.6 1022 atoms
(iv)
1 gCl2 =
1
1
mol =
6.02 1023 molecules
71
71
2
=
6.02 1023 atoms
71
Thus 1 g of Li has the largest number of atoms.

1.28.
Ans.
Calculate the molarity of a solution of ethanol in water in which the mole

fraction of ethanol is 0.040.
n(C 2 H5OH)
xC 2 H 5OH =
= 0.040 (Given)x 2 = 0040 The aim is to find
n(C 2 H5OH) + n(H2 O)
number of moles of ethanol in 1 L of the solution which is nearly = I L of water .
108
Since mole fraction of C 2 H5OH is very less means water is more so mass of
solution is govern by mass of H2 O In this way solvent volume of = mass of solvent
1000 g
No. of moles in I L of water =
= 55.55 moles
18 gmol 1
Substituting n(H2 O) = 55.55 in eqn (i), we get
n(C 2 H2 OH)
0.040 or 0.96 n(C 2 H5OH)
n(C 2 H5OH) + 55.55
Since
nC 2 H 5OH <<< nH2 O (55.5)

nC 2 H 5OH + 55.55 = 55.55
Hence
nC 2 H 5OH = 55.55 0.04 = 2.2220 = 2.22

moles 2.22
So molarity =
=
= 2.22 M
volume
1
1.29.
What will be the mass of one 12 C atom in g?
Ans.
1 mol of 12 C atoms (12 gm)

= 6.022 1023 atoms
1 atom of 12 C will have mass

12
=
g
6.022 1023
= 1.99 10 23 g.
1.30.
How many significant figures should be present in the answer of the following
calculations?
0.02856 298.15 0.112
(i)
0.5785
(ii) 5.5.364
(iii) 0.0125 + 0.7864 + 0.0215
Ans.
1.31.
(i) The least precise term has 3 significant figures (i.e., in

answer should have 3 significant figures.
0.112). Hence, the
(ii)
Leaving the exact number (5), the second term has 4 significant figures.
Hence, the answer should have 4 significant figures.
(iii)
In the given addition, the least number of decimal places in the term is 4.
Hence, the answer should have 4 significant.
Use the data given in the following table to calculate the molar mass of naturally
occurring argon.
109
Isotope
Ans.
Isotopic molar mass
Abudance
36
Ar
35.96755 gmol 1
0.337
38
Ar
37.96272 gmol 1
0.063
40
Ar
39.9624 gmol 1
99.600
Molar mass of Ar =
Isotopic molor mass Persentage

100
= 35.96755 0.00337 + 37.96272 0.00063
+39.96924 0.99600
100
= 39.948 gmol 1 .
1.32.
Calculate the number of atoms in each of the following :

(i) 52 moles of He (ii) 52 u of He
Ans.
(iii) 52 g of He
(i)
mol of He = 6.022 1023 atoms
52 mol of He = 52 6.022 1023 atoms = 3.131 1025 atoms

no.of He
moles =
6.023 1013
no.of He
52 =
6.023 1023
or
No of He = 52 6.023 1023
= 3.131 1025
(ii)
1 atom of He u of He
4 u of He = 1 atom of He
1
52 u He = 52 atoms = 13 atoms
4
(iii) 1 mole of He = 4 g = 6.022 1023 atoms
52 g of He =
6.022 1023
52 atoms
4
= 7.8286 1024
1.33.
110
atoms
A welding fuel gas contains carbon and hydrogen only. Burning a small sample of
it in oxygen gives 3.38 g carbon dioxide, 0.690 g of water and no other products.
A volume of 10.0 L (measured at S.T.P.) of this welding gas is found to weight
11.6 g. Calculate (i) empirical formula (ii) molar mass of the gas, and (iii)
molecular formula.
Ans.
Mass of carbon in 3.38 g CO2

=
12
3.38 g = 0.9218 g
44
Mass of hydrogen in 0.690 gH2 O

2
=
0.690 g = 0.0767 g
18
As compound contains only C and H, therefore, total mass of the compound
= 0.9218 + 0.0767g = 0.9985g
% of C in the compound
=
0.9218
100 = 92.32
0.9985
0.0767
100 = 7.68
0.9985
% of H in the compound
Calculation of Empirical Formula

Element
% by
mass
Atomic
mass
Moles of the element
Simplest
molar ratio
Simplest
whole no.
molar ratio
92.32
12
7.68
92.32
= 7.69
12
7.68
= 7.68
1
Empirical formula = CH
or Calculation of Molar Mass

10.0 L of the gas at S.T.P. weight = 11.6 g
22.4 L of the gas at S.T.P. will weight

11.6
=
22.4 = 25.984 g
10.0
Thus, molar mass = 26 gmol 1

Empirical formula mass of CH = 12 + 1 = 13
111
Calculation of molecular Formula

Molecular mass 26
n=
=
=2
E .F . mass
13
1.34.
Molecular formula = (CH)2 = C 2 H2
Calcium carbonate reacts with aqueous HCl according to the reaction :

CaCO3 (s ) + 2HCL(aq)
CaCl2 (aq) + CO2 (g) + H2 O (I)
What mass of CaCO3 is required to react completely with 25 mL of 0.75 M HCl ?
Ans.
Step 1. To calculate mass of HCl in 25 mL of 0.75 M HCl

1000 mL of 0.75 M HCl contain HCl = 0.75 mol = 0.75 36.5 g = 27.375 g
25 mL of 0.75 HCl will contain HCl
27.375
=
25 g = 0.6844 g.
1000
Step 2. To calculate mass of CaCO 3 reacting completely with 0.9125 g of HCl
CaCO3 (s ) + 2HCl(aq)
CaCl2 (aq) + CO2 (g) + H2 O(l)
2 mol of HCl, i.e., 2 36.5 g = 73 g HCl react completely with CaCO 3 = 1 mol =
100 g
1.35.
0.6844 g HCl will react completely with CaCO 3

100
=
0.6844 g = 0.9375 g.
73
Chlorine is prepared in the laboratory by treating manganese dioxide (Mn0 2 )

with aqueous hydrochloric acid according to the reaction.
4 HCl(aq) + MnO2 (s )
2H2 O(I) + MnCl2 (aq) + Cl2 (g)
How many grams of HCl react with 5.0 g of manganese dioxide? (Atomic mass of
Mn = 55 u)
Ans.
1 mol of MnO2 , i.e., 55 + 32 = 87 gMnO2 react with 4 moles of HCl, i.e.,

4 36.5 g = 146 g of HCl.
112
5.0 g of MnO2 will react with HCl

146
=
5.0 g = 8.39 g.
87
Additional Exercise
Very Short Answer Questions
1. What is the basic SI unit for
(i) Temperature
(ii) Electric current
2. Give one example each of homogeneous and heterogeneous mixture.

3. What is the number of hydrogen atoms in 60 a.m.u. ethane?
4. What is the value of gram molecular volume at S.T.P.?
5. 6 L of N 2 and 6 L of H 2 at S.T.P. are allowed to react completely to form
ammonia. What is the volume of ammonia formed at S.T.P. ?
6. What is molecular mass of heavy water?
7. What is difference between molality and molarity?
8. Briefly explain precision and accuracy with their difference.
9. Under what conditions the zeros in a number are significant.
10. What is a limiting reagent.
Short Answer Qusestions

1. Study the number of significant figures in each of the following:
(i) 2.56 10 3
(ii) 256
(iii) 5000
(iv) 0.00256
(v) 0.0320
(vi) 13.560.
2. A Block of wood having the dimensions 10cm 5cm 20cm weights 1.5 kg.
What is the density of wood, expressed in grams per cubic centimetre?
3. What is the mass of 1.50 litre of mercury? The density of mercury is 13.6 g cm 3 .
4. Classify the following substances as elements, compounds and mixtures. In case of
mixtures clearly indicate whether the mixture is homogeneous or heterogeneous.
(i) Gasoline
(iii) Distilled water
(v) Air
(vi) Sand
(vii) Diamond
(viii) Wood.
(ii) Tap water
(iv) Milk
5. State and explain the law of multiple proportions and law of definite proportion.
6. What are the various postulates of Daltons atomic theory?
7. State the following terms:
(i) Atomic mass (ii) Gram atomic mass (iii) Atomic mass unit.
113
8. Define atomic mass unit. What is its mass in terms of grams?

9. Can two different compounds have same empirical formula? Illustrate your
answer with two examples.
10. Define molarity. What are its units? What is the effect of temperature on
molarity of a solution?
mmm
114

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1

Some Basic Concepts of Chemistry

(iii) Physical Chemistry: It is concerned with the physical

1.2 Matter and Energy

state, substances have no definite shape but possess fixed

Metals, Non-Metals and Metalloids

(ii) They are lustrous in nature

Chemical Classification of Matter

substance. It may be defined as:

2. Compound: A compound may be defined as:

decomposed nor built from simpler substances by ordinary

Compounds are classified into two types:

3. Mixture: A mixture may be defined as:

Mixtures are further classified into following types:

Difference between a compound and a mixture:

The constituents of a mixture

Mixture may or may not be

3. The properties of a compound

The properties of a mixture are

The constituents of a mixture

Mixtures are formed as a

When a mixture is formed, no

7. Chemical Compounds posses 7.

The melting and boiling

Compound are formed as a

1.3 Measurement in Chemistry

independent on units and cannot be derived from any other

Example: If the speed of light is 310 8 ms 1 . Calculate the

Solution: Speed = 3 108

Example: Express each of the following in SI units:

(ii) Distance between earth and sun, i.e., 93 million miles.

Solution: (i) The SI units for speed are m s 1

The Si units for distance is metre (m)

Distance = 93 106 miles

93 106 miles 1.60 10 3 m

5 feet 6 inches = 66 inches

Seven basic physical quantities and their SI units:

Amount of the substance

Ex-1: Does 1 gram mole of a gas occupy 22.4 L under all

No, one gram mole of a gas occupies 22.4 L only under

Ex-2: The percentages of all the elements present in a

This indicates that the compound contains oxygen also

Ex-3: Gun powder is a mixture of sulphur, charcoal and

Sulphur is soluble in CS2 and is insoluble in water.

Ex-4: Vanadium metal is added to steel to impart strength.

Vol of vanadium metal = 10 6 m 3 .

Common rules for counting significant figures:

Rule 1. All non zero digits are significant.

Rule 2. All non zero digits occurring between two non

Example: x = 1007 has four significant figures.

Rule 3. In a number, less than one, all zero's to the right

Example: x = 0.0084 has only two significant figures.

Example: x = 0.00800 has three significant figures 8,

Example: We can write 20,000 in scientific notation as 2 10 4 Having 1 significant figure

Example: Suppose distance between two stations is

Rounding off: While rounding off measurements, we

use the following rules by convention:

Rule 1. If the digit to be dropped is less than 5, then the

Example: x = 7.82 is rounded off to 7.8.

Rule 2. If the digit to be dropped is more than 5, then the

Example: x = 6.87 is rounded off to 6.9.

Rule 3. If the digit to be dropped is 5 followed by digits

Example: x = 16.351 is rounded off to 16.4.

Rule 4. If the digit to be dropped is 5 followed by zeroes,