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Q: Where can I find out more about tapes, videos and other instructional
resources?
Short answer; look here: " Mary Mark's Guide to Middle Eastern Percussion Resources
Page".
http://www.cs.cmu.edu/afs/cs.cmu.edu/user/mmbt/www/percussion/learn-med.html
Please don't e-mail me asking me to send you tapes or instructional resources -- what I
have is here in these web pages -- at the moment I don't have instructional tapes or
videos of my own. Please do e-mail me if you think something needs clarification or
you'd like to give me feedback on these pages.
Q: Where do I get a drum?
In the past it had been hard to find good imported Middle Eastern drums, but these days
there are many places to order inexpensive, quality drums. If you are an inexperienced
buyer, you may want to check for drum shops or import stores locally so you can
actually put your hands on the drum and see what style of drum you prefer.
See also What Kind of Drum Should I Get?
I suggest the following online stores -
Touch the Earth -- These folks import stuff from a variety of places -- some
unique items. They are also SCA merchants and glad to help you find exactly
what you are looking for if you get in touch with them.
Soul Drums -- If you live in the Toronto, Canada area this is a good source for
everything that has to do with percussion. They also run drum clinics and lessons
on a regular basis.
Arabian Nights -- This is an online shop operating out of Victoria BC, Canada.
They sell various musical instruments and articles coming from the Middle East.
Q: What's the deal with 4/4, 6/8? ( Time Signatures, Music Theory )
For a modern western percussionist (or musician considering rhythm) the most important
thing is how many beats there are to a measure. That is: modern musicians break music
down into repeating segments of the same length called "measures". The measures are
then broken down into a fixed number of possible divisions. When you see that some
song is in "6/8" -- that means that it is divided into measures that contain six "eighth"
notes. The whole modern world doesn't use this method (Balkan folk musicians, for
instance, have a pulse-length based system) and it was certainly not used when much
Middle Eastern music was formulated (more on this subject below). I've tried to use time
notations that would be familiar to western musicians with some notation to show
variations such as shortened segments.
Most of the rhythms shown below are shown in simple (non-filled) form and then various ways to
fill the rhythm are shown.
Use a fixed width font to view the rhythms if you cut and paste them into another document. Also if
you have messed up your browser preferences so that it somehow uses a non-fixed width font for
the rhythms on this page, they are going to look messed up.
Q: Where did all of this tradition come from? ( A Grossly Over-simplified Bit of Percussion
History )
(If you would like a deeper look into this: stay tuned -- I'm trying to get time to write a better essay
-- or start by reading any Arabic music book by Henry George Farmer. And don't say I didn't warn
you -- he's hard to read -- not because he is a bad writer, but because his books are academic and
full of facts and rather complex arguments attempting to reconstruct a lot of Arabic musical history
and theory.)
The earliest recorded history of music and rhythm we get from ancient Greece. Greek writers on the
subject were fairly technical, but it seems that not much about rhythmic structure was formalized.
We do know that they tended to use a system that had two values for time (long and short) where
the "long" was from one and a half to two times longer than the short. Musical phrases were built of
patterns of long and short -- sometimes these patterns repeated.
We only know as much as we do about early Greek music because Middle Eastern (arabic
speaking) scholars studied and preserved (translated) early Greek writings. The Arabic
music/rhythm tradition begins in the caravan song -- the vocal music of the nomad. Often a simple
percussion instrument (for instance a stick) was used to beat out accents. As the nomadic life was
exchanged for urban life new instruments were developed, poetic form matured and scholars
studied earlier Greek works, a rhythmic method developed with a basis in long and short
syllables(durations) and accent patterns based on poetic meter. As poems tended to repeat the
notion of a larger repeating rhythmic cycle emerged.
As the Arabic speaking empire expanded, matured and moved through the greater Middle East and
through North Africa into modern Spain and Portugal, it brought an academic attitude toward
music. Local traditions were integrated and new forms and instruments developed. The music
traditions of North Africa are still today heavily influenced by Arabic empire roots rather than by
the rest of mainland Africa. That is the music is primarily monotonal and of simple rhythm.
Polyrhythm and harmony are almost non-existent in Middle Eastern music. That does not mean by
any measure that the music is simple. The "interesting" and unique aspects of each performance
come from the "ornamentation" of the tune by each instrument rather than from the "merging" of
various tones and times that is formed by harmony and polyrhythm. The Arabic (and
Mediterranean) music tradition tends to be based on the soloist or small ensemble -- a natural
outgrowth of folk groups and a nomadic bard tradition.
An interesting side note: Islamic tradition holds the musical arts in an odd dichotomy. Many Islamic
fundamentalists have held that music for pleasure (rather than to worship or to declare the glory of
Allah) is a sinful distraction -- however throughout history Islamic rulers (and no doubt the general
populace) tended to patronize the musical arts.
Khalifates with courts in the Maghreb developed forms of stylized concerts that formalized many
new musical as well as rhythmic structures including a complex style of concert called the "nuba".
This presence in Europe, along with the cultural interaction during the crusades, was responsible for
many Middle Eastern instruments and musical forms finding their way into Europe. For instance
I've heard people argue that the frame drum (extremely popular in North Africa throughout history)
found it's way into Ireland as the bodhran this way -- this is probably apocryphal I'm not aware of
anything but speculation to support the theory.
There are numerous problems for modern students attempting to study early Middle Eastern music:
Arabic writers tend to describe such things and music and dance rather poetically (in terms of
impressions and feelings and effect on audience) rather than give much technical detail of form or
technique. Apparently there was no standardized musical notation -- though Middle Eastern
scholars were impressed by western notational methods (probably "discovered" by the Middle East
around the time of the crusades), these methods did not lend themselves well to representing the
more varied (in terms of tone and rhythm) music of the Middle East. Studying rhythmic modes is
even more difficult -- very little rhythmic notation exists, even for songs that are otherwise quite
well documented. Apparently either (as in many oral traditions) the rhythmic modes were so well
known scholars did not bother to document them or they could find no good method for doing so.
Attempts were made by a number of Middle Eastern scholars to document their highly oral musical
traditions; unfortunately most of these documents are not available today -- although there are many
references to them in historical works. The Mongul invasions of the 'Abbasid empire and sacking of
such academic centers as Baghdad in 1258 destroyed most of the relevant academic documents (not
to mention the scholars!). Safi-al-Din, the author of two of the oldest surviving technical texts on
music was one of the few who barely escaped the purge and wound up working in the Mongul
court.
Additionally there is a long standing division between folk and academic (classical) music in Arabic
tradition -- I think most scholars found it beneath them to study (or at least write about) folk music.
As the Turkish/Ottoman empire rose out of the remains of the Arabic Khalifates they adopted the
court music forms of the Arabs and also further developed the "marching military band" that the
Arabs had found useful in intimidating their enemies. These were loud affairs consisting of many
percussion instruments, horns, and loud reeds. In this context loud outdoor instruments and music
were developed, while the complex court musical scene fostered more complex musical and
rhythmic forms.
Modern Middle Eastern music is mishmash of local folk traditions, the remains of ancient classical
forms, and aspects of western popular and sometimes classical music. As the Ottoman empire's
influence gave way to western influence during the first part of the 20th century, Egyptian
composers developed a lot of music that is a fusion of western classical form with middle eastern
music. This movement was responsible for bringing orchestra style ensembles and harmonic music
to the middle eastern mix. In terms of rhythmic elements it seems that a lot of diversity has been
lost, odd or complex rhythmic forms have been discarded or lost, in favor of more westernized,
even-counted measures. Modern (traditional) Persian music, for instance rarely has rhythms that are
not cycles of 2, 4, or 6 beats while historical records seem to indicate that much longer cycles were
common in the past.
Recently, during the rise of the oil economies (late 20th century), cheap labor brought from Africa
has brought a bit of central African polyrhythmic tradition to the Middle East -- especially to areas
in the Persian Gulf.
See below for more technical analysis of historical sources.
"baladii", which is a more folksy version of the basic Middle Eastern "maqsuum", is characterized
by the familiar two DUMs that lead the phrase. It is probably more properly called "maSmuudii
saghiir" ("small maSmuudii") since it has the "maSmuudii" accent and phrase but is played in 4
beats rather than 8. Some say that to play it with the traditional "feel" the accents (after the first)
should lag slightly. The rhythm is generally known as "baladii" (beledi, baladi, balady) among the
American belly dance community. The word "baladii" means "of the country" or "old fashion" and,
I've heard, implies (in Egypt) a bit of a "hick-ness" or folk-ness. This rhythm is very typical (to the
point of overuse) for modern belly dance, but the double-DUMs tend to drown out melodic
accompaniment -- therefore when playing with a subtle melodic instrument that cannot easily be
heard, a simpler version of "maqsuum" is usually preferred. "baladii" is usually played more slowly
that a 4/4 "maqsuum".
baladii 4/4
1-+-2-+-3-+-4-+-|
D-D-__T-D-__T-__| basic form
D-D-tkT-D-tkT-tk| filled
D-D-t-S-D-t-S-tk| "Egyptian Classical"
An evenly filled version of a rhythm (such as the last baladii variation above) is often called a
"walking" rhythm due to its even stride.
walking maqsuum:es=maqsuum mvil:fr=maqsoum marchant 4/4
1-+-2-+-3-+-4-+-|
D-T-k-T-D-k-T---|
D-T-k-T-D-k-T-tk| with the bridge
The couple of beats you are finding near the end of some of these variations are known as a
"bridge" or "chain" -- they are not basic to the rhythm, but are often played as a pick up into the
next measure.
"sayyidii" (saidii, saiidii) is another rhythm of the maqsuum family. A sayyidii is made by doubling
the middle DUM. It has a different flavor of fill and accent, is popular in upper Egypt (remember
"upper" Egypt is in the south). It is similar to baladii, usually played fast, upbeat and powerfully. It
is traditionally used for the Tahtib (a man's ritual "stick dance") as well as belly dance (especially
the cane dance -- which is partially a parody of the man's version). I've also heard this rhythm called
"Ghawazee" since these dance forms, and a particular style of belly dance using this form of
rhythm, are popular among the Egyptian Ghawazee. This form may also be called "baladii
maqluub".
Note that, although the rhythm theoretically has a DUM at the beginning, after the initial cycle of
the rhythm that beat it is often alternatively played as a TEK. This tends to drag the second TEK of
the rhythm earlier and emphasize the double-DUM part.
sayyidii 4/4
1-+-2-+-3-+-4-+-|
D-T-__D-D-__T-__|
D-T-tkD-D-tkT-tk|
T-T-tkD-D-tkT-tk| after 1st measure
D-tk-kD-D-tkT-tk| syncopated at the beginning
DkS-kkDDD-tkS-tk| syncopated with 3 DUMs
Yet another variation of a maqsum with different accent, Sombati is used during taaqasiim or for
vocal accompaniment.
sombati 4/4
1-+-2-+-3-+-4-+-|
D--T--T-D-__T-__|
D-kT-kT-D-kkT-tk|
D-kT-kT-D-DkT-tk| like double-time cifitelli
D-__T-T-D-__T-__| used to have this version here from someplace but I think the
syncopation is wrong
I've heard some Egyptians refer to the simple maqsuum as "waaHida wa niSf". Or possibly
"waaHida wa noSS" (half wahida) -- possibly because it (at least theoretically) derives from the
simple form of the first half of "waaHida".
"waaHid" means "one" in Arabic. These rhythms are so called because they have a single accent
(DUM) at the beginning. A particular, "waaHida sayyAra" is also called "Libi" by Egyptians due to
its apparent modern popularity in Libya. "waaHida" is often used during the vocal/legatto parts of
songs -- the single accent makes it easy for the drum to follow the long, sometimes stretched
syllables of this part of the song where the vocallist or instrumental soloist is improvising. The
rhythm part accents the cycle/measure boundary and follows the melody as the measure is stretched
or shortened.
The "waaHida", since it is primarily just an initial accent with varying fill, can be used to make
transitions between rhythms of various counts and fills (i.e. can be used as a "break").
waaHida 4/4
1-+-2-+-3-+-4-+-|
D---____D---m---|
D---____T---k---|
D---__T-____T---|
D-tktkT-tktkT-k-|
D-Tk-kT-Tk-kT-k-|
sayyaara (slow)
saghiira
"tawil"
khafiif (fast)
"bambii" is a modern rhythm similar to a waaHida that has a 3 DUM sequence either by finishing
waaHida with 2 DUMs or rotating it so that the 3 are at the beginning.
bambii 4/4
1-+-2-+-3-+-4-+-|
D-Tk-kT-Tk-kD-D-|
D-D-D-Tk-kT-Tk-k|
Notice how the "saghiira" variation of "waaHida" leaves the 3rd beat empty. This seems a strange
accent pattern -- more on this below.
If you take this "waaHida" and finish with another common 4 beat segment (making an 8),you have
another rhythm, "ciftitelli", that is considered a Turkish or Greek rhythm. It is presumably named
after the Turkish instrument that has strings tuned an octave apart.
It is, at its basis (if you cross your eyes a lot), similar to a maqsuum. It is usually filled as an 8-beat
rhythm and has a much different feel. It is common in Turkish (and other) belly dance -- usually it
is play moderately slowly and preferably (I think) with a lot of space (i.e. not all "filled in").
Drummers tend to have fun filling in the end of the rhythm in various, sometimes unexpected,
ways. It is sometimes used to accompany a taaqasiim (melodic improvisation). Some drummers
(confusingly) call the rhythm "taa-qa-siim". It is very confusing because a very similar Arabic word
"taq-sim" means "split" or "divided" and can be used to refer generally to "maqsuum".
Egyptians tend to play simpler version of Ciftetelli than you might find in Turkey and call it
"waaHida taaqasiim" or maybe "waaHida kabiir".
ciftitelli (shiftaatellii) 8/4
1-+-2-+-3-+-4-+-5-+-6-+-7-+-8-+-|
D---__T---__T---D---D---T---____|
D-tkt-T-tkD-T-tkD---D---Tktkt---|
Often rhythms are combined like this, or have versions that are half or twice as long. The basic
maqsuum played half as quickly is known as "maSmuudii".
The Masmoudi (I've reverted to the common transliteration) rhythm is characteristically a joining of
two 4-beat phrases. Sometimes it is called "Masmoudi kabiir(big)" to differentiate it from a 4-beat
rhythm (Masmoudi saghiir). Often the first phrase has 2 leading beats. One of these versions is
sometimes called "warring masmoudi" -- supposedly it sounds like a man and woman arguing. A 3
leading beat version is called "walking masmoudi" -- the even stride making it particularly suited
for marching. Masmoudi's are fairly common in belly dance music -- historically they are also used
in muwashashat -- they are particularly percussion-intense and make a quite convenient and
recognizable rhythm in which a dancer can accent a dance.
This, as I said, is at its core the same rhythm as maqsum but it is filled as an 8 rather than a four and
played more slowly. Generally speaking Masmoudi's sound big (kabiir) and the maqsums quick and
nimble (khafiif).
There is some evidence that the masmoudi rhythms were used in early muwashahat music and have
a more art-music basis than the maqsum which is currently found in a lot of folk songs.
The Masmouda are one of the three main groups of Berbers in Morocco. They live west of the Rif
and Grand and Middle Atlas in Morocco. "Masmouda" may also be used to refer to the region.
maSmuudii 8/4
1-+-2-+-3-+-4-+-5-+-6-+-7-+-8-+-|
D---D---____T---D---____T---T---|
D---D---tktkT-tkD-tktkt-TktkT-tk|
D---D---D---T---D---____T---T---|
A maqsuum played as a 2 beat rhythm is called "falaahii". It is usually very fast and often evenly
filled. It is a common folk version used for dance ("falaah" is another word for country-folk or
peasant). It is common in upper Egypt. It is usually played about twice as fast as a maqsum and
therefore is often considered a 2 beat rhythm -- played more slowly (as a 4) it is the "walking
maqsuum" discussed above.
falaahii 2/4
1-+-2-+-|
Dk-kD-k-|
DtktDktk|
DgkgDkgk|
Ayyuub is similar. It is a common and fairly simple 2/4 rhythm. It is played in areas of the Middle
East from Turkey through to Egypt. It is used in a slow form for a tribal north African (Egyptian)
trance dance known as the Zar (the rhythm is sometimes called "Zar") -- toward the west (Morocco)
these same sorts of trance dances are generally done to a 6 beat rhythm. Ayyuub is also quite
common at a faster (or much faster) pace in belly dance music and music for folk line dances. Some
say that Ayyuub is supposed to sound like a camel walking. Bayou is a rhythm with the same time
pattern but has a double DUM and is usually played more slowly -- it is often used in belly dance
drum solos.
ayyuub 2/4
1-+-2-+-|
D--kD-T-|
D-kkD-S-|
DktkDtkt|
bayou 2/4
1-+-2-+-|
D--DD-T-|
D-kDD-S-|
If you exchange the fundamental DUMs and TEKs in ayyuub you have another rhythm: karAtshi
(Karatchi). Karatchi is a fast 2/4. Note that the second DUM somehow comes out less accented than
the other accented beats. It is used in modern Egyptian music and sometimes alternated with similar
rhythms as a part of a song. Hossam Ramzy says of Karatchi: "From the word 'Karatchi' you can
tell that the next rhythm is not Egyptian. it's also very unusual because it starts with a TAK, which
is the treble beat rather than the DOM, which is the bass beat. However it is widely used in
Egyptian music and North African music."
karAtshi 2/4
1-+-2-+-|
T--kT-D-|
TktkT-D-|
Here are a couple of other simple 2 and 4 beat rhythms. "vox" or "foks" (could it be "fox", and
named after the "foxtrot"?) is very simple 2 (essentially a march -- probably inspired by western
music) often accented in sets of 4 or 8. Used in modern Egyptian compositions. Used by Egyptian
composer Mohamed Abdel Wahab.
foks/vox 2/4
1-+-2-+-|
D---T-K-|
"Jerk" is a Modern Nubian rhythm inspired by a dance of the same name. (Similar to Samba?) In
Egyptian songs (e.g. Fi Yom Wi Leyla) I've heard the double-Dums very close together -- although
someone told me that Souhail Kaspar (a Lebonese teacher in California) taught them the less
syncopated (second) version below.
jerk/jaark/sherk 4/4
1-+-2-+-3-+-4-+-|
D---T---DD--T---|
D-kkT-tkDDtkT-tk|
D---T---D-D-T---|
D-tkG-tkDkDkG-tk|
Conga Masri is another simple rhythm that seems particularly popular among the South American
belly dance crowd:
conga masri/congo masri 4/4
1-+-2-+-3-+-4-+-|
D---T---D-T-----|
D-tkT-tkD-T---tk|
Bolero and a very similar rhythm, Rhumba, are used in many places in the Middle East. Bolero is
usually played more slowly and often with a sort of triplet near the beginning -- it is used to
accompany songs like "Erev Shel Shoshanim" and "Miserlu". Rhumba is often played almost twice
as fast (Rihlat El Ghawzia by Hossam Shaker). Although fundamentally these are 3-3-2 rhythms
(like malfuf/waaHida saghiira) -- the feeling is rather different. This family of rhythms (it's
ancestors) and variations were probably brought to Spain by Middle Eastern musicians (and
gypsies?), adopted into Latin music and probably re-introduced in various ways into modern Middle
Eastern tunes.
bolero 4/4
1-+-2-+-3-+-4-+-5-+-6-+-7-+-8-+-|
D---t3kkT---k---T---k---D---k---|
D---k-k-T---k-k-T-k-T-k-D---T---|
rumbaa/rhumba 2/4
1-+-2-+-3-+-4-+-|
D---____T---D---|
D-tkt-K-T-K-D-k-|
"zaffah" is a rhythm used in the Egyptian wedding processional. Its basic nature is that of a march.
It is used in the wedding processional itself and also sometimes for belly dances that are reminiscent
of these events. (Note that the related "candelabra dance" is usually done to a more up-beat 2 or 4
beat rhythm -- e.g. Saidi). It may also be called "Murrabba Jaza'ira".
zaffah 4/4 (or 8/4)
1-+-2-+-3-+-4-+-|
D-tkt-t-D-t-t---|
D-tkt-t-D-t-t-tt|
D-tkt-t-D-t-D---|
D-D-D-t-tktkt-t-| Hossam Ramzy's "Big Zaffa"
Q: OK, I've got that. What's next? ( Middle Eastern rhythm theory and more rhythms )
Now that we've discussed a few rhythms, let's back up a bit.
So far I presented these rhythms in a very western way -- as evenly divided "measures" of notes.
Historically and traditionally (even now in some folk music traditions) this sense of meter or
measure is much less important. As I mentioned the ancient Greeks, for instance, had only a sense
of stringing numbers of longer or shorter beats together. Repeating cycles were because of the song,
not because there was a particular standard length of measure. The Arabic tradition follows to some
extent, as does the modern Balkan music.
Sometimes interpreting a folk rhythm in our modern western musical context is a challenge...
Modern Middle Eastern and Greek musicians tend to approximate the western method of breaking
down rhythms down by measures. The number of beats per measure (whether played or not) is
important. Measures are made up of groups of 2 or 3 beats (or more) -- usually the first beat of these
groups is the important one (that is the one accented or played more fundamentally than the others).
Historically the repeating pattern was probably stressed and the sense of a fixed measure was
probably weaker. Certainly it is still true in much modern music that the western notation does not
capture the subtle timing and syncopation that might be important in a rhythm.
Recall the version of waaHida that has what we thought was a strange accent pattern -- leaving out
the accent right in the middle of the cycle.
waaHida saghiira 4/4
1-+-2-+-3-+-4-+-|
D---__T-____T---|
More traditionally this rhythm would be broken into segments of 2s and 3s. It would be 3+3+2 in
this case:
D---__T-____T---|
1-2-3 1-2-3 1-2 |
3 + 3 + 2
There are a number of rhythms of this form where 8 beats are divided 3+3+2 to be found in the
music of the Middle East and Mediterranean. The Macedonian gypsy (Romany) version is called
"cocek" (CHO-CHEK) and has a spacey swing to it. In other areas of Greece these rhythms are used
to accompany many songs and line dances and tend to be known as "syrto" (which is the name of a
particular line dance, and also is used to describe the style of music). Syrto's tend to rock back-andforth on alternating measures changing accent slightly (or dramatically) and sometimes are far from
"straight" -- being pulled back sometimes to almost a 7-beat.
In the gulf region (Saudi Arabia) this type of rhythm is called "sa`udI" (Saudi) or "khaliijii" and is
played more slowly and less filled with DUMs on both 1 and 3. It is sometimes played
polyrhythmically with other 8-beat rhythms e.g. "karaatshii" (Karatshi) -- polyrhythm being an
oddity in Middle Eastern music. Apparently this is a fairly modern musical trend influenced by
workers imported from other countries (especially from continental Africa) to support the oil
economy.
In Egypt and Lebanon this rhythm is called "malfuuf" or "laf" and is more filled and often accented
-- most often with a DUM only on 1. "malfuuf" is used to accompany line dances and also used in
more modern, popular music.
Western musicians would count many of these rhythms a 2, since the music tends to swing in and
out finding accents on the first beat and then on "everything else".
cocek 4/4=3+3+2
1-+-2-+-3-+-4-+-|
D---t-T---t-T-k-|
malfuuf 2/4=3+3+2
1-+-2-+-|
D--T--T-|
DkkTkkTk|
D-kT-kT-|
sa`udI 2/4=3+3+2
1-+-2-+-|
D--D--T-|
D-kD-kTk|
syrto 4/4=3+3+2
1-+-2-+-3-+-4-+-|
D---k-D---k-T-k-|
D---k-T---k-T-k-|
murabb`a 13/4=3+4+2+2+2
1-+-2-+-3-+-4-+-5-+-6-+-7-+-8-+-9-+-0-+-1-+-2-+-3-+-|
D---T---T---D---__T---__T---T---____T---T---D---____|
D---T-tkt-k-D-tkT-k-t-k-T-k-T-tkt-k-T-tkT-k-D-tkt-k-|
"darj" generally refers to a 6 beat rhythm -- it can have many forms depending on where you are. 6s
tend to be a little straighter (non-syncopated) in Persia or can swing or syncopate heavily in places
like the Mahgreb. Sometimes, though, it refers to a rhythm in an even multiple of 2 time (4 or 8) -- I
think this is due to the fact that it is hard to distinguish a 6 beat rhythm from a 2 beat rhythm that is
filled in a syncopated way.
darj 6/8
1-+-2-+-3-+-|
D-ktk-D-T---|
D-D-__T-T-__|
Algeria
"Dawr" is used in Arab, Persian, and Turkish music lingo; it refers to a scale or rhythmic cycle that
returns to its starting point. "Dawr Hindi" is first documented in "Ma'refat-e 'elm-e musiqi" an
anonymous work from about the 17th century (probably Persian).
dawr hindii/"Andalus" 7/8
1-+-2-+-3-+-4-+-5-+-6-+-7-+-|
D---T---T---D-------T-------|
D---T-k-T-k-D---t-k-T---t-k-|
3+4
filled
Rhythms that make use of segments(feet) of 3 are known as "aqsaaq" -- it means "broken" or
"limping". This type of rhythm is still part of a lot of traditional Middle Eastern music. The term
"aqsaaq" is used by Turkish musicians (and others) to describe a wide variety of rhythms counted in
groups of 2s and 3s that are not even. Aqsaq rhythms do not necessarily well fit our western
traditions of ratioed measures -- playing correctly is more about fitting the phrasing and timing of
the song than some mathematical structure.
Several of the rhythms mentioned have been aqsaaq rhythms, including "samaa'ii thaqiil"; here are
some more rhythms:
Karsilama means "face-to-face" in Turkish. This 9 beat rhythm is a popular belly dance beat, and is
also used in Turkish and Greek folk songs (e.g. "Rompi Rompi", "Mastika") and modern Turkish
"jazz". The rhythm is grouped as 2+2+2+3 or can be counted in two uneven groups of 3 (slow-thenfast) 1 2 3 123. This 9-beat aqsaaq rhythm is so popular it is sometimes simple called "aqsaaq".
karsilama 9/8=2+2+2+3
1-+-2-+-3-+-4-+-5-|
D-__T-__D-__T-T-t-|
D-kkT-kkD-kkT-T-t-|
D-tkT-tkD-tkTkT-t-|
Some Turkish songs are grouped 2+2+3+2, (e.g. Dere Giliyor Dere) but a very similar pattern is
used with only a slight change of emphasis. The 7th eighth-note in this case is a pickup/chain/bridge
into the important accent on 8 (rather than on the 7). Usually this difference can be heard in the
melody.
karsilama-variation 9/8=2+2+2+3
1-+-2-+-3-+-4-+-5-|
D-__T-__D-__T-t-k-|
D-__T-__D-__t-T-k-|
2+2+2+3
2+2+3+2
variation of above
compare!
Curcuna (JOOR-joon-nuh -- the Turkish "C" is a sound like an english "j" or "ch") is an Armenian
rhythm (I've also heard it in Afgani tunes -- often times nearly straightened to a 6). It is a 10 rhythm
being grouped 3+2+2+3. When played it can almost sound like ayyuub (a 2) with just a bit more
space in it -- or like a 6 beat rhythm. It is not even -- it has a bit of syncopation which is hard to
describe. If you think of it long-short-short-long you'll probably get it. Be careful not to "straighten
it out" into a 2 or a 6. I have sometimes heard the rhythm called "Nubar" -- probably because it is
used for the song "Nubar Nubar". Arabic speaking non-Armenians probably call it "jurjina" which
if you are Egyptian probably comes out "gurgina".
curcuna 10/8
1-+-2-+-3-+-4-+-5-+-|
D-__T-k-__D-__T-____| 2+3+2+3
D---__T---D---T---__| 5+5
There are basically two ways used to form a simple 7-beat rhythm: either 2+2+3 or 3+2+2. I already
mentioned "dawr hindii" which is a 3+2+2. In Greece and Turkey the 223's are generally known as
"laz" or "laz bar" and the 322's as "kalamantiano" (Kalamata is a port in south Greece). Both forms
are used for various folk line dances and songs.
laz 7/8=2+2+3
1-+-2-+-3-+-4-|
D---T---T-----|
D-k-D-k-D-k-k-|
kalamantiano 7/8=3+2+2
1-+-2-+-3-+-4-|
D-t-t-D-t-D-t-|
D-----T---T---|
D-ktk-D-k-S-k-|
D-tkt-D-tkT-t-|
zeymbekiko/zeybek 9/4=4+4+1
1-+-2-+-3-+-4-+-5-+-6-+-7-+-8-+-9-+-|
D---t-k-D---t-k-D---t-k-D---t---t---|
D-t---k-D---t---D-t---k-D---t---t---|
Another family of Greek rhythms is the Tsamikos. They are approximately a 3 or 6-beat rhythm and
are not "even"; they feel "slow-quick-quick". It is important to match the rhythm of the music -perhaps sometimes they sound like "long 2s" or "short 7s".
tsamiko 6/8 or 3/4
1-+-2-+-3-+-4-+-5-+-6-+-|
D-----k-T---k---T---k---|
D-----k--T--k--T--k-----|
maybe this
or maybe like this
For more information about these rhythms and a bunch of other Greek rhythms look at a letter that
Manthos Garlofis wrote me about Greek rhythms.
Further east, the music of the Mahgreb (Morocco, Tunisia) and Andalusia have been greatly
affected by Arabic influences. Modern Spain still has remnants of Arabic influences despite a
reaction to purge as much Moorish culture from the region as possible after the Moors were driven
from the country. The flamenco rhythm tradition partially grew upon roots of Arabic tradition and
the nuba is still considered primarily "Andalusian" although it is also a part of the traditional
classical music of most of north Africa.
Here are some rhythms that are traditionally used in this form of Andalusian musical presentation
known as "nubaat". Each section of a nuba contains some number of songs that share one of these
rhythms and are played without break (or sometimes with a brief taaqasiim). BasiiT sort of has the
feel of a bolero or rhumba, but in 6. I suspect that they are related somewhere in the distant past in
the blending of Arabic tradition. Quddaam, although written as a 3 often comes out (at least in
songs I've heard) sounding like a 2 or a 4 -- especially when it gets fast (and it does). This may be
the effect of a "modernization" of Andalusian music.
basiiT 6/4 or 12/8
1-+-2-+-3-+-4-+-5-+-6-+-|
D-_TD-T-T-TkT-TkT-____T-|
D-k-D-tkT-k-t-k-D-k-t-k-|
inSiraaf 5/8
1-+-2-+-3-|
D-T-__D-__|
DDT-__T-__|
T-T-D-_D-T|
1st bar
2nd bar
"sha'bia" is a Moroccan polyrhythm (unusual in Middle Eastern music -- and hardly a polyrhythm
by the standards of continental African rhythm) played on at least two drums. The 6 beat rhythm is
supposed to represent "heart" and the 12 "lung".
sha'bia 6/8x2 and 12/8
1-+-2-+-3-+-4-+-5-+-6-+-|
T-K-T-K-D-K-T-K-T-K-D-K-| 6 part (heart)
G---D---K-G---K-D-------| 12 part (lung)
This is a bit "unnatural sounding" to the western ear since the most specific accent is not at the start
of the measure. Although even some Moroccan music seems to rotate it so that the "one" is on a
DUM.
Here is another version (according to Hassan Erraji and Salah Dawson-Miller):
sha'bia 6/8x2 and 12/8
1-+-2-+-3-+-4-+-5-+-6-+-|
T-t-t-T-D-t-T-t-t-T-D-t-| 6 part (darabuka - heart)
____t---D-----t---t-D---| 12 part (bendir - lung)
Persia
Apparently Persian music has lost a lot of the more varied rhythmic modes that are mentioned in
historical works written during the height of the Persian and Arabic empires. Today most (fixedrhythm) Persian rhythmic modes are fairly simple 2s, 4s, 6s, or 8s. In Persia there is still a (fading)
classical tradition for music and song that has no western sense of fixed measure but is based on a
loose poetic meter.
Modern (and probably much older) Persian music focuses a lot on melodic and rhythmic
improvisation -- primarily on the stringed "tar". A tar is a skin covered string instrument similar to
(and probably the ancestor of) the oud. The Persian version of the globet shaped drum is called a
"Zarb", "Tombak", "Dombak" -- it is one of the most subtle and interesting Middle Eastern
percussion instruments -- it is probably fairly modern as it starts to appear in artistic representations
of musicians in the 19th century. Zarbists make a wide variety of sounds using complex finger
technique on the head of the drum and also by tapping and scraping rings on the corrugated side of
the drum -- playing along with the stringed instruments during fixed measure sections -- and also
improvising drum solos.
The instrument has become popular in recent years due to a few revolutionary players in the middle
part of the 20th century, including the esteemed Hosain Tehrani. For more information on the
tombak, tombak players, and Iranian music check out The Tombak Network.
Awfar is one of the five fundamental patterns documented in a 17th century Persian work. I don't
know if it describes the rhythm as modernly notated:
awfar 19/8=6+4+2+7
1-+-2-+-3-+-4-+-5-+-6-+-7-+-8-+-9-+-0-|
D---D-------T---T---D---D-T---T-------|
D---D-------T---T---D---D-T---D-------|
Mukhammas is a form of five line Persian verse. Presumably this rhythm accompanies a vocal or
musical form of this poetry.
mukhammas 16/4=7+3+2+4
1-+-2-+-3-+-4-+-5-+-6-+-7-+-8-+-9-+-0-+-1-+-2-+-3-+-4-+-5-+-6-+-7-+|
D---____D---____D---__T---__|T---T---____|T---T---|D---____________|
Persia / Sufi
Check out Peyman's comments on rhythms used on the daf(frame drum) in Persian Sufi music at
this site http://rhythmweb.com/frame/sufi_daf.htm.
Of course the rhythms can also be played on other instruments. Many of these rhythms are rather
syncopated in practice. It's very difficult to get the nuance or "feel" of the rhythm just by reading
the musical notation or by listening to an perfectly counted MIDI sample (there are some live
samples at the site above).
Daem 4
1-+-|
D-tt|
Garyan 14
1-+-2-+-3-+-4-|
D-_D-t-t-_D-t-|
Haddadi 8
1-+-2-+-|
D-Dtt_tt|
HalGerten 16
1-+-2-+-3-+-4-+-|
D-ttD-t-T-ttD-t-|
HayAllah 8
1-+-2-+-|
D-Dtt-T-|
HayAllahAllah 10
1-+-2-+-3-|
D-kT-D-T--|
Maddahi 12
1-+-2-+-3-+-|
D-D-TtD-T---|
Saghghezi 12
1-+-2-+-3-+-|
DttDt-TttDt-|
ZekrEDovvom 16
1-+-2-+-3-+-4-+-|
D-ttD-ttD---T-T-|
The Balkans
Balkan musicians have a pulse-based system in which they will first categorize a rhythm based on
the number of strong beats or pulses in the cycle. Then particular pulses that are accented and pulses
that are longer or shorter than the rest are noted.
For instance a rhythm like "dajchovo", which is fundamentally the same as the 9 beat karsilama,
might be counted as a "4 with a long 4th". The fill TEKs at the end (since they are not fundamental)
are often syncopated.
dajchovo 9/4
1-+-2-+-3-+-4-+-5-|
D---T---D---T-----|
D---T---D---T-t-t-|
D---T---D---T----1
4(long)
Another "nine" called "Grantchasko" (used in the song "Sto Me Je Mile Em Drago"), has a "long 2"
(I think Grantchasko means "potter"):
grantchasko 9/4
1-+-2-+-3-+-4-+-5-|
D---D-----D---T---|
D---D---t-D---T-T-|
D---D-----D---T---,
1
2long 3
4
Or, a more complicated rhythm, "sandasko" is counted a "10 with a long 4 and long 8". A western
musician would probably consider this a 22 beat rhythm with a very slightly shortened 9 and 11. A
Bulgarian musician would probably break it into 2 phrases: 10=6+4 (or 22=13+9, if you are using a
western system -- even so the rhythm sounds 22=9+9+4 to a western ear). Hard to explain, no?
sandasko 22/16
1-+-2-+-3-+-4-+-5-+-6-|
D-t-t-t-.t-t-D-t-.t-t-|
1 2 3 4+ 5 6 7 8+ 9 10
Break Sedi Donka down like this: two 7s=3+2+2 (like the Greek Kalamantiano) and then an 11 or
"5 with a long 3". Notice how you could wrap the rhythm around the measure break and it would
have 3 repeating segments followed by a bit of couple of beats "at the end".
|<-real start
be careful though, the placement of the beginning of the rhythm cycle is important to fitting in to
the music and ornamenting or accenting the rhythm. This type of pattern (where it sounds to the
western ear like the end of the cycle seems to wrap into the beginning of the next) is common in
Balkan rhythms.
The Balkan 7 that is phrased 2+2+3 (similar to the Greek "laz") is called Rachenitsa.
rachenitsa 7/8=2+2+3
1-+-2-+-3-+-4-|
D---D---D---k-|
D---T---T---k-|
D---k---D---k-|
The Balkan 7 that is phrased 3+2+2 (similar to the Greek "kalamentiano") may be called "lesnoto" - which is usually used for the name of a dance (or family of dances) to a slow-quick-quick rhythm
or "chetvorno".
lesnoto 7/8=3+2+2
1-+-2-+-3-+-4-|
D---k-T---T---|
D---k-D-kkT-tk|
However, just looking at the count will not give you a good indication of how to play these rhythms
-- they really have to fit the style of the music.
Many tunes are in measures of 2 with a tendency to use triplets to fill the rhythm -- so they may
sound or count more like 6s. We find this in a similar but probably unrelated way in music in the
Mahgreb.
pravo 2/4
1-+-2-+-|
D---T---|
or in the same time as above but filled as if in 6 (i.e. sounds like a 6 but is really a 2).
pravo 6/8
1-+-2-+-3-+-|
D-----T-----|
D---D-T---T-| filled
D---T-D---T-| filled
Other 2s are relatively straight and non-syncopated, such as "triti puti" which is similar to "ayyuub":
triti puti 2/4
1-+-2-+-|
D-ttD-t-|
D-t-T--t|
D-ttD-t-|
D-t-T---|
Neda Voda is a song that was brought from Macedonia by a musician who heard this song being
played in a train station by the locals. This is the rhythm that goes with it. It is rather pleasant 11
Yemen
Yemen has a strong academic music tradition. In a sort of cultural conservatism they have retained
much of the early Arabic music influences based on poetic meter. Here are some rhythms from
Yemen that are traditional.
das'a kabIr 11/8
1-+-2-+-3-+-4-+-5-+-6-|
D---T-----T-----T-----|
al-ramal 12/8
1-+-2-+-3-+-|
T_T_T_T_Ttt_|
T_T_Ttt_Ttt_|
T-______T___|
T_Ttt_T_Ttt_|
Ttt_T_Ttt_T_|
al-hazaj 12/8=4+3+3+2
1-+-2-+-3-+-|
Ttt_Tt_Tt_T_|
T-______T-__|
al-hazaj 6/8=4+2
1-+-2-|
Ttt_T_|
T-__T_| al-aSl
Tt_Tt_| Risaala al-sharafiyya version
al-faakhitii 20/8
1-+-2-+-3-+-4-+-5-+-|
T-__T_T-__T-__T_T-__|
T_T-__T-__T_T-__T-__|
T_Ttt_Ttt_T_Ttt_Ttt_| Risaala al-sharafiyya version
al-faakhitii 28/8
1-+-2-+-3-+-4-+-5-+-6-+-7-+-|
T_T-__T-__T-__T_T-__T-__T-__| Risaala al-sharafiyya variation in 28
T_Ttt_Ttt_Ttt_T_Ttt_Ttt_Ttt_| Risaala al-sharafiyya variation in 28
Q: Where else can I read about Middle Eastern rhythm history? ( Bibliography )
Check the bibliography of my notes for a class I taught on documenting rhythmic modes in pre1600 Middle Eastern music.
Here's a bibliography from the Encyclopedia Britannica.
If you primarily read English (like me), you are not going to find much on this subject. Henry
George Farmer has a number of books on Arabic music history and theory (some of them in
English). He does not present much about rhythm -- as I mentioned there is apparently not a lot to
find.
Jean During (a modern westerner who studies traditional Persian music) has written about Persian
music theory in both English and French. "The Art of Persian Music" is sort of a coffee table book
but contains a bit of interest about Persian rhythm tradition as well as good overview of Persian
music.
There is a book "The Music of the Arabs" by Habib Hassan Touma -- he includes some rhythmic
mode definitions, although I'm leery about a few of his rhythmic notations. He also includes
historical notes about music development.
The Modal System of Arab and Persian Music AD 1250-1300(O. Wright, 1978) has a brief analysis
on what is to be found about rhythmic modes in historical works from 13th century. Also it has a
mind-numbing amount of analysis of melodical modes, if you are into that sort of thing. Interesting
note: I've seen references to Persian translations of this book referenced by Persian authors writing
about Persian music.
Reading French may help in studying first sources as Rodolphe von Erlanger translated many parts
of historical works in Arabic in his many volumed "La Musique Arabe".
Herman Rechberger is a Finn who studies Arabic music (speaks Arabic) and has apparently traveled
a good deal in the Middle East has a web version of his book on Arabic rhythmic modes here -- it is
very interesting, however I find the rhythmic notation on the web page almost impossible to read.
This is corrected in the hard copy of the book (which I have finally managed to get) and he also
adds fixed space textual notation (possibly inspired by this page and e-conversing with me), and a
couple of short discussions of the rhythmic mode usage in a couple of classical musical families.
Here are a few web links: