CLASSIFICATION OF SENSORS AND HOW TO

CHOOSE A SENSOR
K. AKHILESH REDDY
Vardhaman College Of Engineering, Hyderabad, Telangana, India

ABSTRACT
Sensors have potential applications in diverse areas such as domestic, defense,
industrial and many more. There are many types of sensors which are available in present
market. In this paper, we are going to tell about the general characteristics of the sensor and
how these characteristics are important and these characteristics are responsible for the
development of new range of sensors with improved characteristics to provide a precise output.
There are so many confusions in taking up a sensor for a particular application. From this paper
we are going know how to choose a sensor for a particular application and what are the factors
that are to be considered for selecting a sensor for the respective application.

INTRODUCTION
A sensor is a device that converts a physical phenomenon into an electrical signal.
As such, sensors represent part of the interface between the physical world and the world of
electrical devices, such as computers. The other part of this interface is represented by
actuators which convert electrical signals into physical phenomena. Consider the level-control
system shown in Fig. 1.1 . The operator adjusts the level of fluid in the tank by manipulating
its valve. Variations in the inlet flow rate, temperature changes (these would alter the fluids
viscosity and consequently the flow rate through the valve),and similar disturbances must be
compensated for by the operator. Without control, the tank is likely to flood, or run dry. To act
appropriately the operator must obtain timely information about the level of fluid in the tank. In
this example, the information is generated by the sensor, which consists of two main parts: the
sight tube on the tank and the operators eye, which produces an electric response in the optic
nerve

What is important is to find the right sensor for a particular application.This involves the
right measurement technique, the right size and weight, the right operating temperature range
and power consumption, and of course the right price range.

Fig. 1.1 Level control system. A sight tube and operators eye form a sensor, a device which
converts information into an electrical signal
The term sensor should be distinguished from transducer.An example of a transducer is a
loudspeaker, which converts an electrical signal into a variable magnetic field and subsequen-tly, into acoustic waves.2 This is nothing to do with perception or sensing. Transducers may be
used as actuators in various systems. An actuator may be described as an opposite to a sensor;
it converts electrical signal into generally non electrical energy.Transducers may be parts of
complex sensors (Fig. 1.2).

Fig. 1.2 A sensor may incorporate several transducers. s1, s2, and so on are various types of
energy. Note that the last part is a direct sensor producing electrical output e.

CLASSIFICATION OF SENSORS
The sensors are classified into the following criteria:
1. Primary Input quantity (Measurand)
2. Transduction principles (Using physical and chemical effects)
3. Material and Technology
4. Property
5. Application
Transduction principle is the fundamental criteria which are followed for an efficient approach.
Usually, material and technology criteria are chosen by the development engineering group.

Classification based on property is as given below:

Temperature - Thermistors, thermocouples, RTDs, IC and many more.

Pressure - Fibre optic, vacuum, elastic liquid based manometers, LVDT,

electronic.

Flow - Electromagnetic, differential pressure, positional displacement, thermal

mass, etc.
Level Sensor - Differential pressure, ultrasonic radio frequency, radar, thermal
displacement etc
Proximity and displacement - LVDT, photoelectric, capacitive, magnetic,
ultrasonic.
Biosensors - Resonant mirror, electrochemical, surface Plasmon resonance,
Light addressable potentio-metric.
Image - Charge coupled devices, CMOS
Gas and chemical - Semiconductor, Infrared, Conlike aircraft, automobiles, etc
and in fields of video games, toys, etc. Magnetometes are those sensors which measure
magnetic flux intensity B (in units of Tesla or As/m2).ductance, Electrochemical.
Acceleration - Gyroscopes, Accelerometers.
Others - Moisture, humidity sensor,speed sensor, mass, tilt sensor, force,
viscosity.
Surface Plasmon resonance and Light addressable potentio-metric from the Bio-sensors group
are the new optical technology based sensors. CMOS image sensor have low resolution as
compared to charge coupled devices. CMOS has the advantages of small size, cheap, less
power consumption and hence are better substitutes for Charge coupled devices.
Accelerometers are independently grouped because of their vital role in future applications

Classification based on Application is as given below:

Industrial process control, measurement and automation
Non-industrial use Aircraft, Medical products, Automobiles, Consumer
electronics, other type of sensors.

Sensors can be classified based on power or energy supply requirement of the

sensors:
Active Sensor - Sensors that require power supply are called as Active Sensors.
Example: LiDAR (Light detection and ranging), photoconductive cell.
Passive Sensor - Sensors that do not require power supply are called as Passive
Sensors. Example: Radiometers, film photography.

In the current and future applications, sensors can be classified into groups as
follows:
Accelerometers - These are based on the Micro Electro Mechanical sensor
technology. They are used for patient monitoring which includes pace makers and
vehicle dynamic systems.
Biosensors - These are based on the electrochemical technology. They are used
for food testing, medical care device, water testing, and biological warfare agent
detection.
Image Sensors - These are based on the CMOS technology. They are used in
consumer electronics, biometrics, traffic and security surveillance and PC imaging.
Motion Detectors - These are based on the Infrared, Ultrasonic, and Microwave /
radar technology. They are used in video games and simulations, light activation and
security detection.

SENSOR CHARACTERISTICS
The following are some of the more important sensor characteristics:

Transfer Function
The transfer function shows the functional relationship between physical input signal and
electrical output signal. Usually, this relationship is represented as a graph showing the
relationship between the input and output signal, and the details of this relationship may
constitute a complete description of the sensor characteristics. For expensive sensors that are
individually calibrated, this might take the form of the certified calibration curve.

Sensitivity
The sensitivity is defined in terms of the relationship between input physical signal and output
electrical signal. It is generally the ratio between a small change in electrical signal to a small

change in physical signal. A thermometer would have high sensitivity if a small temperature
change resulted in a large voltage change.

Span or Dynamic Range

The range of input physical signals that may be converted to electrical signals by the sensor is
the dynamic range or span. Signals outside of this range are expected to cause unacceptably
large inaccuracy.

Accuracy or Uncertainty
Uncertainty is generally defined as the largest expected error between actual and ideal output
signals. Sometimes this is quoted as a fraction of the full-scale output or a fraction of the
reading. For example, a thermometer might be guaranteed accurate to within 5% of FSO (Full
Scale Output). Accuracy is generally considered by metrologists to be a qualitative term, while
uncertainty is quantitative.

Hysteresis
Some sensors do not return to the same output value when the input stimulus is cycled up or
down. The width of the expected error in terms of the measured quantity is defined as the
hysteresis. Typical units are kelvin or percent of FSO.

Nonlinearity (often called Linearity)

The maximum deviation from a linear transfer function over the specified dynamic range. There
are several measures of this error. The most common compares the actual transfer function with
the best straight line, which lies midway between the two parallel lines that encompass the
entire transfer function over the specified dynamic range of the device. This choice of
comparison method is popular because it makes most sensors look the best.

Noise
All sensors produce some output noise in addition to the output signal. In some cases exist in
which the noise of the sensor limits the performance of the system based on the sensor. Noise
is generally distributed across the frequency spectrum. Many common noise sources
produce a white noise distribution, which is to say that the spectral noise density is the same at
all frequencies.

Resolution
The resolution of a sensor is defined as the minimum detectable signal fluctuation. Since
fluctuations are temporal phenomena, there is some relationship between the timescale for the
fluctuation and the minimum detectable amplitude.Therefore, the definition of resolution must
include some information about the nature of the measurement being carried out.

Bandwidth
All sensors have finite response times to an instantaneous change in physical signal. In
addition, many sensors have decay times, which would represent the time after a step change
in physical signal for the sensor output to decay to its original value. The reciprocal of these
times correspond to the upper and lower cutoff frequencies, respectively. The bandwidth of a
sensor is the frequency range between these two frequencies.

Calibration
If sensors manufacturer tolerances and tolerances of the interface (signal conditioning) circuit
are broader than the required system accuracy, a calibration of the sensor or a combination of a
sensor and an interface circuit is required to minimize errors.

Repeatability
Repeatability (reproducibility) error is caused by the inability of a sensor to represent the same
value under presumably identical conditions. The repeatability is expressed as a maximum
difference between the output readings as determined by two calibrating cycles , unless
otherwise specified.

Dead band
Dead band is insensitivity of a sensor in a specific range of the input signals. In that range, the
output may remain near a certain value (often zero) over an entire dead band zone.

FACTORS FOR SELECTING A SENSOR

There are certain features which have to be considered when we choose a sensor. They are as
given below:
1. Accuracy
2. Environmental condition - usually has limits for temperature/ humidity
3. Range - Measurement limit of sensor

4. Calibration - Essential for most of the measuring devices as the readings changes with time
5. Resolution - Smallest increment detected by the sensor
6. Cost
7. Repeatability - The reading that varies is repeatedly measured under the same environment

CONCLUSION
From this paper, we came to know about the different types of the sensors in different
constraints. Following characteristics are to be considered for the selection for the particular
sensor for the corresponding application. From this one can select the apt sensor for developing
an application.

REFERENCES
1. Jacob Fraden, Handbook of Modern Sensors -Physics, Designs, and
Applications, Fourth Edition
2. Jon S. Wilson, Sensor Technology Hand Book,2005
3. Thomas Brunl, EMBEDDED ROBOTICS, Mobile Robot Design and Applications
With Embedded Systems, Second edition,2006