Photo Sonja Holopainen

9Deductive Reasoning

SJSU Spring 2014 Comm 41 Sect 04, 06

Minna Holopainen
SJSU Spring 2014 Comm 41 Holopainen

Agenda
Syllogisms
Aristotelian Logic
Diagramming Arguments

Photo Sonja Holopainen

SJSU Spring 2014 Comm 41 Holopainen

Deductive Reasoning
Syllogisms
Aristotelian logic
Diagramming arguments

SJSU Spring 2014 Comm 41 Holopainen

Two Logic Systems

Inductive Reasoning

Deductive Reasoning

X
Finding patterns
Forming conclusions

Eliminating options
Testing hypotheses
SJSU Spring 2014 Comm 41 Holopainen

Logic
Informal logic
The study of natural language
arguments
Fallacies
Formal logic
The study of inference with purely
formal content, where that content
is made explicit.
Concerned with the form of an
argument
Deductive
Aristotles syllogistic logic

Photo Sonja Holopainen, 2009

SJSU Spring 2014 Comm 41 Holopainen

Types of Deductive
Arguments
Argument by elimination
Argument based on mathematics
Argument from definition

SJSU Spring 2014 Comm 41 Holopainen

Syllogisms

SJSU Spring 2014 Comm 41 Holopainen

Syllogisms
Greek:
(syllogismos)"conclusion,"
"inference"
"A discourse in which, certain
things having been supposed,
something dierent from the
things' supposed results of
necessity because these things
are so." (Aristotles Prior
Analytics 24b1820)

Aristotle by Rembrandt
Picture from http://www.uah.edu/colleges/liberal/philosophy/heikes/302/time/rembrant/aristotlehomer.jpg without permission.

SJSU Spring 2014 Comm 41 Holopainen

Deductive forms of reasoning

SYLLOGISMS

ENTHYMEME

Categorical

Disjunctive

Hypothetical

Major premise:
All men are mortal.
Minor premise:
Socrates is a man.

P or Q.
Not P.

If P, then Q.
P.
Therefore, Q.

Therefore, Q.

If P, then Q.
Not Q.
Therefore, not P.

Conclusion:
Therefore, Socrates is
mortal.

An incomplete
argument in which
either a premise or
conclusion is assumed

If P Q.
If Q R.
Therefore, P R.
Ill have coee or tea.
Not coee.
Therefore, tea.

Picture from http://dm-lifeservers.com/wordpress/wp-content/sokrates.gif without permission.

If I go to bed early, I will get

enough sleep.
If I get enough sleep, I will
do well in my speech
tomorrow.
Therefore, if I go to bed early,
I will do well in my speech
tomorrow.

Socrates is mortal
because he is a man.
Socrates is mortal
because all men are
mortal.

SJSU Spring 2014 Comm 41 Holopainen

Valid and weak forms of conditionals

VALID FORMS
Arming the antecedent
(modus ponens)

If P, then Q.
antecedent

INVALID/WEAK FORMS

consequent

If P, then Q.
P.
Therefore, Q.

Arming the consequent

(converse error)
If P, then Q.
Q.
So, P.

If today is Tuesday, then I will go to work.

Today is Tuesday.
Therefore, I will go to work.

If Bill Gates owns Fort Knox, then he is rich.

Bill Gates is rich.
Therefore, Bill Gates owns Fort Knox.

Source: Wikipedia, 2009

Source: Wikipedia, 2009

Denying the consequent (modus tollens)

Denying the antecedent (inverse error)

If P, then Q.
Not Q.
Therefore, not P.

If P, then Q.
Not P.
So, not Q.

If an intruder is detected, the alarm goes o.

The alarm does not go o.
Therefore, no intruder is detected.

If Queen Elizabeth is an American citizen, then

she is a human being.
Queen Elizabeth is not an American citizen.
Therefore, Queen Elizabeth is not a human being.

Source: Wikipedia, 2009

Source: Wikipedia, 2009

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Aristotelian Logic

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Aristotle
384-322 BCE
Student of Plato
Teacher of Alexander the Great

Picture from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Aristotle_Altemps_Inv8575.jpg without permission.

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Four Categorical Claims

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ALL

SOME

NO

Always

Sometimes

Never

Everything

Something

Nothing

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All

Some

No

Only children are noisy.

At least one child is noisy.

No child is noisy.

Everything sweet turns

sour in my mouth.

Some sweets turn sour in

my mouth.

Not a single sweet thing

turns sour in my mouth.

Every page has a stain in

it.

There is a page that has a

stain in it.

Not even one page has a

stain in it.

Everybodys feet were

cold.

There were a few people

whose feet were cold.

Nobodys feet were cold.

All cups were in the

cupboard.

There was a cup that was

in the cupboard.

There were no cups in the

cupboard.

Each respondent replied

promptly.

A number of respondents
replied promptly.

Not a single respondent

replied promptly.

Every time I call him he

answers.

Only sometimes when I

call him he answers.

He never answers when I

call him.

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Four Categorical Claims

Armative (quality)

Negative (quality)

Universals (quantity)
All S are P.
a is P.

No S is P.
a is not P.

Particulars (quantity)
Some S is P.

Some S is not P.

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Square of Opposition

Source Stanford Encyclopedia of Phiosophy at http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/contradiction/.

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Practice Square of Opposition

All board members drink coee.

Some people like to dance.

Some board members do not

drink coee.
Contradictories

Some people do not like to dance.

Subcontraries

Everyone who lives must die.

Nobody who lives must die.
Contraries
Mary always sleeps in class.
Mary sometimes sleeps in class.
Subalternates

Graph from Stanford Encyclopedia of Phiosophy at http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/contradiction/.

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Four types of claims:

AAll humans are mortal.
ENo human is ageless.
ISome humans are happy.
OSome humans are not
greedy.
There are 256 types of
categorical syllogisms: AAA,
AEA, AIA, AOA, AAE, AAI, etc.

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Diagramming Arguments

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Good arguments
Valid
Strong
Good
arguments

A sound
argument
has to be
valid.

Weak
Implausible

Plausible
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Arguments validity and strength

Good arguments

VALID

Bad arguments

INVALID
Strong

Every way the premises

could be true leads to
the conclusion.

It is extremely likely
that the premises lead
to the conclusion.

Weak
It is very unlikely or
impossible that the premises
lead to the conclusion.

Whether an argument is valid or strong does not

depend on whether the premises are sound/plausible.
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Reasoning with all

Valid
All S are P.
Q is S.
So Q is P.

Weak
All S are P.
Q is P.
So Q is S.

Mortal things

Mortal things

Men

Mortal things
Men

Men

Valid
All men are mortal.
Socrates is a man.
Therefore, Socrates is mortal.

Weak
All men are mortal.
Socrates is mortal.
Therefore, Socrates is a man.
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Reasoning in a chain with all and some

Valid
All S are P.
All P are Q.
So all S are Q.
Cranky
Busy

Weak
Some S are P.
Some P are Q.
So some S are Q.

Cranky

Cranky

Busy people

Students
Students

Busy people

Students

Valid
All students are busy people.
All busy people are cranky.
So all students are cranky.

Invalid/weak
Some students are busy people.
Some busy people are cranky.
So some students are cranky.
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Reasoning with no
Valid
All S are P.
No Q is P.
So no Q is S.

Weak
All S are P.
No Q is S.
So no Q is P.
Mammal

Mammal

Mammal

Fish
Cats

Cats

Fish

Valid
Every cat is a mammal.
No fish is a mammal.
So no fish is a cat.

Cats

Fish

Invalid/weak
Every cat is a mammal.
No fish is a cat.
So no fish is a mammal.
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Reasoning with almost all

Strong
Almost all S are P.
Q is S.
So Q is P.
Delicious things

Weak
Almost all S are P.
Q is P.
So Q is S.
Delicious things

Delicious things

Madel.

Cookies
Madel.

Usually strong
Almost all cookies are delicious.
Madeline is a cookie.
So Madeline is delicious.

Cookies

Cookies

Madel.

Weak
Almost all cookies are delicious.
Madeline is delicious.
So Madeline is a cookie.
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Reasoning in a chain with almost all

Weak
Almost all S are P.
Almost all P are Q.
So almost all S are Q.

Taxpayers
Over 20-year olds

Senior students

Weak
Almost all senior students are over 20 years old.
Almost all 20-year olds are paying taxes.
So almost all seniors are taxpayers.
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Diagramming Arguments Exercise

1. Get your argument cards.
2. In your group, draw diagrams of all possible cases the argument can be true.
3. Decide if the argument is valid, strong, or weak.

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Practice diagramming
All turtles can swim.
Anything that swims eats fish.
So turtles eat fish.
Anyone who is hot sweats.
Manuel is not sweating.
So Manuel is not hot.
Every toy is safe.
Knife is not a toy.
So no knife is safe.

Some pets are aggressive.

Some aggressive creatures are
dangerous.
So some pets are dangerous.
All funny movies are old.
Modern Times (1936) is old.
So Modern Times is a funny movie.
All food is edible.
Sushi is food.
So sushi is edible.

All her shoes are expensive.

All expensive things are pretty.
So, all her shoes are pretty.
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New concepts
Categorical, disjunctive, and
hypothetical syllogism
Enthymeme
Conditional
Antecedent, consequent
Modus ponens, converse error
Modus tollens, inverse error

Four categorical claims/Square of

Opposition
Universal, particular
Armative, negative
Valid, invalid argument
Strong, weak argument

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Upcoming Assignments
AA3: Moral argument
Library Research Module (Comm Center)
Critical Analysis

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For the next week

Readings
Ch 9 Ethics and moral decision making
AA3 Moral argument assignment sheet
Assignments
Online Study Packet #8
Quiz 9

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