Documenti di Didattica
Documenti di Professioni
Documenti di Cultura
There are this far two phenomenas concerning electricity and magnetism
1.
2.
There exists still a question: if an electric current produces a magnetic field, is it possible to
produce an electric current using magnetic fields
Faradays experiment is
represented if Figure.
Faraday noticed that if
current is constant in X
there is no current in Y.
But when the switch was
closed the galvanometer in
Y was deflected strongly
The galvanometer deflected also strongly in opposite direction if the switch was opened.
Faradays conclusion was that the change in magnetic field can produce an electric current
and it is called as an iduced current. A changing magnetic field induces an emf.
LeRa
www.hamk.fi
b) The induced current is opposite when the magnet is moved away from the coil. The
magnetic field decreases through the coil. In c) no current is induced if the magnet does not
move relative to the coil. The relative motion is able to induce a current and emf in a coil.
LeRa
www.hamk.fi
Magnetic Flux
The incuced emd is proportional to the change of the magnetic flux B, passing
throught the circuit of loop. determined as an area in space where the magnetic forces
are present. The magnetic field is surrounding a magnet in a similar way than the
electric field is surrounding an electric charge.
The magnetic flux is determined
B B A BA cos B A
or
B B d A
Figure: left A magnetic flux through a flat loop a), b) and c) Magnetic flux is proportional
to the number of lines of B that pass through the loop
LeRa
www.hamk.fi
d B
dt
If the circuit contains N closely wrapped loops, the same flux passes through each of
the loops, the induced emf is
d B
N
dt
Example: A magnetic field is perpendicular to a plane of 15cm circular coil
containing 25 loops. The magnetic field increases 150 mT/s through the coil. Calculate
the induced emf in the coil
LeRa
d ( BA cos 0)
2
T
NA dB
25
(
0
,
15
m
)
0
,
15
dt
s 0,26V
dt
www.hamk.fi
Lenzs Law
The minus sign in the Faradays law remind us in which direction the induced emf
generates a current. Lenzz Law determines the direction of the induced current: A
current produced by an induced emf moves in a direction so that the magnetic field
created by that current opposes the original change in flux
Bind
Bind
Figure a) An induced current flows in the direction to generate a magnetic field down to
prevent the increase in flux through the coil. b) Magnetic flux is decreasing and the induced
current flows to a direction to produce a magnetic field up to prevent the flux to decrease
LeRa
www.hamk.fi
through the coil,
Lenzs Law
It is important to note that an emf is induced whenever there is a change in
flux throuth the coil. There are three possibilities: 1. Changing the magnetic
field B, 2 changing the area of a loop in the field and 3. changing the loops
orientation with respect to the field.
Figure: A current can be induced by changing the area of a loop in the magnetic field.
a) Initial situation, a circular loop is in a constant magnetic field. b) The area is
decreased by pulling on its sides, the flux through the coil is reduced and an induced
current is produced to prevent the change in flux through the coil.
LeRa
www.hamk.fi
Lenzs Law
Example: A magnetic field of 250 mT points in to the screen. A coil (N=100) of radius 20
cm turns on its initial position (Figure a) to its final position (Figure b) in 50,0 ms.
Calculate the induced emf and determine the direction of the induced current.
B
t
NB
r 2 0
t
100 0,25T
( 0, 20m ) 2
50103 s
62,8V
The direction of a current is clocwise along the coil (Lenzs law). Explain why?
LeRa
www.hamk.fi
Lenzs Law
Exercise. In Figures below there are four examples a, b, c and d. Determine the
direction of current in each of the cases.
LeRa
www.hamk.fi
d B
dt
BdA
dt
Blvdt
dt
Blv
Note: If a conductor is moving in a magnetic field (Figure b), the induced emf is also = Blv
LeRa
www.hamk.fi
Electric Generators
An electric generator (or dynamo) is one of the most important application of
Faradays law. A generator transforms mechanical energy into electrical energy. Since
there are no possibilities to store electrical energy, we have to product continuously
the same amount of energy we consume. Generators can produce electrical energy
continuously.
A simplified diagram of an ac generator
is shown in Figure. A generator consists of
many loops of wire wound on a
armamture that can rotate in a magnetic
field. The axle of a generator is turned by
some mechanical methods (falling water,
steam turbine, heat engine) and an emf is
induced in the rotating coil. An electric
current is the output of a generator.
Suppose the loop is being made to rotate
in a uniform magnetic field B between the
N and S poles with constant angular
velocity . The change of angle between
the surface vector A and the magnetic field
B with respect to time is
LeRa
www.hamk.fi
and
2f
Electric Generators
The magnetic flux is
B BA cos BA cos t
where A is the area of the loop. The rate of change of magnetic flux is
d B
dt
BA sin t
d B
dt
o NBA
LeRa
www.hamk.fi
Electric Generators
Example: An ac generator (a rotating loop in a magnetic field) must generate a
sinusoidal voltage with peak output 325 V at a frequency of 50 Hz. Suppose the loop is
rotating in a 250 mT magnetic field. Determine the rotational frequency, the area of loop
and the number of loops for that output voltage.
The rotating frequency f = 50 Hz, since one full revolution of a loop gives one cycle of a
sine wave. Lets suppose the area of a loop is 30cm40cm, then we have
o NBA
N
o
BA
The solution is
BA2f
V
0, 25T 0,30325
35
, 4 m 2 2 50Hz
f 50 Hz
A 0,3 0,4m 2 0,12m 2
N 35
LeRa
www.hamk.fi
Electric Generators
A simplified diagram of a dc generator is shown in Figure. Compared to an ac
generator, the slip rings are replaced by split ring commutators. The output of a
generator can be smoothed using a capacitor parallel to output. The other way to
smooth the output voltage, is the use of many armature windings (see Figure b).
http://www.k-wz.de/physik/threephasegenerator.html
LeRa
www.hamk.fi
Electric Generators
In cars, a dc generator is used earlier but in modern cars there are mainly alternators.
Figure shows a diagram of an alternator. Alternators differ from generators that the
electromagnet, called
rotor, is fed by current
from battery and the belt
from the engine rotates the
rotor. The rotor rotates
inside a stator generating
an emf in stator coils.
The output voltage is
taken from stator coils.
This ac output is changed
to a dc voltage using a
four diode bridge and that
dc voltage is used to load
the battery and also to
drive other devices of a
car.
LeRa
www.hamk.fi
a) A start up current
V
I 120
5, 0 24 A
LeRa
I
www.hamk.fi
(120108)V
5, 0
2,4 A
LeRa
www.hamk.fi
Transformers
A transformer is a device for increasing or decreasing ac voltage. An ideal transformer
consists of two coils known as the primary coil and secondary coil (Figure). The coils are
linked by a laminated iron core to minimize eddy currents. The next equations concerns
only to an ideal transformer (no energy losses). When an ac voltage is applied
to the primary coil, the currnet in primary coil
produces a changing magnetic field and also
along the iron core a magnetic flux through a
secondary coil. The emf induced in secondary
coils is
VS N
d B
S dt
VP N P
d B
dt
VS
VP
LeRa
www.hamk.fi
NS
NP
IP
IS
in the lines. The electric power is transmitted close to customers and then the voltage is
decreased to lower value using step down transformers. Depending on the power of
transmission system, there may be several step down transformers before the voltage has a
standard level for customers (230 V in Finland).
LeRa
www.hamk.fi
P
V
120103 W
230V
522 A
P
V
120103 W
230103 V
0,52 A
LeRa
www.hamk.fi
LeRa
www.hamk.fi
E dl 0
Therefore it is possible to determine potential energy for this case (work done between
any two points is independent of the path)
2. and for the fields produced by changing magnetic field the integral is nonzero
E dl
d B
dt
The previeous form is a general form of Faradays law and it means that the electric
field produced by a changing magnetic field is a nonconservative field and it is not
possible to determine potential energy for that case.
Note also: the electric field caused by the changing mangetic field is perpendicular to
that changing magnetic field. This explanes why in electromagnetic waves the E- and Bfields are perpendicular to each other (in most cases).
LeRa
www.hamk.fi
Applications of Induction
Figure left) A diagram of microphone based on induction Figure b) Ground Fault
Circuit Interrupter (GFCI): Fuses and circuit brakers protect systems and apparatus
from wire and damages but they are too slow to protect human beings or animals. A GFCI
is designed fast enough to shut down current to protect humans (an ac current greater
than 50 mA may cause severe damages or death). A sensing coil detects if there is a
difference in input current to a device compared to return current. If the return current is
smaller than the input current, the circuit breaker opens the circuit at S. The GFCI:s are
designed to open the circuit if the net currents through a coil is about 30 mA in a very
short time.
LeRa
www.hamk.fi
Applications of Induction
Figure a) Read/Write head for tapes or disks. In writing the input signal to the coil
generates a magnetic field to core and magnetizes the disk or tape according the input
signal. In reading the signal is out of the coil. Tape of disk moves close the magnet and
the small magnetic areas (generated by writing) create signals proportioal to written
signal. Figure b) A photo from a hard drive showing several platters and read/write heads
LeRa
www.hamk.fi
Mutual Inductance
Figure below represents two coils of wire placed near each other. If a current I1 in coil 1
changes, also the magnetic flux through coil 2 changes. According to Faradays law the
emf 2 is incuced in coil 2. Since the change of magnetic flux in due to current change in
coil 1, it is convenient to express the emf in coil
2 using terms of coil 1. The magnetic flux
through coil 2 depends on the change of rate of
current 1, we define a mutual inductance
M 21
N 2 21
I1
2 N
d 21
2 dt
LeRa
www.hamk.fi
Mutual Inductance
The mutual inducltance M21 depends on the relative position of coils 1 ja 2 , and also on
whether ferromagetic material is used.
If we consider the reverse situation we have
dI2
1
12 dt
where M12 is the mutual inductance of coil 1 with respect to coil 2. In this case
M M12 M 21
and we have for inducec emfs
1 M
dI2
dt
2 M
dI1
dt
LeRa
[M ] VsA s H (henry)
www.hamk.fi
Self-Inductance
If there is an isolated single coil and its current is changing, a changing magnetic flux is
produced inside this coil. According to Faradays law an emf is induced in the same coil
and it opposes the growth of the original field. This phenomena is called a selfinductance, since it is caused by the coil itself. The self-inductance is defined
N B
I
and the emf induced in coil having a self-inductance is
N
The unit of self-inductance is
d B
dt
L dI
dt
[ L] VsA s H (henry)
Circuits always contain some inductance, but often it is small unless the circuit
contains a coil of many turns. A coil that has a significant self-inductance is called
and inductor.
LeRa
www.hamk.fi
Self-Inductance
Example: Determine L for a tigthly wrapped and long solenoid containing N =150,
l = 10,0 cm ad r = 1,0 cm. and the solenoid is a) air filled b) inside the solenoid
there is a ferromagnetic material of m=850.
NI
Solution: A magnetic field inside a solenoid is determined
S
l
B BA
N B
I
NIr 2
l
N 2r 2
l
o N 2r 2
l
H 88,9H
L
LeRa
o m N 2r 2
l
www.hamk.fi
H 75,7mH
U LI
U 12 CV 2
Consider an ideal solenoid. Its self-inductance (air filled) is
o N 2 A
l
U LI
1
2
2
1 o N A
2
l
Bl 2
o N
1 B2
2 o
Al
The energy density u (= energy per unit volume inside the solenoid) is
u
LeRa
U
V
1 B2
2 o