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Drilling and Completing Difficult HP/HT Wells With the Aid of Cesium Formate Brines
A Performance Review
J.D. Downs, SPE, M. Blaszczynski, SPE, J. Turner, SPE, and M. Harris, SPE, Cabot Specialty Fluids
Abstract
Conventional drilling and completion fluids containing
weighting solids or hydrocarbons or halide brines can create
problems with hydraulics, well control, well integrity and well
productivity in HPHT operations. The negative influence of
conventional fluids on drilling and completion operations can
be sufficiently serious to compromise safety and degrade the
economics of challenging HPHT field developments.
Formate brines have been developed specifically to
provide improved drilling and completion fluids that are free
of the troublesome components found in conventional fluids
and therefore better suited to meet the needs of oil companies
involved in difficult HPHT well constructions.
Formate brines have been successfully used as reservoir
drill-in, completion, workover and suspension fluids in more
than 130 HPHT well construction operations over the past 10
years. These applications have included 100 cases in which
high down-hole pressures have necessitated the use of cesium
formate brines for well control purposes.
Some 15 applications of cesium formate brines to date
have been HPHT reservoir drill-in operations in high angle
wells where operators considered that conventional fluids
could create a safety risk and adversely effect project
economics. We review the published information on the field
performance of the cesium formate brines in HPHT
applications, and conclude that the novel benefits of the
technology that were first promised some 15 years ago during
the early product development phase have now been fully
validated.
Introduction
The objective of the drilling and completion process is to
safely deliver high quality wells that are optimized in terms of
providing shareholder value:
The problem now facing the oil industry is that the process of
economically extracting what remains of the worlds
hydrocarbon reserves is stretching the traditional drilling and
completion fluids to their performance limits and beyond. This
is particularly true in the case of offshore HPHT field
developments where the application conditions are extremely
challenging and the required fluid performance demands are
exacting.
This paper examines how conventional drilling and
completion fluids have been failing to fully meet the demands
of difficult HPHT well construction. It then charts the
development of formate brines as the new improved HPHT
drilling and completion fluids, from their origins in Shell
Research in 1986 through to the present day use of cesium
formate brine in North Sea and Gulf of Mexico.
Our review of the published information on the field
performance of the cesium formate brines in HPHT
applications draws us to conclude that the benefits of the
technology that were first promised some 15 years ago during
the early product development phase have now been fully
validated.
Problem definition
Modern HPHT drilling conditions can expose the inherent
design failings of conventional drilling fluids1. The high
loading of barite in conventional muds creates high frictional
pressure losses during circulation in long sections, leading to
unacceptably high ECDs in narrow drilling windows. High
downhole temperatures can degrade the solids-carrying
capacity of conventional muds, causing both dynamic and
static barite sag and increasing the risk of loss of well control
in high-angle wells. Oil-based muds can absorb large volumes
of gas and this can cause well control problems too if the muds
remain static for long periods in long horizontal holes. To
make things worse, an influx of hydrocarbon gas into oilbased mud may destabilize the formulation and cause barite
sag. Laboratory return permeability tests done on samples of a
range of conventional mud types taken directly from the field
show that they can cause considerable formation damage2, and
the presence of very high levels of barite in high-weight muds
formulated for high-pressure wells cannot improve matters.
The use of Corrosion Resistant Alloys (CRA) in HPHT
wells has been exposing fundamental flaws in the performance
of conventional completion fluids based on chloride and
bromide brines. It is well-documented that severe localized
corrosion and stress corrosion cracking of CRA tubulars will
take place in HPHT wells if they are exposed to chloride and
bromide brines containing oxygen, CO2 or H2S 3-9.
Furthermore, the sulfur-containing corrosion inhibitors
commonly used in halide brines are known to decompose to
H2S at high temperatures and create another source of stress
corrosion cracking10. To date the vendors of halide brines
seem to have made little progress towards finding an effective
inhibitor to mitigate the serious corrosion problems created by
their products in HPHT wells.
In conclusion, a review of the challenge posed to
conventional fluids by the demands of HPHT operations
indicates that the use of hydrocarbons, solid weighting agents
and halide brines (chloride and bromides) in drilling muds and
completion fluids increases the risk of problems with well
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It appeared that an aqueous formulation based on solidsfree, non-corrosive brine might provide the required
properties. The question of which brine to use had already
been partially answered by another of Shells research teams
working on drilling fluid viscosfiers in the mid-1980s. This
team had discovered that the temperature stability of common
drilling fluid polymers was enhanced when they were
dissolved in aqueous solutions containing high levels of
sodium and/or potassium formates11. This insight gave them
novel ability to formulate solids-free brine formulations with
densities up to SG 1.57 (13.1 ppg) that had viscosity and fluid
loss control stability at high temperatures.
Further investigation showed that the density ceiling of
formate brine systems could be extended to SG 2.30 (19.2
ppg) with caesium formate12-14. This breakthrough made it
possible to create a seamless suite of formate brines suitable
for use as solids-free drilling and completion fluids across the
commonly required density range; a feat that had never been
possible before. At the closing stages of the first phase of
product development in 1995 the perceived advantages of the
formate brines when compared with conventional HPHT
drilling and completion fluids were 15:
Minimal formation damage
Maintenance of additive properties at high temperatures
Elimination of barite and its sagging problems
Reduced hydraulic flow resistance
Lower ECDs
Lower swab and surge pressures
Better power transmission to motors and bits
Low gas solvency
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Once the wells had reached TD, the used drilling fluid was
processed through normal solids-control equipment to remove
the majority of bridging agents and drill solids. The processed
fluid was then used as a completion fluid during the
completion phase. The wells were put on production with a
typical production rate 35% higher than expected (or higher
than previous offset wells). Mobil concluded 17:
Formate-based fluids have been applied as high density,
temperature stable, low solids, environmentally friendly,
non-damaging, non-corrosive drilling and reservoir
drilling fluids
The use of formate-based fluids has resulted in a dramatic
increase in drilling performance and hydraulics.
Since the use of formate-based fluids has been
implemented the productivity of wells has increased
compared to wells drilled with conventional muds
Stuck-pipe incidents have been significantly reduced with
formate-based fluids due to thinner filter cakes and the
naturally low friction coefficient of formates.
Despite exposure to temperatures of up to 165C (329F)
BHST the polymers in the formate brine have retained
their stability.
Corrosion has been minimal to negligible.
A decade later potassium formate brines are continuing to
provide the solution to the challenges posed by drilling deep
high-angle gas wells. In SPE paper 92407 and accompanying
slides18,19, Saudi Aramco have described how they have
successfully used fluids based on potassium formate brine to
drill and complete a series of long horizontal wells at 13,900 ft
to 14,600ft TVD in hard and abrasive sandstone. Aramco
report that one of the first wells drilled with a low-solids SG
1.44 (12.0 ppg) formate fluid exhibited greatly improved drill
string/wellbore lubricity and bit performance, reduced torque
and drag, reduced ECDs and lower pump pressures. Wells
Tinat-3 and Hawiyah-201 gave excellent flow test results, the
best seen to date in their respective field.
Cesium formate production
By the end-1996 it was clear, from Mobils initial field trials
of potassium formate, that low-solids fluids based on formate
brines with densities up to SG 1.55 (12.9 ppg) could indeed
fulfil their promise in deep gas well drilling and completion
operations where the BHSTs extended up to 165oC (329F).
The only factor preventing the field testing of formates under
even more extreme conditions was that there was insufficient
cesium formate brine available to make useful volumes of
high-density formate brines for HPHT drilling and completion.
It was at this critical point that Cabot Corporation came to the
rescue and announced that it was to build a large-scale
caesium extraction plant, the only one of its kind in the world,
at the TANCO mine site located in Manitoba, Canada.
Without this timely intervention by Cabot the high-density
formate brines would not now be available in kiloton
quantities to fill the gap left by the failure of conventional
drilling and completion fluids to perform adequately in HPHT
well constructions.
Mining started on the TANCO site in 1929 when Jack Nutt
Mines Ltd opened a shaft to extract tin ore from the pegmatite
IADC/SPE 99068
Offshore USA
In early-2002 BP used SG 2.11 (17.60 ppg) cesium formate
brine for an HPHT well (BHST 176oC or 350 oF) intervention
job in the offshore High Island field. Three years later Walter
Oil and Gas used a 17.2 ppg cesium formate brine as a
completion fluid at 215oC (420oF) in a Mobile Area 862 well.
Onshore
In November 2005 the Hungarian operator, MOL, used SG
1.86 (15.5 ppg) caesium formate brine as a completion fluid
for a perforating and frac-pac operation in gas well Vetyem-1.
This was the first use of caesium formate brine in an onshore
HPHT well.
Overview of cesium formate use in HPHT wells
The formate brines make perfect drilling and completion fluids
for difficult well construction projects where extraordinary
fluid performance is critical for economic success. They have
been used in more than 400 wells since their commercial
introduction in 1993 and the demand for formate brines has
been growing steadily at a compound rate of approximately
30% per year over the past decade. As an indication of the
current dimensions of the business it is estimated that the
annual revenues generated from the sale and rental of formate
brines to the oil industry in 2005 should exceed $ 45 million.
Since entering service in 1999 cesium formate brines have
been used in 101 individual HPHT operations in 21 different
fields. In this time they have passed extensive and rigorous
field-testing:
At densities up to SG 2.25 ( 18.7 ppg)
At temperatures up to 215oC (420oF)
For periods up to 18 months downhole
In hole-angles from near-vertical through to horizontal
In oil, gas and condensate reservoirs (all sandstone) with
permeabilities from < 1mD to 2 Darcy
Figure 1 shows the applicational segmentation of cesium
formate jobs to date (October 2005). The majority of
applications have been completion jobs, 54 with straight
cesium formate brine or blended potassium/cesium formate
brines and 10 with low-solids oil-based fluids containing
cesium formate brine as the soluble weighting agent 20-22. The
completions have been of various kinds:
Cased and perforated
With sand control screens
Barefoot (openhole)
Gravel pack
So far only some 20 of the 64 completion operations have
been reported in SPE papers 1,20-24 but the track record of the
cesium formate brines appears to have been flawless
throughout. Perforating with cesium formate brine after
drilling-in with oil-based muds has been a particular success
story 22.
Laboratory studies have shown that formate brines are
non-corrosive, and protect carbon steels and CRA against
localized/pitting corrosion caused by acid gases 8,25,26. Just as
importantly, formate brines do not cause stress corrosion
cracking of CRA tubulars at high temperatures, even in the
presence of acid gases 27. Field use has validated the findings
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Conclusions
The many papers written by operators, over a period of 10
years, on their experiences of using formate brines have
indicated that these fluids can add significant value to difficult
well construction projects by:
- Improving well control
- Reducing NPT
- Improving well productivity
- Improving well integrity and lifetime
- Enabling complex well constructions
- Facilitating access to difficult reserves
- Reducing waste disposal costs
- Reducing waste liability
References
Acknowledgments
This paper is dedicated to Tony Clarke-Sturman and Philip
Sturla, whose original invention in 1986 sparked the
Nomenclature
CRA
=
ECD
=
HPHT
=
OBM
=
ROP
=
SG
=
1.
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IADC/SPE 99068
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10
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16
Drilling
10
Comp/WO- brine
Comp/WO- LSOBM
Stand-by KF
10
Suspension
Well test
Stuck pipe pill
54
2 1 11 1
Statoil
Total
Hydro
44
Shell
BP
13
Walter
COP
Dong
Marathon
MOL
24