Documenti di Didattica
Documenti di Professioni
Documenti di Cultura
Politics Identified
Manifestation of Politics
1. Political Behaviour
2. Political Culture
Is a pattern of individual beliefs and attitudes that relate to political system and to political
issues?
According to Sidney Verba, political culture is a system of beliefs about patterns of
political interaction and political institutions.
Main components of culture
o Political customs
Conventions and practices which have remained in practice in political
process.
o Political beliefs
Integrated coherent convictions of improvable assertions.
Symbolized through flag, national anthem, and monument for martyrdom.
o Political expectations
Imply certain common expectations of people from government.
o Political symbols
o Political attitudes
Preconceived positions of people on political issues, events, leaders and
institutions.
o Political values
Value judgement, whether right or wrong.
o Political traditions
Long and continued practices in political realm.
Political cultures differ from one system to another:
o Participant culture
System that allows its citizens to actively participate in political process
o Subject culture
System that allows its citizens to participate in restricted political system.
o Parochial political culture
People have neither opportunity nor interest in political process.
Regional political culture a set of values, beliefs, and attitudes which residents of a
region share and which to a great or lesser extent, differentiate them from the residents of
other regions.
3 common qualities of political culture:
o Politics and political system are widely accepted and consequently citizens
comply with rules and regulations of the system.
o People are aware of rules and policies of political system they are governed by.
o People expect certain behaviour to be appropriate or in appropriate from their
government.
3. Political Values
Values in society provide people with way of judging whether they are satisfied or not
Power
Wealth
o
o
o
o
Health
4. Conflicting Interests
Transmission of Politics
1. Family
Most natural and least formal institution which introduces people to wider aspects of
social life.
First window to the outside world for child.
2. Educational Institutions
Influenced by teachers and peers.
Individual changes his/her opinion as he/she goes through higher education.
College graduates are found to be more tolerant and open-minded than high school
dropouts.
3. Employment
Work place is a very important forum for public opinion because employees talk about
socio-economic and political issues during coffee break and lunch hour.
4. Religious Institutions
People talk about relevant issues when they go to mosque, church and temple.
5. Clubs
Various clubs cross cutting social classes such as sports clubs, cultural clubs,
entertainment clubs and youth clubs or old age clubs.
People have opportunity to meet each other across social classes based on their
interests.
6. Political Party
Political party has offices and branches throughout the country.
Members and commoners who attend meetings listen to their leaders who frequently visit
from head office to gets a sense of what is going on in the country.
7. Mass Media
Perhaps the most important medium for political socialisation.
Television, in particular is gaining severe influence on the minds of people all over the
world.
8. Legislature
An important institution in modern democratic political system.
Debates various pressing issues of the nation in which citizens react to these issues
either negatively or positively.
Communist system:
o There is an official undisputed ideology that covers all aspects of human life.
o There is a single mass party led by a core dedicated persons who are committed to
ideology.
o No opposition exist.
o All means of communications and media are dedicated to regime and ideology.
o Mass media is the monopoly of the state.
o Weapons are the monopoly of the state.
o State is governed according to the principle of command economy which implies
that the means of production are under the control and ownership of the state.
Politics is central to Islam when defined in realist perspective struggle for power.
o To profess faith in Allah and to proclaim tawhid
Jihad fi sabil Allah (utmost exertion in the way of Allah) is but another name for attempt to
establish Divine Order.
Power is sought in Islam neither for own sake nor personal or collective aggrandisement.
It is not end an end but a means to serve Allah to earn blissful eternal life and thus source of
mercy and justice for humanity.
Shariah (Islamic Law) incorporates temporal with spiritual.
Major concerns of politics
o Striving to control state structure.
o To wrest power for righteous.
o To root out evil and bring about the good life are all relevant to and encouraged by
Islam.
Muhammad Iqbal puts Islam is a single, unanalysable reality which is one or the other, as
your point of view varies.
Aristotle political science cover all institutions including national polities, municipal and
international polities...
As state activities became restricted, political science was redefined as the science of state
or branch of social sciences dealing with theory, organization, government and practice of
the state.
Type
Bluntschli (Swiss scholar)
Austin Ranney
Harold D. Lasswell
Definition
Political science is the science which is concerned with the
state, which endeavours to understand and comprehend the
state in its fundamental conditions, in its essential nature, its
various forms of manifestation, its development
Political science is that part of science which treats the
foundations of the state and the principles of government.
Political science is the science which has for its object the
ascertainment of political facts and arrangement of them in
systematic order as determined by the logical and causal
relations who exist between them.
Political science as the study of the process of making public
decisions and of the individuals and the institutions that
participate in this process.
Political science is the study of who gets what, when, how.
Who political leader, parties, interest groups and voters
What what government does as result of public policy
How activities like voting, campaigning and lobbying
Political science studies not only the state but also the society as a whole in which they are
related to various institutions of state
2. International Relations
Focus on such topics as foreign and national security policies, diplomacy and rivalry,
cooperation and warfare among states.
Also includes study of international law and international and regional organizations.
Examine reasons that motivate states to act
Study causes and consequences of war.
Studies similarities and differences among states as regards their executive, legislative
and judicial bodies, constitutions, laws, administrative organizations, foreign policies,
political parties and processes, economic, social and political functions, and their cultures
and traditions.
Try to explain why one country has many political parties while others only few.
Try to explain why some countries are democratic and others are not.
4. Public Administration
Political theories relate the origin of the state, individualism, democracy, communism,
separation of governmental powers.
Political philosophy presented to man alternative visions of state.
Study of political institutions depends on history in knowing states origin, its growth and
development and its institutions.
Knowledge of historical foundations of state help political thinkers in analysing and
describing present political phenomena and consequences enable them to provide
through lessons of the past the directions to future.
Historians study one particular event or phenomenon
Political scientists compare and contrast various cases and look for generalizations.
Students have clear understanding of how the state exercises its power and authority
over its citizens and why such an exercise is balanced by citizens and other groups of
individuals
Disagree
o Political science deals with dynamic human beings and not with static things
o
o
o
Agree
o
found in science.
People do not behave like atoms.
Political behaviour, in historical sense is unique and not recurring.
People are not mechanical responses that can be reproduced in laboratory.
Human behaviour is complex but such behaviour follows regular patterns.
o
Conclusion
o Political science cannot be as precise and certain as those in natural science.
o Political science is not a science of certainty of mathematics but is a science of
probability.
A persons values will definitely influence the topic chosen for research, the facts collected
and information analysed.
Deals largely with normative questions like how should humans live?.
Put great emphasis on ethics in making political choice.
Teaches people to use logic to find out results of some political act and to anticipate
likely outcomes of social choice.
2. Political Behaviour
3. Public Choice
Has 2 assumptions
i. Assumes political actors are rational and they calculate costs and benefits of
their actions and choose one that leads to best outcome.
ii. Assumes institutional setting within which an individual acts influences those
costs and benefits.
Use abstract models, assumptions about human behaviour, and logical deductions
based on models and assumptions Rational choice model.
Students can use their knowledge to teach civics and politics in schools, colleges and
universities.
SOURCES OF POWER
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
AUTHORITY
Max weber
o Traditional (Ancient customs/traditions)
o Charismatic
o Legal Rational
Platos republic
Aristotles Politics
Machiavellis the Prince
Rosseaus Social Contract
2. Aristotle
Student of Plato
Agreed with Augustine. He combined both reason & faith in his ideas which called
Scholasticism. He stated that human beings are guided by 4 kinds of law (Universal,
Eternal, Natural & Human)
2. Eastern Political Thinkers
Jurists
o Abu Al Hassan Al-Mawardi (Book: The ordinances of Government)
o Al Ghazali (Right proportion in Belief & The Revival of the Sciences of
Religion)
Philosophers
o Al Farabi (Book on civic administration)
Historical Theory
Citizens aware of the outputs of the government but they play no part in the
inputs. Not participate because they feel their participation will have no
influence.
o
Political Socialization
One aspect of the general process of socialization which every person to some
degree undergoes. Process of teaching and learning about all aspects of the
political system.
Systematic treatment of the nature of state began with Aristotle, is by nature a political being;
it his nature to live in a polis.
Consequently, the focus has shifted from morality and virtue to power and authority.
Karl Marx and Max Weber assumed population, territory, government and sovereignty as selfevident features of the state.
1. Plato
-state existed for the purpose of seeking common good and moral perfection
-state was not merely political association but served as a religious community and a
socializing
agency.2. Karl Marx
-state is the product of class contradictions and class struggle and is controlled by the
economically dominant class.
3. Max Weber
-state is a human community that claims the monopoly of the legitimate use of physical
violence in a given territory.
4. -Robert Dahl
- state as a collection of individuals occupying role positions and acting as a group to govern.
5. -Giddens
- state as a political organisation whose rule is territorially ordered and which is able to
mobilise the means of violence to sustain that rule.
Population
Territory
government
sovereignty
Population
-consist of 2 groups:
- citizens (persons formally recognized under law as having membership in the state)
- aliens (inhabitants who arent the citizens of the state at the time of residence)
citizen can be acquired by :
- Jus soli or law of the soil
o Any person born on the soil of the stateis automatically entitled to citizenship.
- Jus sanguinis or law of the blood
o Citizenship is consider as inheritance and at birth a person acquires citizenship of
the parents.
- Naturalization
o Individual state also establish the rules for naturalization, the legal process by
which a person not originally entitled to citizenship may become a citizen.
Territory
Territory includes the geographical limits of the state, its rivers, lakes, natural resources and
the air space above.
Government
Max Weber: A government is an agency that has a monopoly of the legitimate use of physical
force within a given territory.
Sovereignty
State
State is a people organised for law within a definite territory, exercising both internal and
external sovereignty.
Political unit that has the responsibility for conducting its own affairs.
A state is political unit while nation is a cultural and psychological entity.
A state is characterised by sovereignty, a nation may or may not enjoy sovereignty.
Eg: Palestine is a nation but not a state since its lack sovereignty.
Nation State
Nation state refers to a political institution that combines the concept of nation with state.
Refers to a state inhabited by people who identify themselves as a nation because of sharing
culture, history, language ethnicity or other factors.
Eg: In Africa & Asia the two (nation & state) do not generally coincide due to state boundaries
were drawn by colonial powers to suit their interest. As consequences, many nationalities
reside in one state, and one nation has been divided into many states.
Multi-cultural or multi-national states have lesser chance of maintaining democracy and
stability (due to desire of the nations to form their own state).
Leader of multi-cultural states instill sense of nationhood among the people and tried to link
concept of state and nation together and promote feelings of common nationhood among
citizens to see their states transform into nation-states.ong citizens to see their states
transform into nation-states.
state came into existence through a contract or agreement among the people
o People originally lived in a state of nature.
o It was not an organized society
o To escape from unsatisfactory and intolerance condition, people entered into a
contract with their fellowmen.
o Covenant or agreement among people in a civil society was established where the
laws of the state prevailed.
However this theory has been criticized as being unhistorical, illogical and fallacious.
Divine Origin,force and social contract theory are speculative, only historical or evolutionary
has received some acceptability from scholars.
The story argues that the state come into existence as the result of natural evolution.
Evolved gradually as the result of the need of men for order and protection.
Ibnu Taymiyyah
Argues that there is a natural propensity inherent in man who drives him to cooperate with his
fellow creatures for common with his fellow creatures for common well-being and happiness.
Families expanded into clans, clans into tribes, and tribes into larger society. Religion is the
basis of the social organization.
War and migration played important role in formation of state.
Political consciousness played most important role in building up the state.
Basic political philosophy of the communist state is Marxism-Leninism, which claims to have a
coherent and comprehensive theory of the state.
Reject divine right, social contract and force and violence theories of the origin of the state.
Believe that humanity is bound by laws of social development and that human society is
progressing through 5 stages (epochs) of development.
o Primitive-communal epoch
o The slave epoch
o The feudal epoch
o The capitalist epoch
o Social-communist epoch (divided into 2 parts)
Socialist state is a transitional organization preparing for the classless
society.
Full-fledged communism, the state will wither away. With the
establishment of classless
Society & abolition of prvate property the state will become unnecessary.
3 basic requirements
o clear criterion
o mutually exclusive
o jointly exhaustive
Aristotle
o Developed classification regimes
o Adopted the criterion of how many people welded political authority in the state.
Government by one person
Government by few
Government by many
Form
Good
Bad
One
Monarchy
Tyranny
Ruled by
Few
Aristocracy
Oligarchy
Many
Polity
Democracy
Monarchy
o One person rule.
o most efficient and just way of ruling
o modern eg: Great Britain, Sweden and Denmark
Constitutional Monarchy
o The monarchs reign rather than rule and the primary function of the monarch are
symbolic.
o eg: Netherlands, Japan and Malaysia
Past Monarchy that have been eliminated
o Due to royal authority unable or unwilling to alter its political functions along with
political changes.
o Russia, Germany and Hungary
Aristocracy
o From Greek word aristos means rule of the best.
o Government by elite of the society that has high social status, wealth and political
power.
o Status, wealth and power are inherited.
Polity
o rule of many in the interest of all and the best form of government
o this system in the contemporary period is called constitutional democracy
Montesquieu (French Political Philosopher)
o Identify 3 types of government:
Republican
Monarchical
Despotic
Most common modern classification in Western political science consists of the distinction
between
o
o
o
Refers to a political system in which democracy or the rule of the people prevails.
Government run by representatives of the people who are accountable to the people for their
policies and actions.
Its characteristic:
o More than one political party competing, regular elections to determine who run the
government.
o Popular participation is further encouraged and facilitated
o Freedom to form voluntary associations
o Power of central government is limited and regulated by the law.
o Extent of political control over the social and economic spheres of life is relatively
limited.
o Liberal democracies are ruled by civilians, who compete with each other for political
power in and open and non-violent manner.
A state may be defined as Islamic in which Islam is expressly or implicitly declared to be the
religion of the state and policies and administration are conducted in accordance of Quran
and Sunnah.
Its characteristic:
o Sovereignty is nominally vested in God and man acts only as His vicegerent.
o Sytem is based on the principles of consultative decision making within the confines
of Shariah.
o Prevails justice, equality freedom and rule of law.
o System based upon overlapping executive, legislative and judicial branches of
government. May also based upon separation of power.
o Periodic elections conducted.
o Recruitment to positions of political power is relatively open.
o Limited control over the economy.
Authority of government is total and absolute claiming jurisdiction over the whole of a mans
life.
Its characteristic:
o All aspects of individual and social life are considered to be political concern of the
government\t and fit for regulation.
o One party is politically and legally dominant.
o There is an official ideology which is upheld by the ruling single party.
o Judiciary and the mass media are rigidly controlled by the government.
o Terror is used, where necessary to enforce obedience and suppress criticism.
Does not encourage or even allow mass political participationthruogh either political party or
voluntary associations.
Does not possess sufficiently effective means of mass control to be able to regulate social life
very effectively or to direct a centrally controlled economy.
Different from totalitarian system:
o Absence of dominant political ideology.
o Absence of effective mass party or ideology, hence open force and coercion is use to
enforce political obedience.
o Political power is less institutionalized.
o Civil liberties are weakly supported and the mass media and judiciary are more
directly controlled by the government.
o Rule is arbitrary and often highly personalized with little respect for the law or legal
rights.
Horizontal expression of power refers to necessity of ensuring that power is the state is
transmitted to every port of the territorial society.
Territorial division depends on:
Size of the state
Physical geography
Similarity of cultures
A. UNITARY STATE
1. All sovereign power resides in the central or national government.
2. Features of the unitary government:
Formal powers and authority is located at the national centre
Local or regional unit of gov exercise powers and authority
Central gov may at any time redraw or ablolish the boundries
Advantage
- homogenous
- possibility of uniform application of laws
-provide a relatively simple org or no
duplication of service
- no conflict of authority btwn diff level of gov
-less wasteful than others
Disadvantage
-heterogeneous
- tends to leave the responsibility for deciding
local affairs
- tend to overcrowd the agenda
-delay attention, local popu feel neglected
-loss of local initiative to desire politics
B. FEDERAL STATE
1. Federal means league
2. exist at least two set of government and division of government power between national
government
3. Features of the federal state:
Two set of government : central national government and provincial, regional or unit
government
Division between central and regional government
Constitution is supreme law at land and legislation not in conformity
4. Origin:
Unitary state dividing up into several component
Decision in favour of tighter links taken by state
Advantage
Capable to unity diff units-giving -diverse
units the opportunity for local selfgovernment
Include many cultural
Benefit military and eco mobilisation on
large scale
Provide magnificient laboratory
Produce health local intercut
Disadvantage
Often have duplication
Lead to great extension in gov
Absence of uniform policy
Not have clear constitution no
mans land
C. CONFEDERATION
1. People grant politic powers over certain in concern to government of the component part of
political system.
2. Grant no political power directly to central government, central government depends on
government of component part, national government is depends upon component
government.
3. Features:
Right of component gov to withdraw voluntarily from the lager union
Requirement all component part of union changes
4. Objectives
Common defence
Common postal services and communication links
Common commercial practices
AN ISLAMIC PRESPECTIVE
1. The Quran and Sunah are also silent as to the form of gov, unitary, federal or confederal.
2. Constitution of Madinah opted for federal structure
3. Tribes function given autonomous gov within the framework of federal structure.
TYPES OF DEMOCRACY
1. Direct democracy
Defined people rule themselves directly w/o intermediaries
Feature
o popular participation
o majority rule
o political quality
Unusual circumstance
o No of citizen must be small
o Poverty n wealth distribute equally
o Society must culturally homogenous
o laws must be allowed to funct independently
2. Representative (indirect) democracy
Elect their representatives to run the gov on their behalf.
Common things:
o citizen are at least one place removed
o elected representatives stand in place
o free competitive elections
o elections as an efficient and effective way of organising
3. Passing laws method : initiative, referendum and recall
4. Case and For against representative democracy
Representative does not reflect popular opinion
o actions to accord with the wishes of the voters
o not equally open or responsive to all kinds of individual and group
o makes the rule of the few possible
Principle of competitive election, popular participation and major rule ensure greater
degree of efficiency.
Greatest influence most people have on decision is exercised through their choice of
candidates for public.
Peaceful evolution
Socio-economic pluralism
High level of economic development and modernisation
Ethnic group cleavages
Leaders commitment democracy
Defined as representative system, that features fusion rather than separation of executive
and legislative institution and power.
Characteristic
Executive divided into : dignified and efficient
The head of state (monarch or president) appoint head of gov
Head of gov (prime minister or premier) appoint head the ministry
System based on fusion powers
Minister member of parliament head gov give advice head of state
Gov is collective body an responsible to assembly
Gov indirectly responsible to electorate
Examples
Malaysia
Headed by:
- State: nominal paramount ruler or king, gov: Prime minister
- Bicameral parliament: non-elected Senate or Dewan Negara and Dewan Rakyat
Great Britain
-constitution unwritten; partly statues, partly common law and practice
-head of state: Monarch, head of gov: Prime minister
-bicameral parliament: House of lord and House of commons
-House of lord is highest court
Canada
-head of state: Monarch (Governor General), head of gov: Prime minister
-bicameral parliament: Senate and House of commons
- Governor General is highest court
Japan
-head of state: Emperor, head of gov: Prime minister
-bicameral parliament: Diet or Kokkai
- Supreme Court is highest court
India
-head of state: President, head of gov: Prime minister
-bicameral parliament: Council of states or Rajya Sabha
- Supreme Court is highest court
2. PRESIDENTIAL SYSTEM
Organised according to the principle of separation of powers.
Few institutional channel for communication between legislative and executive branches
Characteristic
Executive is a president elected by the people
Head of gov is the head of state
President appoint head of department who responsible to the president
Assembly ultimately supreme over other gov
Division gov power among co-equal exec, legislative and judicial
Executive is directly responsible to electorate
No focus of power in political system
Example
United States of America
- Head of state and gov: President
-bicameral parliament: Senate
- Supreme Court is highest court
Philippines
- Head of state and gov: President
-bicameral parliament: Senate or Senado and House of Representative
- Supreme Court is highest court
Federal Republic of Nigeria
- Head of state and gov: President
-National Assembly (Senate and House of Representative)
- Executive arms: President, Vice President and members of Federal Executive
Council
MIXED SYSTEM
France
-head of state: President, head of gov: Prime minister
-bicameral parliament: Senate and National Assembly
- Supreme Court of Appeals is highest court
Pakistan
-head of state: President (elected by Parliment), head of gov: Prime minister (elected
by PM)
-bicameral parliament or Majlise-Shura: Senate and National Assembly
- Supreme Court of Appeals is highest court
CLASSIFICATION OF CONSTITUTION
A. Written or Unwritten
o Written down in a document or series of document.
o E.g. Malaysia, Canada and Bangladesh
o Contains the fundamental principles concerning legislature, the executive and
judiciary and their powers, the fundamental rights of the citizens and even the
procedure for amending the constitution are clearly written down in a document.
o
o
o
o
B. Rigid or Flexible
o Rigid
- cant be changed easily like passing an ordinary law
- There is a separate and distinct method or procedure for amending the
constitution which is very complicated and rigorous not limited to the authority
of legislature alone.
o Flexible - can be changed easily by legislature like passing an ordinary law.
- Power of parliament is supreme
1.
2.
3.
4.
1.
2.
3.
Rigid
Advantages
Government cant simply change the
constitution
Stable in nature
Limited possibility of conflict between
national government and provincial
government.
Rights of citizens well guaranteed
Disadvantages
Society is not static but dynamic
If flexible, constitution can be
changed to avoid constitutional
conflict.
Too much power for the judiciary to
decide validity of law.
Flexible
Advantages
1. Dynamic
2. Revolution can be avoided
Disadvantages
1. Government or party in charge can
change constitution at their needs.
2. Rights of citizen might be unprotected
A GOOD CONSTITUTION
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
CONSTITUTIONAL GOVERNMENT/CONSTITUTIONALISM
1. Constitutionalism
o Modern concept that desires a political order governed by laws and regulations
o System of divided power
o Fredrich Constitutionalism by dividing power provides a system of effective
restraints upon governmental action.
To limit the arbitrary action of the government to guarantee the
rights of the governed and to define the operation of the sovereign
power.
2. Constitutional Government
o A constitutional government means a limited government.
o Constitutional government must have the provision for:
o Fundamental freedoms
o Democratic rights
o Mobility rights
o Legal rights
o Equality rights
o Right to educations
Legislature occupies the superior place since the function of executive and judiciary are based on
laws passed by legislature.
Legislatures are official government agencies
They are multi-numbered, they are directly elected by citizens, their members are formally equal,
and they arrive at decisions by deliberating on alternatives and the register decision by counting
the votes of their members.
Unicameral
Single chamber
Permit speedy action
Avoids obstruction of the will of the
people
Permits clarity of the people responsibility
of cabinet.
Reduces duplication
Avoids conflict between chambers.
Less Expensive
Popularly elected by the people.
Maintains uniformity in the country.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
Bicameral
Two chambers.
Provide a check on hasty and illconsidered registration.
Avoid despotism of a single chamber.
Help public opinion to crystallize by
interposing delay.
Reflects people will.
Helps divide the workload.
Dies useful and careful revision.
Allows representation to different classes
and groups.
Accounts for their necessity in a
federation.
FUNCTION OF LEGISLATURE
1. Law Making
2. Representation
3. Supervision
4. Financial
5. Electoral
6. Judicial
7. Inquest and
interpellation
8. Amending the
constitution
Muslim scholars conceive legislature in terms of Ahl al-Hall wal al-Aqd and Shura.
These two institutions occasionally merged to perform certain function such as electing the caliph.
Scholars argue that legislature should be composed of representatives and majority of them
should be elected by the people.
The legislature must contains experts in Shariah and modern jurisprudence.
Fundamentally. Legislature is to enact the explicit directives o fth shariah and formulate laws in
conformity with the shariah.
Executives being in charge of the execution of policies and determination of the general rules.
Executives are the top administrator of any government offices.
Executives mean all government official except those who are involved in legislative and
judiciary.
It does include heads of government and the entire staff of officials, high and low, connectd
with the administration of public affairs of the state.
Known as civil servants.
Political executives are either elected for a certain number of years(US) or remains in office
as long as the party in which they are belong can command majority in
legislature(Malaysia,Canada, UK).
Types of Executives
1. Nominal and Real
2. Parliamentary and Presidential
3. Singular and Plural or Collegial
Nominal and Real Executives
The government will always adopt a policy that will benefit the party and its
supporters.
Advantages of parliamentary Executives
o Free from control of legislature.
o Free to adopt reasonable, continuous and consistent policy for the welfare of people.
o The tenure of the office of the President makes the political system more efficient,
independent and bold enough for any measures which are good for the country.
System weaknesses
o Lack of cooperation between the office of president and legislature.
o Possibility of dictatorship.
Single executives is the executive power is vested in one person and having undivided
responsibility (President of US).
Plural or Collegial Executives is the executive power vested in a council of member.
The power is divided among the number of people. (Swiss federation was exercise by a
commission of seven person which known as Bundesrat)
Single executive advantages
o Secure the unity and integrity in the system.
o Decision making is easy and prompt
However, concentration of power in one hand may give rise to despotism.
Advantages of Plural executive
o No danger of one man autocracy and dictatorship.
o Save the nation from tyranny.
o Wisdom lies in multitude of counselors.
Hereditary Principle
Direct popular election
Election by Electoral College
Indirect election by legislature
Nomination.
Hereditary Principle
o
o
o
o
Election by Legislature
Nominated Executive
Function of Executives
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Internal Administration
External administration
Military function
Legislative function
Judicial function
Other
Internal Administration
External Administration
Military functions
Legislative Functions
Judicial Functions
Executive is required to keep an eye on the administration of courts and guarantee its citizens
fairness and impartiality in justice.
Head of Executive appoints the judges in the most countries.
Exec has two important judicial powers:
o Granting pardon
o Granting amnesty
Other Functions
The various department and agencies offer service and licensing function to the people.
Top executive is the symbols of unity in the country.
o Open session for the parliament
o Administer the oath of the elected exec.
o Attends public function.
Political exec head is at the centre of the functional leadership in all political system.
Led by a party
Interlocking of power of the communist party with the bureaucracy of the state which is
reflected in the politburo, presidium and council of state.
India, china and Egypt had developed strong bureaucratic structures long before Europe.
In Europe, a complete model of democratic was first developed in Prussia in the 18 th century.
Organized by Frederick Williams
Est. universities to train the public servants.
Introduced system of competitive examination for recruiting public servants.
In Britain a system recruiting public servant through competitive examination was developed
and introduced to its colonies like India, Malaya, Nigeria and Ghana.
Canada used during the reign of Mackenzie King.
Bureaucracy comes from French words bureaus, meaning offices.
Characteristic of Bureaucracy
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Function of Bureaucrats
1. Administration
a. Execute and enforce the law enacted by the legislature.
b. Implementation of Public policy
c. Two general patterns of administration from the west
i. Anglo-American type (emphasis on the accountability of civil servant through
executive and legislative control)
ii. Continental European type (mostly used mixed type of administration)
d. Unitary system like Great Brittain
e. Federal system like Malaysia, USA, Canada, Germany and Australia has
decentralized administration system.
2. Policy Formulation
a. Policies are made by legislature but formulated by bureaucrats.
b. Bureaucrats devise proposal within the framework of the policy of the government.
c. Bureaucrats provide the details information to the minister.
3. Regulating
What is Law?
Physical science: Law means the sequence between cause and effect
Social science: Law means rules and regulations for controlling human activities
Rules, norms, and folkways are not laws if they are violated, the violator cannot be legally
punished.
Laws the rules behind which there is a sanction of punishment or reward by the state
(supreme society)
Definition of law:
o Hoebel the aspect which employs the force of organized society to regulate
individual and group conduct and to prevent redress or punish deviations from
prescribed social norms
o Holes the prophecies of what the courts will do in fact, and nothing more
pretentious, are what I mean b law
4 elements of law:
o Normative law sets a standard of conduct for improving human behavior and public
good
o Regularity the sets of conduct are made and applied universally
o Administering the courts will objectively apply and administer these sets of conduct
o Legitimacy these sets of conduct are enforced by a recognized legal authority
Sources of law
1. Custom
o Originated either in a conscious effort or in the gradual formation of habits in peoples
lives.
o Once the state came into existence, was transformed into law in most countries
enforced by the legitimate political authority
o Eg. Common laws of United Kingdom are mostly customs accepted by the court
2. Religion
o In the west, governments have enacted many laws which are rooted in the Bible or on
Protestant ethics
o Laws for Muslim are rooted in Quran e.g Islam prohibited the drinking of alcohol
o Later on, many Muslim states have transformed this principle into law by passing the
rule through legislature
3. Adjudication
o Means judge-made laws
o Judge has the authority to make laws for cases which are not covered by existing
laws
o Becomes precedent for subsequent judges as case laws in similar cases
o The decision of judges adds to the total body of laws
4. Jurists
o Based on writings of jurists and scholars
o Great Britain jurist e.g. Coke, Blackstone and Hale
o Muslim jurist: Fuqahas (law-giver in Islam)
However, the writing of these scholars do not by themselves become law only
become laws by recognition from sovereign legitimate political authority
5. Legislation
o Most important direct source of law
o Legislature is the legitimate authority of a state to enact law in most legal systems
o Constitutional laws may be there, but to suit the needs of the time many of them
require amendment through the legislature
o Judge-made laws do not even obtain absolute legality until it is endorsed by
legislature
Types of Law
National law
laws passed by a legitimate sovereign authority and are applied within the jurisdiction of the
authority
e.g. constitutional law(written in constitution)
general law (passed by the legislature on a regular basis)
can be interpreted only by courts
General laws
Administrative laws
International Law
The rules which aim at regulating the conduct of the states in their dealings with one another
Based on agreements, treaties, customs, etc, signed by nation states
Subject to the application of UN & International Court of Justice
Its legitimacy is based on the consent of international community
Important to maintain international peace & security
Legal Systems
Legal system body of rules & regulations, enacted by the legitimate authority
Western civilization
o Common Law
Originated in Great Britain & remain prevalent in most of former British
colonies e.g. Malaysia, Canada, Australia, India & Nigeria
3 features of common law according to Roskin Case law (individual legal
decisions), Judicial decision, Stare decisis (precedent)
o Civil law
Made by Roman, and later incorporated in French Legal System and its
colonies e.g. Quebec province of Canada
Derived by judicial interpretation & precedent
Apply abstract principles to the settlement of disputes
Communist system
o Single Communist party rules law enforcement are controlled by the party
o Law derived from Karl Marx, Lenin & Mao Zedong
o Harsh punishment for anti-state agitation
o Judges are usually members of Communist party
o Was prevalent in former Soviet Union & Eastern European
o Now only China & Cuba apply Communist Legal System
Islamic legal system
o Quran and Sunnah constitute foundation of Islamic Legal System called Shariah
o Secondary sources:
Qiyas analogical reasoning
Ijma consensus of Ummah (Muslim nations)
Istihsan juristic preference
Istislah public good of a course which considered best interest in
community
Istishab continuance or permanence
Urf customs or usages of a particular society which conform to Shariah
Combined legal system
o Some African countries have mixed common law, civil law & Islamic law
o Bangladesh & Malaysia have mixed British common law & Islamic law
o Argentina, Brazil & Mexico are influenced by American practices
o Philippines cite legal precedents in Spanish & American courts
The Courts
Functions of Judiciary/Courts
Purpose of courts to ensure administration of justice
I.
II.
III.
IV.
V.
VI.
Establishing facts the court formulates a set of rules to govern the parties in producing
witness and subjecting them to interrogation
Interpreting laws to apply the law to the facts which have already been found by
investigation and then render decisions
Creating laws the court has to create new law if existing law is not consistent with present
situation
Upholding the Constitution neither the national nor the state government can pass a law
repugnant to the constitution
Preventing Infraction of law citizens can approach the court for protection before the
actual violation occurs e.g restraining orders or injuctions
Judicial Review the court has power to declare any act of the legislature or the executive
null and void, and consequently invalid if they are found to be in conflict with the constitution
Judicial independence is the freedom and independence of judges in discharging their duties.
Fundamental condition of the Rule of Law
Appointment of judges
Judicial Tenure
Judges should hold office until their term is over unless they are involved in corrupt or
immoral activities
Promotion
Salaries
The will of the judges should not be bound by the desire of the executive
Overdevelopment of military
o During colonial rule, the colonial government trusted only the army, which was vital
for its own stability and order
Erosion of colonial bargaining strategy
o Power elites inability to secure stability through bargaining with the diverse groups
within the country
Undermining interests of the Army
o
o
The civilian leaders underestimate the amount of force that is required to maintain the
colonial state
Military was given lower priority than other categories in the national budget
especially in some Muslim state
CHARACTERISTIC OF IDEOLOGY
1. Comprehensive: include ideas about many great matters, such as the place of
human beings in the world, relationship with God and achieving highest social and
political goals.
2. Pervasive: Ideology shaped the political beliefs and actions of people.
3. Extensive: Ideologies are directed towards the masses. A set of idea is held by large
number of people and plays significant role in political affairs.
4. Intensive: Ideology commands a strong commitment from many influences.
INTELECTUAL COMPONENTS
Vision of the
Ideal Polity
Values
Strategy of
Action
Conception of
the Human
Nature
Polotical
Tactics
FUNCTION OF IDEOLOGIES
1. Addresses and satisfy basic human psychological needs (safety, freedom etc.)
2. Provides its believers with a sense of understanding history and societies amd with clues about
what kind of things they should pay attention to or ignore.
3. Ideology is essential, act as reference point.
4. Provides inspirations
CLASSICAL LIBERALISM
In political science, liberalism refers to certain values such as the commitment to individual
freedom.
1. Individual Freedom
2. Rationality
3. Progress
4. Limited Government
5. Economic Freedom
CLASSICAL CONSERVATISM
o French word conservateur
1. Irrational impulses
2. Order and Stabulity
3. Gradual Change
4. Common Sense and Pragmatism
5. Necessity of Government
MARXISM or SCIENTIFIC SOCIALISM
Classical liberalism faced strong criticism
Marxists (socialist lead by Karl Marx) who argued for the overthrow of the capitalist
system.
Marxism can be defined as a theory of human development that aims at explaining all
history on the basis of economic laws of determinism.
Marxism is based on certain ideas :
1. Historical Materialism
2. Surplus Value
3. The Class Struggle
4. Revolution
5. The Classless Society
SOCIAL DEMOCRACY
Edward Bernstein (1850-1932) was the founder of revisionist school of socialist
theory
Produced Evolutionary Socialism, challenge Marxists, concluding that Marx has been
wrong about the necessity for collapse of the capitalist system and socialist
revolution.
Bernstein was assisted by French socialist, Jean Jaures.
Characteristic of Revisionism :
1. Economic Determinism
2. Advancing Capitalism
3. Evolutionary Socialism
4. Pragmatism
COMMUNISM ( MARXISM-LENINISM)
Marxism-Leninism is one of the three variants of Marxism with the key figure of
Russian Intellectual, Lenin.
Principle proposition of Marxism-Leninism
Revolution in a
backward country
Communist party
Dictatorship of
Proletariat
Transition to
Communism
ISLAM AS AN IDEOLOGY
Some ppl disagree because ideology is man-made while Islam is divine.
Islam is a religion approved by God and it is based on the Quran (word of God)
They also argue that ideologies are transient whereas Islam is permanent.
Some major characteristic of Islam:
Simplicity, Rationalism and Practicality
Unity of Matter and Spirit
A Complete Way of Life
Balance between the Individual and Society
Universality and Humanism
The Economic System of Islam
Fascism
o Comes from Latin Fasces means bundle
o Fascism originated In Italy and popular in 1919 with the emergence of Benito
Mussolini (Spain) and Antonio Salazar (Portugal).
o Nazism under Adolf Hitler In Germany as an example of Fascism (dictatorship).
o Features of Fascism:
Totalitarianism Belief in the absolute and totalitarianism state
Nationalism
Antiliberalism reject the notion of democracy and constitutional
government.
Militarism and Violence Glorify war and violence, as morally necessary
Leadership utmost regard to leaders
NATIONALISM
o Carlton Hayes : modern emotional fusion of patriotism and nationality
o Hans Kohn : it is a state of mind, an act of consciousness, the individuals
identification with the we-group
ORIGINS and EFFECTS of NATIONALISM
o Distinctively modern.
o Nationalism emerged from the mixture of ideas and events in Europe, began with
French Revolution and encompassed both Napoleons imperial conquests and his
final defeat by anti-French European powers.
o The revolutionary regime believed that the principle of sovereignty resides essentially
in the nation.
o This idea frighten the monarchs of Europe led by Autrian Hapsburg and threatened
the regime.
o Mazzini founded Young Italy, a revolutionary organization committed to achieve a
united and independent Italian Republic.
o Mazzini claimed that humans are too many and God divided us into nations and
borders.
o He urged many Europeans to be aware of their unity and destiny, throw off alien
monarchies and create free government and work in harmony.
o Mazzini reject all forms of individualism.
ETHNONATIONALISM
The belief that people should be governed only by rulers of the same ethnic group.
Is the claim that and ethnic group is a nation with its own right to political selfdetermination.
Ethnonational conflicts sometimes severe and violent, have wrecked a majority of
newly-independent-states.
Nationalism as important ideological weapon in competitive struggles among ethnic
groups for power and resources.
NATIONALISM AND ISLAM
UMMAH
Internationalism is the feeling that the individual is not only a member of his state but
also a citizen of the world. Promotes peace.
Implies an international society where the nation-state live in relative harmony and
peace with each other.
Core Feminism/Core Feminist Theory: United by the idea that men and women should be
equal politically, economically and socially.
APPROACHES TO FEMINISM
1. The Liberalists on Feminism
Marry Wollstonecraft
o
o
o
o
Harriet Taylor
o
o
o
Believed in the male-female friendship of marriage which were not only desirable for
emotional satisfaction but also essential for the progression of human society.
The Subject of Women (1869) the legal subordination of one sex to the other is
wrong in itself.
Protest against the traditional practice of denying women the equal moral
right of all human beings to choose their occupation according to their own
preferences.
On Liberty(1859) concerned about value of individual freedom
Strongly argued giving voting rights to women and equal rights in the areas of
education and occupation.
The treatment of women as equal would be beneficial for the happiness and
advancement of humanity.
Brian Friedan
o
The Feminine Mystique (1963) Pointed to womens frustration with social norms
that were prejudiced against them and that conditioned them to passively accept
male domination.
Women should receive fair treatment from society because, while there are important
differences between the sexes, women have a right to be treated without prejudice.
Contrary to the liberals, the Marxist insists that the state as an institution is an instrument of
the dominant class to exploit the subordinate classes in society.
Believes that the state in class societies serves the interest of the dominant class.
They consider gender status to be the outcome of economic factors rather than cultural
values.
Sexual asymmetry is explained by the different relationships of men and women to the means
of production.
The only solution to end the sexual asymmetry is to bring women back into the sphere of
social production.
Critics Arguments
-
Marxist assume that with the abolition of the fundamental distortion of class rule, the problem
of stable representation of diverse group interests resulting from the division of labour will be
easily solved.
The idea of women as passive victims of class society is not acceptable.
Although gender inequality may be biologically determined, biological differences between
sexes are by no means unchangeable.
3. Shariah
o Emphasize the role of the extended rather than the nuclear family as the unit of
society.
o Prescribe a much stronger participation of the family in the contracting and
preservation of marriages.
o Islam and Muslim woman generally advocate moulding of individual goals and
interest to accord with the welfare of the larger group and its members.
o Islam specifies a differentiation of male and female roles and responsibility in society.
o The Quran and the Shariah categorically demands a separate legal status for women.
The well-being and flourishing of human and non-human life on earth have value in
themselves
Richness and diversity of life forms are values in themselves and contribute to the fluorishing
of human and non-human life on earth.
Humans have no right to reduce this richness and diversity except to satisfy vital needs.
Present human interference with the non-human world is excessive, and the situation is
rapidly worsening.
The flourishing of human life and cultures is compatible with a substantial decrease of the
human population. The flourishing of non-human life requires such decrease.
Significant change of life and conditions for the better requires change in policies.
The ideological change is mainly that of appreciating life quality rather than adhering to a high
standard of living. There will be a profound awareness of the differences between big and
great.
Those who subscribe to the foregoing points have an obligation directly or indirectly to
participate in the attempt to implement the necessary changes.
Grassroots democracy
Social justice and equal opportunity
Ecological wisdom
Non-violence
Decentralization
Community-based economics and economic justice.
Feminism and gender equity
Respect for diversity
Personal and global responsibility
Future focus and sustainability
Ecological wisdom
Social justice
Participatory democracy
Non-violence
Sustainability
Respect for diversity
According to the Quran, God created nature in balance and mankinds responsibility is to
maintain this balance through wise governance and sound personal conduct.
The Quran describes the believing men and women as those who walk on Earth in humility.
Interpreted as Muslims are to protect natures many bounties given to them by the Almighty.
Enjoins the Muslim to respct and revere the environment
Quran declares that the variety in creation points to the unity in the divine plan
God gave humankind spiritual insight so that it should be able to understand nature.
Human are responsible for maintaining the unity of His creation, the integrity of the Earth, its
flora and fauna, its wildlife and natural environment inclusing water, soil, air, plants, and
animals.
An association of individuals with common set of beliefs and political goals, sharing desire to
take control of the government by constitutional means.
Party Systems
Interactions of parties with each other and with overall political system:
1. Single Party
Parties in power dominates opposition under the names of unity and development.
Undemocratic
Example: Nazi German, Communist Russia
2. The dominant party system
Parties which win 60% or more
Example: Barisan National (BN) even though has lost some seats but the opposition
has generally too fragmented to win.
Parties in Democracy
1. Centralisation
Give the party coherence, discipline, and ideological consistency
2. Setting government policy
Responsible party government is to what extent the party can enact its legislative
program.
3. Party participation in government
Allow clear cut accountability and voter choice.
Any collection of people organized to promote a goal they share or resist some objective of
government or other group that somehow relates to the political process.
Characteristics:
Have formal structure
Able to aggregate and articulate interest
Influence public policies
Influence power instead of taking responsibility of a government
How Does An Interest Group (IG) Different From Political Party (PP)?
1. Goals
Individuality is lost
Some populations does not belong in the group
Iron law of oligarchy
All group not equally treated
Narrow interest get priority over national interest
Fair:
1. Elections to be held at regular interval (usually once every 4-5 years).
2. Votes to have equal access to polling places and they must be able to vote without fear,
coercion, or subsequent reprisals.
3. Votes must be counted accurately and results must be published as soon as possible.
4. All candidates to be given equal budget and time to make their views known.
5. The process to be administered and monitored by an impartial body of electoral specialist.
Types of Elections
1. Normal Election
Expresses the balance of long-term party loyalties in the electorate as a whole.
The election results show that people who have associated themselves mentally with
one party over many years have voted the same party which won the elections.
2. Deviating Election
Winning majority party loses the election due to short-term factors such as candidate
appeal.
3. Realigning or Critical Election
Shows a major shift in the distribution of party loyalties in the electorate.
Electoral System
An electoral system may be defined as a set of rules for conducting an election. Two broad types of
electoral system in use in almost all democracies.
1. Single-Member District Plurality System (SMDP System)
A single member is elected from each district by a plurality of vote.
The candidate with the largest number of votes in a particular area wins election.
First past the post the candidate who wins a plurality of support does not necessarily
command the majority of vote cast in the constituency.
The system favours large parties and hurts small ones.
Another variant of the SMDP system is the alternative vote (AV):
Voters rank candidates in order of preferences by placing numbers.
2. Proportional Representation System (PR System)
Proportional representation allows a political party to win seats in a legislative assembly in
proportion to its share of popular votes.
Two variants of proportional representation: The List System and The Single Transferable
Vote.
The List System:
o The total number of votes won by a party determines how many candidates are
elected from that list.
Single Transferable Vote:
o Allow voters maximum choice of the candidates and also guarantees that all votes
will be used to select representatives.
Public Issues
Direction
Intensity
Stability
Salience (how much the people care about the issue)
Family
Educational Institutions
Employment
Religious Institutions
Clubs
Political Party
Mass Media
Legislature
Political Incompetence
Rational Disengagement
Elite Manipulation
Public Contentment
Common means used by people and governments around the world to achieve political goals
Used in political systems by groups and individual to achieve their political objectives
Used by citizens, groups or governments in different context eg. Military seize control of
government in their country.
4.0
5.0
Stages of Revolution
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
Attention
Acknowledgement
Recognition
Authority
Governance
Countering Terrorism
10.0
4.0
Essential to establish to consolidate and maintain democracy: 1) instill their members the
spirits if collaborations so vital for public affairs 2) play important role in public
informational activities 3)act as instrument for containing the power of the government
and check their potential abuses and violations of the law. 4) help in forming a link
between the people and the government
However, political scientist warn that civil society should not be glorified blindly
Civil society can be dangerous if it does not bridge but perpetuates societal cleavages.
Islam is not against civil society but Islamic civil society is centered around the axis of Islamic
thinking and culture wherein personal or group dictatorship has no place.
Civil society is very much part and parcel of Islam. However, this concept which has been
associated with the European experience and its liberal democratic tradition must be placed
within an Islamic framework.
1)
National Interest
National Power
Foreign Policy
Diplomacy
Economic Instrument of National Policy
Propaganda
National Security
International Peace
a) National Interest
Definition:
i. Nation pursue what is good for their nations (self-interest) as a whole in a
world affairs
ii. Role of state in a global politics selfish
iii. Every country see things in international politics from its own perspective.
Categories:
i. Vital vs secondary: vital seriously threaten the life of the nation which
could lead to a war while secondary something which is not urgent (can
negotiate or compromise).
ii. Temporary vs permanent: temporary means last for a fixed time
(American occupation in Iraq) while permanent last for centuries
(America hegemony all over the world).
iii. Specific vs general: specific refers to single area (sanction on Iraqs)
while general means deals with numbers of issue (universal declaration
of human rights)
iv. Complementary vs conflicting: complimentary mean nations have
common goals (participating in movement against terrorism) while
conflicting is when there is conflict of goals (questions of going to war
with Iraq).
b) National Power
Definition:
i. Historically: being an attribute i.e., possession of strength
ii. Modern: term of relationship
iii. Lerche: capacity of a state to exert coercive influence upon other states
and to be able to resist such influence exerted by the other states upon it
iv. Padelford: the sum total of strength and capabilities a state harnessed and
applied to the advancement of its national interest and the attainment of its
national objectives.
Element:
Tangible
Geography (Location,
Size or territory indicate power, Mountain
(Permanent) size, topography,
area less vulnerable compare to flat country
climate)
Population
Most people not necessary most powerful, it
is essential to have healthy, well-trained,
well-fed, well-informed population
Natural resources
Possession, iron mostly available at great
power country
Industrial capacity
Must enough to utilize those mineral or
resources
Military organization
Number of soldiers, great performance of
soldiers, equipment and armament, and fund
spent on defense is the strength of the
military organization.
Intangible
Effectiveness in
Great power has powerful leaders
(Temporary) leadership
Stability and social
Stable political system need a long-term
cohesiveness
national economic plan in order to be selfsufficient.
Diplomacy
High quality will bring the end and means of
foreign policy into harmony
c) Foreign Policy
Definition:
i. Roseanau: set of administrative decisions, taken in the name of state that
are intended to achieve certain goals in international arena.
ii. Foreign: applies to anything beyond the legal boundaries of a particular
state
iii. Policy: a guide to action intended to realize the goals a state has set for
itself.
Objective:
i. Primitive: extension of territory and survival
d) Diplomacy
Definition:
i. Art of conduction negotiation in the process of implementing foreign policy
ii. Interchangeably with foreign policy involving the entire foreign relation
process
iii. Process or method the government used to pursue foreign policy
iv. Satow: application of intelligence tact to conduct the official relations
between the governments of independent states.
v. Nicholson: being implementation of foreign policy through negotiation
Origin (4 different stages):
i. Bilateral: diplomat is the agent of the king , took place between two states
ii. Multilateral: involving more than 2 states
iii. Conference: involving a large number of countries, establishment of
organizations
iv. Personal diplomacy: the heads of states or leader make direct
negotiation, meet and discuss problem
Mission (head):
Propaganda
Name calling: propagandist attaches as emotion-laden symbol to a person or
country
Glittering Generality: used to describe and idea or policy rather than individuals
Transfer: propagandist try to equate on idea or person with something which is
disliked by the target people.
Plain Folks: propagandist try to be close as much as possible with the values and
style of life of the target.
Selection: present selected facts required to prove predetermined objectives.
Bandwagon: appeals to a mass of people rather than single one or institution
Frustration Scapegoat: to create hate among the masses
Fear: raise the consciousness of a target audiences when they are made aware of an
impending or imminent threat to their lives and welfare.
g) National Security
Definition:
i. The guarantee of territorial integrity and sovereignty of a state.
ii. Quincy: Any armed conflict between two or more nation states is a war
iii. Charles: Use or organized armed forces against a state for achieving its
end is war
iv. Struggle among political units, within and between states involving
organized fighting forces, and resulting in a sizable number of war related
Casualties.
Causes of War:
i. Human aggression: selfish and aggressive
ii. Elite and popular fatalism and misperception
iii. Small group conspiracy
iv. Economics imperialism
v. Nationalist expansionism and irredentism
vi. Systemic inadequacy
vii. General cycles of history
h) International Peace
Peaceful settlement:
i. Negotiation: direct discussion
ii. good offices: assistance of third party, channel of communication
between conflicting parties
iii. Mediation: suggestion of term of settlement
iv. Inquiry
v. Conciliation
vi. Arbitration: applying legal principles to a controversy within limits
vii. Adjudication: judicial settlement.
i)
1)
Quincy Wright international organizational is the art of creating and administering general
and regional societies composed of independent states to facilitate in realizing common
purposes and objectives
Organizations between or among two or more states to facilitate or regulate their mutual
interconnection.
Modern defined both from the point of view of purposes and nature of institution.
Purposes
Nature of
Institution
Consist of 47 clauses.
(22) It shall not be lawful to a believer who holds by what is in this document and believes in God and the last
day to help an evil-doer or to shelter him. The curse of God and His anger on the day of resurrection will be
upon him if he does, and neither repentance nor ransom will be received from him.
(23) Whenever you differ about a matter it must be referred to God and to Muhammad.
(24) The Jews shall contribute to the cost of war so long as they are fighting alongside the believers.
(25) The Jews of the B. Auf are one community with the believers (the Jews have their religion and the
Muslims have theirs), their freedmen and their persons except those who behave unjustly and sinfully, for
they hurt but themselves and their families.
(26-35) The same applies to the Jews of the B. al-Najjar, B. al-Harith, B. Sai ida, B. Jusham, B. al-Aus, B.
Tha'laba, and the Jafna, a clan of the Thalaba and the B. al-Shutayba. Loyalty is a protection against treachery.
The freedmen of Tha laba are as themselves. The close friends of the Jews are as themselves.
(36) None of them shall go out to war save the permission of Muhammad, but he shall not be prevented from
taking revenge for a wound. He who slays a man without warning slays himself and his household, unless it be
one who has wronged him, for God will accept that.
(37) The Jews must bear their expenses and the Muslims their expenses. Each must help the other against
anyone who attacks the people of this document. They must seek mutual advice and consultation, and loyalty
is a protection against treachery. A man is not liable for his allys misdeeds. The wronged must be helped.
(38) The Jews must pay with the believers so long as war lasts.
(39) Yathrib shall be a sanctuary for the people of this document.
(40) A stranger under protection shall be as his host doing no harm and committing no crime.
(41) A woman shall only be given protection with the consent of her family.
(42) If any dispute or controversy likely to cause trouble should arise it must be referred to God and to
Muhammad the apostle of God. God accepts what is nearest to piety and goodness in this document.
(43) Quraysh and their helpers shall not be given protection.
(44) The contracting parties are bound to help one another against any attack on Yathrib.
(45)(a) If they are called to make peace and maintain it they must do so; and if they make a similar demand on
the Muslims it must be carried out except in the case of a holy war.
(45)(b) Every one shall have his portion from the side to which he belongs.
(46) The Jews of al-Aus, their freedmen and themselves have the same standing with the people of this
document in purely loyalty from the people of this document. Loyalty is a protection against treachery. He
who acquires ought to acquire it for himself. God approves of this document.
(47) This deed will not protect the unjust and the sinner. The man who goes forth to fight and the man who
stays at home in the city is safe unless he has been unjust and sinned. God is the protector of the good and
God-fearing man and Muhammad is the apostle of God.
The Secretary General used to act in that capacity at all meetings of the
Assembly and of the Council.
Function: 1) to organize meeting and seminars; 2) to look after the
administrative matters of the League; 3) responsible for preparing the
annual budget and annual report of the League.
!st Secretary General is Eric Drummond, a British Civil Servant.
Born with enthusiasm with the hope that would resolve conflicts and avoid war.
1920-1930: period of success because at least 60 issues brought before the League,
many of them were resolved.
1930s: the involvement of the major powers; Japan (attacked Manchuria) and Italy
(invaded Ethiopia) became the aggressors in conflict.
1939: World War II broke out and the League failure to prevent the war.
Caused of The Leagues failure:
i)
General causes
The idea of suppressing Germany was not good. Since Germany was not
given proper treatment, it was getting ready for the revenge
1930s: None of the states were interested in giving up their own interest.
This was because the world going through a period of depression and the
states has their own problem in their countries
The League had a week beginning. The USA never accepted the
membership of the League. Germany and USSR were not initially
allowed to join the League.
The League had no military of its own to implement its decisions
The League has not independently born. It was a part of Treaty of
Versailles.
ii)
Constitutional
Article 12 Covenant: War was not prohibited. Any state could engage in
war again after 3 months of Leagues decision.
In the League, the decision must be unanimous which almost impossible
task
The League could interfere in the affairs of any state even of the state is
not a member of the League.
iii)
Political
Classification of member; Primary and secondary
The defeated originally not allowed to be a member of the League. Later
they join as a secondary member. They did not see the League as an
objective institution. Germany join the League only to destroy it.
iv)
Organizational
The League is not exactly the international institution in the sense that
none of the country outside the Europe, except Japan was member of the
League. It was primarily the European organization.
London Declaration
Declared for durable international peace
Atlantic Charter
7 principle: 1) principle of right of self-government; 2) sovereignty and
equality of all states; 3) peaceful settlement of all disputes; 4) socioeconomic cooperation; 5) disarmament; 6) fixation of territorial boundary
of every states; and 7) opposition to any kinds of aggression.
Moscow Declaration
Outlined out for a new international organizations.
Teheran Declaration
Approved Moscow Declaration
Bretton-Woods Conference
Meeting at New Hampshire to discuss the financial reconstruction after
the war, especially for developing countries.
Idea of International Monetary Fund (IMF), General Agreement on Tariffs
and Trade (GATT) and World Bank emerged.
Yalta Conference
To discuss the leftover issues regarding the organizations.
Proposed Security Council of UNO, 5 major powers will have veto power,
Ukraine and Byelorussia will be give separate membership.
The organs of UN
f)
ii)
iii)
iv)
v)
Socio-economic challenges:
a)
b)
c)
d)
e)
Poverty
Environmental degradation
Nuclear & weapons proliferation
Terrorism
Narco-trafficking
A. POVERTY
Cause of poverty: excessive population growth
Necessary steps:
1. Developing countries must pay attention to
i.
Accelerating economic growth
ii.
Improving the distribution of income & wealth
iii.
Accelerating social development
2. Developed countries, NGOs, international donors & agencies support financially,
technologically and expert advisors
3. NGOs & agencies must monitor progress on outcomes; surveys & data analysis
B. GLOBALISATION
The increasing integration of nations which affects a wide range of issues (economic,
cultural & political affairs)
Supporters claim;
1. Can remove the barriers to free trade (international trade left to its natural
course without tariffs, quotas, or other restrictions.)
2. Promotes sustainable growth
3. Increases employment
4. Provides higher standard of living
Critics claim;
1. The benefits are only for shareholders of the multinational corporations
2. free trade system = free ride system
3. Causes harm to the society by pollution, crime, unemployment escalating social
costs, etc.
4. Globalization = Shareholder Protectionism
C. ENVIRONMENT
Causes of climate change & ozone layer depletion;
1. Results of unsustainable lifestyles
2. Unhealthy patterns of development
Root causes of environ. crisis;
1. Eurocentric views of progress
2. Outdated economic thinking
3. Excessive focus on economic growth
4. Neo-liberalism and trade
D. AIDS
-
E. WEAPONS PROLIFERATION
Nuclear countries:
Original
Later
USA, USSR, France,
India, Pakistan
China, Britain
-
F. TERRORISM
Conventional war vs. Terrorist war:
Conventional
Intense & concentrated
Battle lines, battle fields, trained
military pros. fight one another
Has a beginning, middle and end
Suspected
Iran, North Korea
Terrorist
Random acts of violence against
civilians
Goals:
a. To coerce a group into granting
certain demands
b. To extract revenge for a
perceived wrong
Weapons of destruction;
1. Biological & chemical easy to manufacture for small groups
2. Nuclear materials
3. Letter bombs use the normal postal to deliver bombs
4. Bombs made of common fertilizer and gasoline
G. NARCO-TERRORISM
-
Narco-terrorist org.: An organized group that is complicit in the acts. of drug trafficking
to fund premeditated, politically-motivated violence perpetrated against non-combatant
targets with the intention to influence
Groups with different objectives;
Kurdistan Workers Party (PKK)
Revolutionary Armed Forces of
Colombia (FARC)
Politically-motivated group use drug
To continue the ideological struggle
trafficking to support terrorist activities
Elements to attack narco-terrorism:
1. Law enforcement efforts
2. Intelligence gathering
3. International cooperation