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One of the most basic and difficult task that teachers face in their work is the process of assessment.
Classroom assessment includes all the processes involved in making decisions about students learning
progress.
It includes the observation of students written work, their answers to questions in class, and performance on
teacher-made and standardized tests.
It facilitates teachers in decision making about learning progress through systematic information gathering.
Besides that, assessment also accomplishes two other important goals; increasing learning and increasing
motivation.
The relationship between learning and assessment is very strong. Students learn more in classes where
assessment is an integral part of instruction than in those where it isnt. Brief assessment that provides
frequent feedback about learning progress is more effective than long, infrequent ones, like once-a-term
tests.
Assessment, evaluation, measurement and test: all four terms have to do with the systematic process of
collecting data and analysing those data to make decisions. These four terms may all mean the same thing,
but there are some important differences among them, especially to teachers who engage in these processes
in their classrooms. However, some experts give more definitions of these terms.
Below are the four narrow definitions of the terms:
Measurement
The process of gathering information about learning. it is the process of quantifying the degree to which
someone or something possesses a given characteristic, quality or feature. The purpose of measurement is to
produce quantitative data, such as test scores, numerical rating on assigned projects, height, weight, visual
acuity and number of sit-ups completed in one minute. The numerical data generated in the measurement
process are typically used in the evaluation of something, for example students achievement.
Evaluation
The process of making decisions on the basis of measurements. For example, a school district may evaluate
alternative approaches to teaching reading to determine which one work best with the students in serves.
Teachers evaluate how well or to what extent their students are achieving instructional outcomes. Teachers
also evaluate students at the end of the year to determine whether they are suitably prepared for the work
expected at the next grade level. Good evaluation requires data gathering for informed decision making.
Assessment
The purposeful process in the classroom to collect data, both qualitative and quantitative. Hence, it is a
broader term than measurement. For teachers, the purpose of assessment is usually to make decisions about
students either as a group or individually. For example, teachers diagnose difficulties, verify learning after
instruction, identify prerequisite learning and determine where to start in a learning sequence based on
students already know. In the classroom, assessment considers students performances on tasks in a variety of
settings and contexts. Assessment also may be intrusive or not, in other words, students may know that they
are being assessed or it may be seamless with instruction, perhaps perceived by the students as nothing more
than a chance to practice what they have learned. Data collection in assessment is accomplished in a variety
of ways such as observation of behaviour, presentation of tasks for students to perform mentally and to
record their response in writing or examination of products produced by the students.
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Test
A question or a task or a series of such, designed to elicit some predetermined behaviour from the person
being tested. The terms assessment and test are usually used interchangeably by many people. However, the
word test implies a paper-and pencil instrument, administered under pre-specified conditions that are
consistent across students. Its traditional usage by teachers has implied a written series of tasks to which
students responded in writing (for example essay or short-answer items) or marked their response choices
with a pen or pencil (for example true-false, multiple choice, or matching items) (Gallagher, 1998).
Tests can be classified into two broad categories according to the behaviour tested:
1. Ability Tests
2. Personality Tests
Ability Tests:
Ability tests measure the maximum performance of a student; what a student can do. There are three types of
ability tests:
1. Achievement Tests: measure attained ability of a student.
2. Aptitude Tests: measure potential ability of a student.
3. Intelligence Tests: measure overall mental ability of a student.
Personality Tests:
Personality tests measure the typical performance of a student; what a student will do. These include:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Attitude tests
Interest tests
Adjustment and temperament tests
Character tests
Other tests of motivational and interpersonal characteristics
Achievement
Tests
Ability Tests
Aptitude Tests
Te s t s
Intelligence
Tests
Attitude tests
Interest tests
PersonalityTests
Adjustment and
temperament
tests
Character tests
Other tests
There is no standard classification system for achievement tests; however we can classify them in five
different ways:
1. According to function
Pre-tests
Mastery Tests
Survey Tests
Diagnostic Tests
2. According to Medium employed
Oral Tests
Written or paper pencil Tests
Performance Tests
3. According to the time available
Speed Tests
Power Tests
4. According to the refinement of procedures in testing
Standardized Tests
Teacher made Tests
5. According to the role played by the examiner in scoring
Essay Tests
Objective Tests
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Pre-tests
Mastery Tests
According to function
Survey Tests
Diagnostic Tests
Achievement
Tests
Oral Tests
According to Medium
employed
Written or paper
pencil Tests
Performance Tests
Speed Tests
According to the time
available
Power Tests
According to the
refinement of
procedures in testing
Standardized Tests
Essay Tests
Objective Tests
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Developing a good test is like target shooting. Hitting the target requires planning; you must choose a
target, select an appropriate arrow, and take careful aim. Developing a good test also requires planning:
you must determine the purpose for the test, and carefully write appropriate test items to achieve that
purpose.
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Content
a chemical equation
the role of food in classical conditioning
a double-blind study
3 elements from the halogen group
The objectives written for a lecture can and should be used as a guide for classroom exams.
The statements of instructional objectives may be implicit or explicit.
1. Implicit statements of instructional objectives:
Refer to some interior responses of students not open to observation, for example we can state that we want
our students to know the meaning of the term measurement. Here the verb know refers to some internal
response which we cannot observe.
2. Explicit statements of instructional objectives:
Refer to specific student performances which a teacher can observe and test. For example we say that we
want our students to define the word measurement. Here the verb define refers to some specific
performance which is open to observation.
The chief difference between the implicit and explicit statements of instructional objectives lies in the choice
of verbs. In implicit statements the actions of the verbs are hidden behaviours while in explicit statements
the actions of the verbs are observable behaviours.
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For example:
Verbs in implicit statements
or
Under-the-skin
Verbs
Know
Understand
Appreciate
Realize
Comprehend
Believe
Think
Enjoy
Grasp
For effective planning of a test, start with a few implicit statements and then break them down into several
smaller explicit statements, keep the number of statements within manageable limits according to their
specification and logical organization.
How To State Instructional Objectives
Although there is no universally accepted format for stating instructional objectives however there appears to
be some consensus among test specialists that an ideal statement of Instructional objective has three main
elements:
1. Identification of the learning outcome
2. Description of the situation under which the learning outcome is to take place
3. Description of the standard of acceptable performance
For example:
Instructional objective: Given a list of 20 words, the student should be able to spell 15 words correctly.
In this example:
to spell the words correctly( Identification of the learning outcome)
Given a list of 20 words (Description of the situation under which the learning outcome is to take place)
to spell 15 words correctly (Description of the standard of acceptable performance)
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Synthesis
Analysis
Application
Comprehension
Knowledge
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Another helpful list of words that are used for different types of objectives follows:
Knowledge
define
identify
indicate
know
label
list
memorize
name
recall
record
relate
repeat
select
underline
Comprehension
classify
describe
discuss
explain
express
identify
locate
paraphrase
recognize
report
restate
review
suggest
summarize
tell
translate
Application Analysis
Synthesis Evaluation
apply
analyse
arrange
appraise
compute
appraise
assemble assess
construct
calculate
collect
choose
demonstrate categorize compose compare
dramatize
compare
construct contrast
employ
contrast
create
decide
give examples criticize
design
estimate
illustrate
debate
formulate evaluate
interpret
determine manage
grade
investigate
diagram
organize judge
operate
differentiate perform
measure
organize
distinguish plan
rate
practice
examine
prepare
revise
predict
experiment produce
score
schedule
inspect
propose
select
shop
inventory set-up
value
sketch
question
translate
relate
use
solve
Adapted from CSU, Bakersfield, PACT Outcomes Assessment Handbook (1999).
Test Question Examples -- The sample questions below demonstrate the use of these verbs, from the most
simple to the highest knowledge level:
Knowledge:
Comprehension:
Application:
Analysis:
War?
Synthesis:
take?
Evaluation:
not?
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TABLE OF SPECIFICATIONS
The third step in planning a test is to setup a table of specifications: a two-way table that relates the
behavioural objectives to course content. The behavioural objectives are listed across the top of the table and
the course content down the left.
A link between content and behaviour that forms a guide for a test is called the Table of Specifications. Let
us suppose that you are teaching a unit on weather. Listed in the first column are the major topics. Across the
top of the remaining columns are the types of behaviour expected. The remaining job is to fill in the table
with the number of items that will be designed at the intersection of the knowledge level and the content
area. Note that this Table should be directly related to your objectives.
The purpose of the table is to ensure that only those behavioural objectives and areas of content that were
actually involved in teaching receive their proper relative emphasis in testing.
Sample of Table of Specifications
Content
Understands
Knows Knows
Knows
Influence on
Basic Weather Specific
Weather
Terms Symbols Facts
Information
1
1
1
3
1
1
1
10
1
1
1
4
Interprets
Weather
Maps
Total
Number of
Items
Air Pressure
3
9
Wind
2
15
Temperature
2
9
Humidity &
1
1
1
7
5
15
Precipitation
Clouds
2
2
2
6
12
Fronts
1
1
5
5
5
17
From Linn and Gronlund, Measurement and Assessment in Teaching, Prentice Hall, 2000.
An objective that could have been used in generating a portion of the above table might be, The student will
be able to select the appropriate symbol for a cold front. That objective would be reflected in the table by
the knowledge of weather symbols for fronts.
From the above table, you can see that air pressure and temperature are not emphasized as much as other
topics. This, if course, should be reflected in the teaching of this unit.
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Below is the Table of specifications for the course on classroom testing. (Table 2.2 from classroom testing in theory
and practice by Dr Azher Rizvi)
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
Behaviour
Knowledge
Understanding
Application
Content
25%
50%
25%
Total
number of
Items
100%
Introduction
16%
Test Planning
12%
Test
construction
20%
Test
Assembly,
Administratio
n & Scoring
8%
Test Analysis
8%
Test
description
12%
Test
Interpretation
8%
Test
Evaluation
16%
Total number
of Items
16
12
10
20
12
16
25
50
25
100
Helpful tips
It is typically not necessary to differentiate between the two levels of knowledge and comprehension
and among the three levels of analysis, synthesis, and evaluation.
Typically knowledge and comprehension are regarded as somewhat lower level items (where the
knowledge is more passive in nature).
Analysis, synthesis, and evaluation (where the examinee usually has to generate responses or
evaluate possible solutions) are considered as higher level items. Your time can be better spent
selecting or generating useful objectives or test items.
Also, in introductory courses, the bulk of learning and instruction will occur at the level of
application and below.
In order for higher level learning to occur, the more basic levels must be well learned.
Higher levels may not be able to be exhibited until you reach a higher course level.
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Short answer
Example:
b) Completion
Example:
2. Selection Type: is the type of test in which the student selects the answer from a given number of
choices. This further has three subtypes namely:
a)
b) Multiple choices
Example:
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c)
Matching
Example:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
Element
Symbol
Hydrogen
Nitrogen
Iron
Calcium
Potassium
Fluorine
Carbon
Helium
A.
B.
C.
D.
E.
F.
G.
H.
I.
J.
K
Ni
N
F
P
C
He
Fe
H
Ca
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Page 18 of 32
S.No
.
Aspects
Objective
Type Test
-----
-----
-----
-----
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
Essay
Type
Test
Superio
r
Superio
r
Superio
r
Superio
r
------------------------Superio
r
Superio
r
----Equally
good
Equally
good
Equally
good
Superior
Superior
Superior
Superior
Superior
Superior
--------Superior
Equally
good
Equally
good
Equally
good
6. If you are better in writing high quality objective test items than in judging the scripts correctly.
(Teacher dependant condition)
Essay type test is recommended under the following conditions:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7. If you are a better critical reader of scripts than an imaginative and creative writer of objective test
items. (Teacher dependant condition)
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Supply type
Items
The
Alternative
Response Item
The Matching
Exercise Items
The short
answer Item
Correct
answer type
The matching
exercise
The
completion
Item
The right
wrong type
Best answer
type
The
rearrangemen
t exercise
The yes or no
type
Worst answer
type
The
interpretative
exercise
The correction
type true false
Most inclusive
answer type
The cluster
type true false
Most
dissimilar
answer type
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Example A
Students will appreciate the process of cell division.
Example B
Given a chart illustrating the process of cell division, students will compare and
contrast each major step in the process.
Example B is more useful for guiding the development of an essay question. Specific intended learning
outcomes are crucial to designing effective essay questions. If the expected outcome to be assessed lacks
clarity and specificity, the essay question meant to assess students achievement of the outcome will likely
assess something other than what is intended. Example A is too general to provide clear guidance in writing
an essay question. The directive verb, appreciate is vague and difficult to assess. It is especially difficult to
judge or assign a grade to students appreciation.
In specifying the intended learning outcome, teachers should clarify the performance that students should be
able to demonstrate as a result of what they have learned. Intended learning outcomes meant to guide the
development of test items will typically begin with a specific directive verb. The outcome statement will
describe the observable behaviour, action or outcome that students should demonstrate. The focus is on what
students should be able to do rather than on the learning or teaching process. Reviewing a list of directive
verbs to determine which verbs most closely match the ability students should demonstrate is helpful.
Appendix B contains a sample list of directive verbs and their definitions.
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Again, intended learning outcomes meant to guide assessment of student learning should be as specific as
possible. Objectives written broadly or generally are adequate for guiding an entire course or for describing
the goals of an entire program, but are not as useful for determining which type of assessment item should be
used.
2. Avoid using essay questions for intended learning outcomes that are better assessed with other
kinds of assessment.
Some types of learning outcomes can be more efficiently and more reliably assessed with selected-response
questions than with essay questions. In addition, some complex learning outcomes can be more directly
assessed with other types of assessment (e.g., performance assessment, simulations, internships) than with
essay questions. Since essay questions typically sample a limited range of content, are time consuming to
score, and involve greater subjectivity in scoring than objectively scored items, the use of essay questions
should be reserved for learning outcomes that cannot be better assessed by some other means.
3. Clearly define and situate the task within a problem situation.
With some essay questions, students can feel like they have an infinite supply of lead to write a response on
an indefinite number of pages about whatever they feel happy to write about. This can happen when the
essay question is vague or open to numerous interpretations. Remember that effective essay questions:
Provide students with an indication of the types of thinking and content to use in responding to the essay
question.
Thus, effective essay questions provide a well-defined task for students. That task should provide students
with an indication of the types of thinking they will use to respond to the essay question and the content they
should reason with.
In essence, an effective essay question produces valid evidence of the degree to which students have
achieved the intended learning outcome. The process of writing effective essay questions requires educators
to carefully select one or more verbs that elicit the desired thought processes in the minds of the students.
The following example demonstrates the importance of carefully choosing directive verbs to align the essay
question with the intended learning outcome.
Example C
Intended learning outcome:
Less effective
essay question:
More effective
essay question:
According to the definition provided in Appendix B, analyze means to break material into its constituent
parts and to determine how the parts relate to one another and to an overall structure or purpose. In the less
effective example, students are asked to describe the impact. To describe requires students to give an account
of the impact of America at war on the American economy, but it does not require students to make an
analysis based on the different effects of the war and how they work together to affect the economy. The
more effective question does make this distinction for students, thereby providing guidance concerning the
task of analyzing. Thus, directive verbs must be carefully selected to clearly reflect the task required of
students and to be aligned to intended outcomes.
Similarly, the object of the directive verb must be carefully written. Just as it is important to select the right
verb, it is important to delimit the scope of the object of that verb. Delimiting the scope of the task helps to
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avoid student responses containing ideas unrelated to the essay question and extreme subjectivity when
scoring responses.
A clearly defined task will specify the performance students should exhibit when responding to the essay
question. A clearly defined task is composed of a directive verb and the object of that verb. For example,
consider the following tasks:
Task
Task
you prefer
Object of
the Verb
the most suitable for the situation
Object of
the Verb
Limiting the subject matter for a given essay question depends on different factors that require the teachers
subject matter expertise and the teachers knowledge of what material was introduced to the students in the
course. Among other things, how to restrict the task can depend on the hierarchy of knowledge related to the
essay question and what parts of the knowledge were emphasized in class. The following example illustrates
the process of limiting the scope of the task for a given essay question.
2. More focused
essay question:
3. More focused
essay question:
4. More focused
essay question:
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5. More focused
essay question:
In the examples above, five essay questions are provided. Example 1 has little structure. The directive verb is
evaluate and the object of the verb is the impact of the Industrial Revolution on England. Very little
guidance is given to students about the task of evaluating and the scope of the task. A student reading
Example 1 may ask the following:
a. The impact on what in England? The economy? Foreign trade? A particular group
of people?
b. Evaluate? Based on what criteria? The significance of the Revolution? The quality
of life in England? Progress in technological advancements?
c. What exactly do you want me to do in my evaluation?
Example 2 delimits the task for students by specifying a particular unit of society in England
affected by the Industrial Revolution (family).
Example 3 is even more focused than Example 2 because students are asked to focus on a subunit of
the family (fathers) and a specific community of families in England (poor communities).
With Example 4, the task is further delimited by giving students a criterion for evaluating the impact
of the Industrial Revolution (whether or not fathers abilities to provide for their children in two
different ways improved because of the Industrial Revolution).
The last example provides more structure for students than all the other examples. In Example 5, the
task is focused and delimited by clarifying for students what must be done to evaluate. Students
must explain how the role of fathers as providers changed and judge whether or not the changes
were an improvement for fathers and their children.
Although the examples differ in the degree of structure and focus provided for students, it is not necessarily
true that more structure and more focus are better than less structure and less focus. As mentioned previously,
when using more structure in essay questions, teachers are trying to avoid at least two problems: bluffing and
grading difficulty. More structure helps to avoid student responses containing ideas unrelated to the essay
question and extreme subjectivity when scoring responses. Of the five examples, the one that would be best
to use, depends on the intended learning outcome that is to be assessed by the essay question and the purpose
for which the essay question is to be used.
Failure to establish adequate and effective limits for the student response to the essay question allows
students to set their own boundaries for their response, meaning that students might provide responses that
are outside of the intended task, that are too long, or that only address a part of the intended task. If students
failure to answer within the intended limits of the essay question can be ascribed to poor or ineffective
wording of the task, the teacher is left with unreliable and invalid information about the students
achievement of the intended learning outcome and has little or no basis for grading the
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student responses. Therefore, teachers are responsible for writing essay questions in such a way that they
provide students with clear boundaries for responses. In short, educators should avoid indeterminate
questions.
A question is indeterminate if it is so unstructured that students can redefine the problem and focus on some
aspect of it with which they are thoroughly familiar, or if experts in the subject matter cannot agree that one
answer is better than another. One way to avoid indeterminate questions is to stay away from vocabulary that
is ambiguous. For example, teachers should avoid using the verb discuss in an essay question. This verb is
simply too broad and vague and therefore fails to provide adequate guidance for students as to how to
respond to the essay question. Moreover, teachers should also avoid including vocabulary that is too
advanced for students.
Once the task of the essay question is clearly defined and the content that students are to use in
accomplishing the task has been delimited, the essay question is ready to be situated in a problem. The
ability to situate well-written tasks within problems is what makes educators effective at writing essay
questions. Both the tasks and the problems are key elements of essay questions.
We have defined the task, now we want to define the problem. The problem in essay questions includes the
unsettled matter or undesirable state of affairs that needs to be resolved. The purpose of the problem is to
provide the students with a context within which they can demonstrate the performance to be assessed.
Ideally, students would not have previously encountered the specific problem.
Depending on the intended learning outcome to be assessed, teachers may take different approaches to
develop the problem in which the task will be situated. In cases where the intended outcome to be assessed
requires complex or critical thinking, often a unique or novel problem situation is developed. In this case, the
problem situation consists of a context that students have not previously encountered and that presents some
unresolved matter or uncertain situation. The purpose of making a novel problem situation part of the essay
question is to confront students with a new context requiring them to assess the situation and derive an
acceptable solution by using knowledge of the relevant subject matter, and reasoning skills.
Writing novel problem situations requires creativity. Essentially, teachers should try to embed the problem in
new and particular circumstances. The circumstances should be strikingly different from those previously
encountered in class or in teaching materials. At the same time, the novel problem situation should not be
completely foreign to the students experience. Novelty is a matter of degree. Hence, the test maker must be
cautious to avoid creating too large of a gap between what students should have learned directly with the
teachers help and what they should be able to conclude by reasoning.
A developed problem situation in an essay question should assess the same intended learning outcome that
guided the instruction, but should be embedded in a new context that requires students to transfer to this new
setting the knowledge, understanding, and cognitive abilities they previously learned. In other words, the
task of the essay question requires students to reason with their knowledge based on a novel context.
When using a novel
problem situation, it is
often described before the
actual essay question is
given.
For
example,
consider the following
essay question meant to
assess complex levels of
thinking. In the example,
the
novel
problem
situation is given first,
followed by the essay
question.
Example:
Page
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Create a hypothesis about the effect the service may have
on the
quality of education for students using the service. Support your
hypothesis with reasons and examples.
Problem solution
Essay Question
Presenting the students with a situation they have not previously encountered so they must reason with their
knowledge provides an authentic assessment of complex thinking. If a problem that has been previously
discussed and solved in class is used on an exam, the essay question merely assesses students recall or
memory of the class discussion.
In summary, the task and problem are the key elements of essay questions. The complexity of the task and
problem depends on the intended learning outcome to be assessed. Accurately developing the task and
problem of an essay question requires practice and training. In addition, there are other considerations that
are important when developing the task and problem of the essay question.
4. Present a reasonable task to students.
When defining the task for the essay question, teachers need to make sure that they present a reasonable task
to their students. One of the challenges that teachers face in composing essay questions is that because of
their extensive experience with the subject matter they may be tempted to demand unreasonable content
expertise from the students. Hence, teachers need to make sure that their students can be expected to have
adequate material with which to answer the question (Stalnaker, 1952, p.520). In addition, teachers should
ask themselves if students can be reasonably expected to adequately perform the thought processes which are
required of them in the task. For assessment to be fair, teachers need to provide their students with sufficient
instruction and practice in the subject matter and thought processes to be assessed.
Identifying an audience for students to write their essay responses to may also be helpful. This would make
the task more authentic. A key element in writing communication is to clearly identify and write to a specific
audience. Often, this key element is removed from the task given to students in essay questions.
5. The task can be written as a statement or question.
In essay questions, the task can be presented either in the form of a direct question or an imperative
statement. If written as a question, then it must be readily translatable into the form of an imperative
statement. For example, the following illustrates the same essay item twice, once as a question and once as
an imperative statement.
Question: How are the processes of increasing production and improving quality in a
manufacturing plant similar or different based on cost?
Imperative statement: Compare and contrast the processes of increasing production and
improving quality in a manufacturing plant based on cost.
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In the example above, both essay items elicit the same performance from the student (compare and contrast
processes based on cost). Whether essay questions are written as imperative statements or questions, they
should be written to align with the intended outcome and in such a way that the task is clear to the students.
6. Specify the relative point value and the approximate time limit in clear directions.
Specifying the relative point value and the approximate time limit helps students allocate their time in
answering several essay questions because the directions clarify the relative merit of each essay question.
Without such guidelines students may feel at a loss as to how much time to spend on a question. When
deciding how much time should be spent on a question, keep the slower students and students with certain
disabilities in mind. Also make sure that students can be realistically expected to provide an adequate answer
in the given and/or the suggested time.
7. State the criteria for grading
Students should know what criteria will be applied to grade their responses. As long as the criteria are the
same for the grading of the different essay questions they dont have to be repeated for each essay question
but can rather be stated once for all essay questions. Consider the following example.
Example
The content of all of your responses to essay questions will be graded in terms of the accuracy,
completeness, and relevance of the ideas expressed. The form of your answer will be evaluated in terms of
clarity, organization, correct mechanics (spelling, punctuation, grammar, capitalization), and legibility.
If teachers intend to grade the content and the form of student responses to the essay question, they should
specify the relative point value for the content and the relative point value for the form.
8. Use several relatively short essay questions rather than one long one.
Only a very limited number of essay questions can be included on a test because of the time required for
students to respond to them and the time required for teachers to grade the responses. This creates a
challenge with regards to designing valid essay questions. Focused essay questions are better suited to assess
the depth of student learning within a subject whereas less-focused essay questions are better suited to assess
the breadth of student learning within a subject. Hence, there is a trade-off when choosing between several
short essay questions or one long one.
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Does the set of items measure a representative sample of the content and learning levels?
Are there enough items or tasks for each interpretation to be made?
Is the difficulty level appropriate?
Are the items free from overlap so that one item does not provide a clue to another?
Dont make the mistake of putting in all the time and effort to make a good test, then neglect to tell people
what to do on it. Do not assume everyone will know what to do!
Preparing directions for the test:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Administering of test is relatively a straightforward matter, however following are some general guidelines
and suggestions regarding test administering.
Make sure all students are given a fair opportunity to display their achievement of the learning
objectives.
Be sure environmental conditions are comfortable (e.g. noise level, room temperature, ventilation,
lighting, etc.)
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Have something planned for those who finish early (e.g. read a book, do work from another class,
start the next section, etc. NO headphones, food, talking, or computers)
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